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Formation, Mechanisms Flame of Selected Propagation, Extinction and

Editedby

JAROSINSKI JOZEF VEYSSIERE BERNARD

CRCPress
Taylor Francis & Group
BocaRatonLondon NewYork is CRC Press an imprint of the Taylor& Francis Group, an Informa business

Examples Combustion FlameFormation OtherInteresting of and

CONTENTS 8.1 Candleand JetDiffusion Flames: Mechanisms Combustion of under Gravity and MicrogravityConditions...........

............170

8.2.2 Homogeneous-Charge Spark-IgnitionEngines Engines 8.2.3 Stratified-Charge Spark-Ignition 8.2.4 Spark-Assisted Compression Ignition ..................

.......178 ................. 181 ..... 183

in Engines 8.3 Combustion Compression-Ignition Engine 8.3.2 ConventionalCompression-Ignition 8.3.3 High-Speed Engines Compression-Ignition An 8.3.4 Premixed Engine: Ultra-LowEmission CI Concept

.................... 186 ............187 ..,.,........192 ......,....,...194

8.4.2.2 HistoricalReviewof DDT Studies SmoothTubes in .......... DDT Distances 8.4.2.3 Experimental

................200 .......................201

8.4.3.3 Transition from Deflagration Detonation to ..................

......................204

L69

170

Combustion Phenomenn

8.5.5 Cellular Structure and Detonation Initiation..................

................211

8.1

Candle and jet Diffusion Mechanisms under Gravity Conditions

Flames:

of Combustion and Microgravity

Fumiaki Takahashi 8.1.1 Introduction In flames formed by the condensed or gaseous fuel sources burning in the atmosphere, the combustion process is controlled by the mixing process rather than the rate of chemical reaction. The most familiar example is a candle flame, where the flow field is laminar and mixing occurs by molecular diffusion. Burke and Schumann [1] developed a theory of simplest laminar diffusion flames, where a gaseous fuel jet was issued into air flowing at the same velocity in a wider duct, with an infinitely thin flame-sheet model. In diffusion flames, however, the flame structure (i.e., spatial variations of velocity, temperature, and speciesconcentrations)determines various characteristics,such as flame stabilization and pollutant formation. A detailed understanding of the structure, particularly the chemical aspect, of diffusion flames is only being achieved recently. Today, it is common to calculate the coupled time-varying fluid dynamics, heat transfer, and mass transfer with numerous elementary reactions throughout the flame. These results are then compared with the detailed, nonintrusive laser-based measurements of velocity, temperature, and species concentrations, even within the finite-thickness reaction zone itself. Despite the differences, there are striking similarities in the physicochemical structure of the candle-like laminar diffusion flames of various hydrocarbons. Typically, the high-temperature reducing environment in the interior of the flame cracks the original fuel to the same smaller, unsaturated fragments that consequently diffuse to the oxidation region of the flame. Hence, the study of diffusion flames of much simpler fuels sheds light on many of the important phenomena present with flames of larger fuel molecules. Furthermore, experiments in the absence of gravity uncovered previously unknown phenomena and helped to validate analytical and numerical models.

This Chapter highlights the physical and chemical mechanisms of combustion of candle-like laminar diffusion flames: candles, gas jets, and liquid- or gas-fueled cup burners. First, a brief history on the understanding of candle-like flames is outlined, then general features of a burning candle are described, and finally, recent experimental and computational results of (methane, ethane, and propane) gas-jet and (n-heptane) cup-burner flames are presented. Particular emphasis is placed on the effects of the type of fuel and gravity on the structure of the flame-stabilizing region (base) and the trailing diffusion flame.

8.'1.2 Historical Sketch For thousands of Earth-years, candle-like flames were a leading lighting technology. Apart from providing light, the candle flame has been an object of fascination for centuries, inviting speculation on the nature of fire and the natural world. Several historical accounts of the study of flames, fire, or combustion can be seen in the literature [2-8]. Investigation of fires or flames, among other natural phenomena, was intensified during the scientific revolution in the seventeenth century. Francis Bacon l7l Q567-1626) postulated, with respect to the structure of a candle flame, that space is required for the fire to move, and if its motion is suppressed, for example, by a snuffer, it is instantly extinguished. Otto von Guericke (7602-7686) and Robert Boyle (7627-7691) independently demonstrated that a candle or charcoal did not burn in vessels exhausted of air, although it inflamed as soon as air was readmitted. By the early 1660s, Robert Hooke [B] (1635-1703)developed a concept of combustion, in which air possessed two quite separate components: reactive and inert parts. By inserting thin plates of glass and mica in a lamp or candle flame, he noticed that (1) the point of combustion appeared to be at the bottom part of the conical flame, where the oil rising up the wick became excited by the heat above it, and (2) the interior of the flame did not emit light. He also used powerful sunlight to project an image of a candle flame onto a whitewashed wall, whereby he could discern the dark interior and heat zones in the resulting shadow ]ohn Mayow (7643-7679) observed that air is diminished in bulk by combustion and that

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the residual air is inactive, through an experiment with a burning candle in a bell-jar of air enclosed over water. Although these early investigators may have been on the verge of the discovery of the gas now called oxygen,they could not make it. Unfortunately, the phlogiston theory 12,5,6],which postulated that the essenceof fire is a substance called phlogiston, dominated chemistry during the greater part of the eighteenth century. Finally, Antoine Lavoisier (1743-7794) overthrew the phlogiston theory and established his oxygen theory of combustion, after Scheele and Priestley independently discovered oxygen. In the nineteenth century, Humphry Davy (7778-7829) speculated that the luminosity of flames is caused by the production and ignition of solid particles of carbon as a result of the decomposition of a part of the gas. fcins Jakob Berzelius (7779-1848) is said to be the first to describe an ordinary candle flame as consisting of four distinct zones. Davy's prot6g6, Michael Faraday [9] (1791-1867) gave his Christmas lectures and accompanying demonstrations to a juvenile audience on "The ChemicalHistory of a Candle" in 1848and 1860.Around the turn of the century, modern combustion sciencewas established based on the increased understanding of chemistry, physics, and thermodynamics. [n1928, Burke and Schumann [1] gave a classic theory of circular and flat gaseous fuel, jet diffusion flames in an air duct with an infinitely thin flame-sheet model. |ost [10] pointed out that some of Burke and Schumann's results could be derived without solving the differential equation to predict the height of flames [11]. A new era began in combustion research after \zVWII; significant studies 172-761were made of jet diffusion flames through improved measuring techniques. The picture of the Burke-Schumann flame was substantiated for a hydrogen flame by the gas composition data of Hottel and Hawthorne [12], obtained via gas chromatography. The detailed structure of a flat diffusion flame was investigated spectroscopically by Wolfhard and Parker [15], who showed that local states of chemical equilibrium may exist in a flame zone of a distinctly finite thickness. Parker and Wolfhard [16] made schlieren observations of candle flames. Gaydon and Wolflrard [11] used thermocouples to study the temperature field and revealed that the heat transfer to the wick is equal to the amount of heat required to heat up and vaporize the paraffin. Smith and Gordon [17] analyzed the gaseous products from a candle using a small quartz probe and a mass spectrometer. They found that the mechanism of precombustion reactions involved mainly the cracking of hydrocarbons predominantly to unsaturated compounds before the fuel-species had contact with oxygen. More recently, candles have been used to study various aspects of combustion phenomena: spontaneous near-extinction flame oscillations [18],

flame flickering [19], electric-field effects [20], elevated gravitational effects 1211, fire safety 1221, and smoke-point measurements [23]. The original Burke-Schumann theory was later refined [24-26]. Roper [26] developed a new theory, by relaxing the requirement of a single constant velocity, and estimated the reasonable flame lengths for both circular and noncircular nozzles. Numerical analyses of laminar diffusion flames have advanced over the last three decades,based on progresses in the reaction mechanisms and computer technologies [27-30]. It is now feasible to simulate, with reasonable accuracy, the transient flame phenomena with full chemistry in simple configurations (burner geometry, flow, and fuel). In normal earth gravity (19),buoyancy causes the hot gaseous products to rise, entraining air at the base of the flame. This air entrainment is of particular importance in the flame structure and stabilization [31-33].In microgravity (pg),becauseof lack ofbuoyancy, the hot gaseous products tend to accumulate, and the flame enlarges and produces soot more readily B4-411. The behavior of pg candle flames was investigated in the drop tower and aboard the spacecra 136,39,411. ft 8.1.3 Candle Burning Processes A well-balanced candle burns itself in a clean, steadystate, self-controlled flame. Figure 8.1.1 shows a photograph of a burning paraffin (typically 20-30 carbon atoms) candle in 19, exhibiting an elongated flame

F I C U R E. 1 . 1 8 Photograph a 21mm diameterparaffin candleflame in 13 of

172

CombustionPhenomena

shape as a result of a rising flow. A (flat) wick curls itself sideways to burn out as it is exposed to the flame zone, and thereby, the wick length is kept constant to control the fuel vaporization rate and, in turn, the flame height. Allan et al. [23] found that soot emission was not possible for 13 different waxes tested when the wick size was below thresholds (diameter<1.8mm or length <6mm) and thus the flame height did not reach the smoke point [42]. The complex physical and chemical processes in a burning candle are reasonably well known. Figure 8.1.2 shows a conceptual sketch of a steady-stateburning candle, showing various regions, major physical and chemical processes (right), and specific transport phenomena with arrows (left). The origin of the color of the dark-blue region at the base is chemiluminescence from the excited CH radicals in the reaction zone [11].Heat transfer from the flame, by conduction and radiation, forms a pool of the melted wax at the top of the candle. The melting front moves steadily down the candle as the flame consumes the wax. The melted wax ascends through the wick by capillary action and vaporizes from the heat of the flame transferred primarily by conduction. Buoyancy induces an accelerating, ascending flow, thereby entraining the surrounding air into the lower part of the flame. The vaporized fuel ascends by convection and diffuses outwardly, while the fuel cracking (pyrolysis) reactions take place at high temperatures. The fuel fragments react with the oxygen from the surrounding air to form the diffusion flame. There are heat lossesby radiation (primarily

from CO2 and HrO vapor, and soot) from the flame zone to the surroundings. The convective flow immediately removes the combustion products and heat away from the flame zone. Soot is formed on the fuel side of the flame zone owing to cracking and pyrolysis of the vaporized fuel at high temperatures. The soot particles are convected upward and eventually penetrate the flame zone, where they burn out by the reaction with oxygen that is diffused in from the surrounding air. Recent laser-diagnostic measurements in laminar diffusion flames revealed that soot is formed in a limited range of temperatures (approximately between 1300 and 1600K) on the fuel side of the flame zone and that the soot volume fraction peaks in the middle heights of the flame [42]. The luminous part of the flame by soot incandescence may extend downstream beyond (i.e.,higher than) the local stoichiometry contour for gaseous species.The heat and the major combustion products (HrO vapor and CO) leave the flame primarily by convection at the tip. In the absence of gravity, the properties of a candle flame change dramatica\ly 136,39,41). Figure 8.1.3 shows a candle flame on the Mir space station, in which the melt layer was hemispherical and much thicker than that in normal gravlty, and the flame was smaller, spherical, and less sooty, uncovering the blue flame zone. There was significant circulation in the liquid phase (as a result of surface-tension-driven flow caused

Products,heat

Luminous zone soot oxidation

o2
Soot lncandescence Stoichiometric contour (gas) Soot formation Dark zone cracking Fuel, 02, products, heat 02, fuel Chemiluminescence Heat Vaporization Flame zone oxidation Capillary action

F I G U R E. 1 . 2 8 Physicaland chemicalprocesses a candlein 19 in

F I C U R E8 . 1 . 3 10mm diameter candle flame in pLgon the Mir. (From Ross, H.D., Micrograaity Combustion: Fire in Free Fall, Ross, H.D., Ed., Academic Press, San Diego, 2001.)

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by the temperature difference between the liquid wax near the flame and wax at the candleholder). After sometime, the molten ball of wax collapsed suddenly and the liquid mass moved back along the candleholder. The blue flame zone is much farther away from the wick compared with those in the normal gravity. In addition, it was observed that aerosol (condensed paraffin) was streaming out underneath the flame base and moving in the boundary layer produced by the liquid flow. The long life of the Mir candle flame (up to 45min) burning in the oxygen-enriched atmosphere (mole fraction of 0.22-0.25)suggests that a steady microgravity flame can be achieved even in a quiescent environment. An effort to model candle flames in low gravity continues [43]. 8.1.4 f et Diffusion Flame Structure Insight into the behavior of candle flames in normal and low gravity can be obtained from experiments and

modeling of jet diffusion flames with simpler gaseous fuels. The NASA Glenn 2.2-SecondDrop Tower has provided pg data 144,451for gaseous hydrocarbon flames for comparison with 19 conditions. Figure 8.1.4 shows video images of methane (top row), ethane (middle), and propane (bottom)jet diffusion flames in 1.q (left column) and p.q(middle and right), formed on a circular fuel tube (2.87mm i.d.) in still air in a vented combustion chamber (255mm i.d. x 533mm length). The fuel tube image is superimposed. The flames with "high" (left two columns) and "low" (right) fuel flow-rate levels are shown, in which the ratios of the flow rates of different fuels are maintained to achieve a constant oxygen requirement for each flow level, based on the molar stoichiometric expression. The luminous zone of soot in the 19 and "high" flow-rate propane flames (Figure 8.1..4d, g, and h) extended beyond and covered the tip of the blue flame zone. The base of the flame was <1 mm away from the tip of the fuel tube in 19, while in pg, it was 3-4mm

F I G U R8 . 1 . 4 E Videoimagesof methane(top),ethane(middle),and propane(bottom)jet diffusion flames(2.87mmi.d.)in still air in 19(left)and pg (middle andright).The meanfuel jet velocity:(a,b) 13.5cm/s, 5.3cm/s,(d, e) 7.7cm/s,(f) 3.3cm/s,(g, h) 5.6cm/s,(i) 2.2cm/s. (c)

174

Combustion Phenomena

away. As the overall oxygen-consumption rate was kept constant for different fuels, the size (height and width) of the blue flame zone at each fuel flow level in 19 or lrg was nearly identical. The flames in 19 were much thinner (-5.5mm width) than their counterparts in prg (=17mm width), because the buoyancy-induced convection moved the flame zone inward and resulted in higher oxygen transport rates per unit flame area. In the "low" flow-rate-level trrgflames (right), the soot, formed initially at ignition transienf seemed to disappear even for propane, and their shape and size were comparable with those of the Mir flame (Figure 8.1.3). Transient computations of methane, ethane, and propane gas-jet diffusion flames in 19 and 0g have been performed using the numerical code developed by Katta [30,46], with a detailed reaction mechanism [47,48] (33 species and 772 elementary steps) for these fuels and a for simple radiation heat-loss model 1491, the high fuelThe results for methane and ethane can flow condition. be obtained from earlier studies [44,45]. For propane, Figure 8.1.5 shows the calculated flame structure in 1g and 09. The variables on the right half include, velocity vectors (v), isotherms (T), total heat-releaserate (ri),and the local equivalence ratio (@ro.o); while on the left half: molar flux vectors of atomic hydrogen (M*,), the total oxygen mole fractio^ (Xo, ), oxygen consumption rate (-6o), and mixture fractiori (0, including stoichiometry (4., = 0.06). General features of the propane flame are similar to those of methane and ethane flames [44,45]. Although soot formation is excluded in the model, the shape and size of the simulated flame match very well with the lower soot-free part of the observed flame (Figure 8.1.4gand h).

In 19 (Figure 8.1.5a), velocity vectors show the lonthe gitudinal acceleration in the hot zone owing to buoyancy, and surrounding air is entrained into the lower part of the flame. The heat-release rate and the oxygenconsumption rate contours show a peak reactivity spot (called the reaction kernel) 144,45,501atthe flame base. The values at the reaction kernel were rio = 1961/cm3s, - 6or,u= 0.000648 mol/cmts, laol = 0.250m/s , Tu=1483K, = 0.031,@lucal.k = 0.99,and 6r = 0.060.Hydrogen atoms Xo.,r. anii other chain radicals diffused onto both sides of the flame zone and in every downward direction around the flame base against the incoming flow with higher oxygen concentrations and gradients. Consequently, the chain-branching reaction, H+O, -+ OH+O and other chain reactions were enhanced to maximize the reactivity at the reaction kernel. Thus, the reaction kernel sustained stationary combustion processes within a residence time available in the flow, thereby holding the trailing diffusion flame (which had both lower reactivity and higher velocities) 144,45,501. The thickness of the flammable (0.5 < @<2.551)fud./air mixture layer nearby the base of the attnched flame was much lesser than the minimum quenching distance of the propane/air mixture (2mm) [51], and not sufficiently thick to form a combustion-wave reminiscent of the triple flame structure of lifted flames. In 0g (Figure 8.1.5b), unlike in the 19 case, the fuel jet momentum dispersed and the centerline velocity decayed rapidly owing to the lack of buoyancy. As a result, the fuel molecules diffused in every direction and formed a quasi-spherical flame. The slow diffusion processes (1) limited the transport rates of the fuel and oxygen into the flame zone and (2) decreased

505 (a) r (mm) (b)

1050 r (mm)

FICURE,1,5 8 Calculatedstructureof propanejet diffusion flames(3mm i.d.,fuel velocity:4.8cm/s) in "stil1"air in (a)19and (b) 0g

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175

2000

10-1

1500
c

1000 >d 10X

>{ to-z

r000 .s.
X

10-3

500 500
Fl

\
0

(aJ

r (mm)

(b)

46810 r (mm.)

F t c u R E. 1 . 5 8
Calculated species mole fractions, temperature, and heat-release rate across propane jet diffusion flames in "stifl" ai,rat a height of 3mm in (a) 1.9and (b) 0g

the molar flux of hydrogen atoms by an order of magnitude as a result of lower concentration gradients, so that the reactivity in the reaction kernel decreased by an order of magnitude. The reaction kernel location is closely coupled with the local flow velocity and mixture reactivity [44]. The values of various variables at the reaction kernel were 4u=1,4.8J/cm3s, -6er,r.=0.000042mo1/cm3s, ar =0.0045m/ s,Tu=!299y, I | Xo",y=0.077, fro.u1.1=0.51, and 6r=0.058. The reaction kemel temperature in 0g was almost 300K lower than in 19. Figure 8.1.6 shows the variations of the species mole fractions (X,), temperature, and total heat-release rate across the propane flame in 19 and 0g at a height from the jet exit of 3mm (i.e.,in the trailing diffusion flame). The thickness of the flame zone, determined from the locus of positive values for the total heat-release rate, was approximately 2mm in 19 and 3mm in 0g. Hence, the flame zone was far from an infinitesimally thin flame-sheet model by Burke and Schumann [1]. In both 19 and 09, general trends in the species mole fractions were typical of diffusion flames, i.e.,chain radicals were formed on the air side at high temperatures, diffused onto the fuel side and dissociated the fuel into fragmental hydrocarbons, and finally CO and H, were oxidized to products. A distinct feature of both 0g and 19 flames, not accounted for any of the analytical models of diffusion flame shape, was that oxygen from the air penetrated into the fuel side of the flame zone through the quenched space between the flame base and the burner rim. Furthermore, for ethane [45] and propane, major hydrocarbon fragments and oxygenates burning in the reaction zone were C2H2,CH4,CrFt, and CHCq and thus the C, species oxidation reactions, CHCO +O -+ CO+CO+H and CrHr+O --> CH'+CO were major contributors to the total heat-releaserate peak in

the inner region. For methane 144,501, the CH.+O -+ CHrO+H reaction was a dominant contributor to the heat-release rate peak. The exothermic final-product formation reactions, CO+OH + CO, and Hr+OH -+ H,O+H, took place in a wide rage over the flame zone. On the air side, the Or+H+M -+ HOr+M and the subsequent HOr+OH -+ HrO+O, reactions were very much exothermic, thus contributing to a secondary heat-release rate hump in the outer region. In 0g, the relative contributions of these HO, reactions with null activation energies became more significant, because of the lower flame temperature and total heat-release rate than those in 19. 8.1.5 Cup-Burner FlameStructure By examining the experimental and computational results obtained [52]for r-heptane flames inlg, afurther attempt was made to extract a general trend in the structure of higher aliphatic hydrocarbon flames. Figure 8.1.7 shows a photograph and the calculated fields of temperature (left half) and soot mass fraction (right half) of n-heptane diffusion flames in the coflowing air in the cup-burner apparatus (-30mm diameter). In the experiment (Figure 8.7.7a),in which liquid r-heptane was used, the blue flame base was anchored at the burner rim with an inward inclination as a result of the incoming buoyancy-induced flow. The color of the flame zone turned bright-yellow downstream owing to considerable soot formation. The computation (Figurc 8.7.7b) of the gaseous n-heptane flame with a full-chemistry model [53] (197 species and 2757 elementary reaction steps), including global soot formation, captured well the transient flame flickering behavior, and the general trend in the soot field observed in the liquid-fuel flame (Figure 8.7.7a).

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Combustion Phenomena

arrival time at this height. A greater variety of predominantly unsaturated hydrocarbon fragments formed in the core region before the heat-release rate started to rise, when compared with the ethane [45] and propane (Figure 8.1.6a) flames. Nevertheless, there were striking similarities among these hydrocarbon flames. The common hydrocarbon fragments present in the flame zone were C2H2,CFt, and CrFt. Moreover, the calculated species and their concentration levels for heptane flames were qualitatively consistent with the expeiimental species data obtained from the study of a paraffin candle flame by Smith and Gordon [17]. 8.1.6 Conclusions The advancement in research tools has increased the understanding of candle and gas-jet diffusion flames. Notable insights were gleaned from the Burke-Schumann theory and refinements, a surge in the experimental work after WWII, nonintrusive laser diagnostics, progress in detailed computation, and low-gravity experiments. Similarities among diffusion flames of various hydrocarbons, including paraffin candles, arise from the cracking of the original fuel predominantly to unsaturated compounds on the fuel side of the flame zone. For higher (>Cr) hydrocarbons, the common speciesburning in the flame zone, besides major intermediates (CO and Hr), are C2H2,CH,,, and CrH, in the inner region, and HO, in the outer region. Although lack of buoyancy-induced flow acceleration in 0g enlarges the flame and makes the rates of flame processes an order-of-magnitude lower than in 1.q, the general trend in the chemical kinetic structure typical of diffusion flames is maintained.

F I C U R E8 . 1 . 7 ( a ) P h o b g r a p h o f a l i q u i c l r r - h e p t a n e c u p - b 1 1 1 n s rf l a r n e i n 1 , g ( b ) C a l c u l a t e c l f i e l c l s o f t e m p e r a t L r r c[ e f t h a l f l a n d s o o t m a s s f r a c t i o r - r r i g l r t h a l f ] o f a g a s e o u s r r - h e p t a n ed i f f t r s i o n f l a m e i n 1 r r B u r n e r [ diamc'ter= 30 mm.

Figure 8.1.8shows the calculated structure of a gaseous n-heptane flame in 19 at a height of 10.8mm (in the trailing diffusion flame).Because the negligibly small of gaseous fuel velocity (0.1cmls),which modeled the liquid pool flame, a near-stagnant recirculation zone was formed near the exit of the burner. As a result of high temperatures (>1000 K) and relatively long residence time, n-heptane pyrolyzed and disappeared by the flow

Acknowledgments
1500 -' E
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rooo R
Y 500 -

This work was supported by the National Aeronautics and SpaceAgency, Washington, D.C. The author thanks Drs. V. R. Katta and C. T. Linteris for their assistancein refining the manuscript as well as for their long-term research partnership and contributions.

t"0

1234567 r (mm/

References
1. Burke, S.P. and Schumann, T.E.W, Diffusion flames, I rrt|. Eng. Chem.,20, 998, 1928. 2. Bone, W.A. and Townend, D.T.A., FInnrcand Confuustiott in Cases,Longmans, Green and Co. Ltd., London, 1927, Chapter 1.

F I G U R E8 . 1 . 8 Calculated species mole fractions, tenlperature, and heat-releaserate across a gaseous n-heptane diffusiorr flame (18mm o.d., fuel vclocity: 0.1cm/s) in coflowing air (velocity: 107 cm/s) at a hcight of l0.Bmm in 1.9.

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3. Fristrom, R.M., Flame Structure and Processes, Oxford University Press,New York, 1995,Chapter 1. 4. Weinberg,F.J., The first half-million years of combustion research and today's burning problems,Proc.Combust. Inst.,1.5,11975. 5. Williams,F.A.,The role of theory in combustionscience, Proc. Inst.,24, l, 1992. Combust. 6. Lyons, J.W.,Fire, Scientific American Books, New York, 1985. 7. Bacon,F.,TheNezu Organon, L. Jardine, and Silverthorne, M., Eds.,CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge,UK, 2000, p.124. 8. Chapman, England'sLeonardo: A., RobertHooke (16351703)and the art of experimentin restorationEngland, Proc. Inst.Great R. Britain, 67,239,1996. 9. Faraday,M., A Courseof Six Lectures the Chemical on Historyof a Candle, Crookes, Ed., Harper & Brothers, W., New York, 1861. 10.Jost, rN., Explosion and Combustion Processes Gases, in McGraw-Hill, New York, 1946. 11.Gaydon,A.G. and Wolflrard,H.G.,Flames, TheirStructure, Radiation and Temperature, ed., Chapman and Hall, 4th London, 1979,Chapter 6. 12. Hottel, H.C. and Hawthorne,W.R.,Diffusion in laminar flame iets,Proc.Combust. Inst.,3, 254,1949. 13. Wohl, K., GazIey,C., and Kapp, N., Diffusion flames, Proc. Inst.,3, 288,1949. Combust. 14. Scholefield, D.A. and Garside, The structureand sta1.E., bility of diffusion flames, Proc. lnst.,3,102,1949. Combust. 15. Wolfhard,H.G. and Parket W.G.,A spectroscopic investigation into the structure of diffusion flames,Proc.Plrys. A65,2,1952. Soc., 16. Parker,W.G. and Wolfhard, H.G., Carbon formation in flames,I. Chem. 9oc.,2038, 1950. 17. Smith,S.R. and Gordon,A.S.,Precombustion reactions in hydrocarbon diffusion flames:The paraffin candleflame, Phys., 1150, 22, 1954. I. Chem. 18. Chan, W.Y.and T'ien, J.S., experimenton spontaneAn ous oscillationprior to extinction,Combust. Technol., Sci. 1 . 8r,3 9 , 1 . 9 7 8 . 19. Buckmaster, and Peters,N., The infinite candle and J. its stability-a paradigm for flickering diffusion flames, Proc. Combust. Inst.,2'1., 1.829, 1.988. 20. Carleton, F. and Weinberg, F., Electric field-induced flame convectionin the absence gravity, Nature,330, of 635,1989. 21. Villermaux,E. and Durox, D., On the physicsof jet diffusion flames,Combust. Teclmol., 279,1992. Sci. 84, 22. Hamins,A., Bundy,M., and Sillon,S.E., Characterization of candle flames,l. Fire Prot. Eng.,15,265,2005. 23. Allan, K.M., Kaminski, J.R., Bertrand, J.C., Head, J., and Sunderland,P.8.,Laminar smoke points of candle flames, presented at 5th US Combustion Meeting of the Combustion Institute, Paper No. D32, San Diego, CA, March 25-28, 2007. 24. Barr, J., Length of cylindrical laminar diffusion flames, Fue\,33,51,7954. 25. Fay,J.A.,The distributionsof concentration and temperature in a laminar jet diffusion flame,/. Aeronaut. \ci.,21, 687,1954.

26. Roper,F.G.,The prediction of laminar jet diffusion flame sizes:Part I. theoreticalmodel, Combust. Flame,29,2L9, 1977. 27. Mlller, j.A. and Kee, R.J., Chemical nonequilibrium effects in hydrogen-air laminar jet diffusion flames, Chem., 2534, 81, 1977. l. Phys. 28. Mitchell, R.E., Sarofim, A.F., and Clomburg, L.A., Experimentaland numerical investigation of confined laminar diffusion flames,Combttst. lame, 227,1980. F 37, 29. Smooke, M.D., Lin, P., Lam, J.K., and Long, M.B., Computational and experimental study of a laminar axisymmetric methane-air diffusion flame, Proc. Combust. Inst.,23,575,1990. 30. Katta,V.R., Goss,L.P., and Roquemore, W.M.,Numerical investigations transitionalH2lN2 jet diffusion flames, of ArAA 1.,32,84,1994. 31. Robson,K. and Wilson, M.J.G.,The stability of laminar diffusion flames of methane, Combust. Flame,13, 626,1.969. 32. Kawamura, T., Asato, K., and Mazaki, T., Structureof the stabilizing region of plane, laminar fuel-jet flames, mbust. ci. Technol., 211,1980. 22, Co S F., 33. Takahashi, Mizomoto,M., and Ikai, S.,Structureof the stabilizing region of a laminar jet diffusion flame,l. Heat Transfer, 110,1,82, 7988. 34. Edelman,R.B.,Fortune,O.F.,Weilerstein, Cochran, G., T.H.,and Haggard,J.B. An analyticaland experimen,Jr., tal investigation of gravity effectsupon laminar gas jetdiffusion fl ames,Pro Combust. c. Inst.,1,4, 399,1,973. 35. Bahadori,M.Y.,Edelman,R.B.,Stocket D.P.,and Olson, S.L.,Ignition and behavior of laminar gas-jetdiffusion flamesin microgravity, AIAA 1.,28,236,1990. 36. Ross,H.D., Sotos,R.G.,and T'ien, J.S., Observations of candleflamesunder various atmospheres microgravin ity, Combust. Technol., 155,1991. 75, Sci. 37. Walsh,K.T.,Fielding,J.,Smooke, M.D., and Long, M.8., Experimentaland computationalstudy of temperature, species, and soot in buoyant and non-buoyant coflow laminar diffusion flames,Proc.Combust. Inst., 28, L973, 2000. 38. Lin, K.-C., Faeth,G.M., Sunderland,P.B.,Urban, D.L., and Yuan,Z.-G.,Shapes nonbuoyantround luminous of hydrocarbon/air laminar jet diffusion flames,Combust. Flame, 116,415 1999 . , 39. Dietrich, D.L., Ross,H.D., Shu,Y., Chang,P.,and T'ien, Candlefl amesin non-buoyant atmospheres, Combust. J.S., 156, Sci.Technol., 1,2000. 40. Urban, D.L., Yuan, Z.-G., Sunderland,P.B.,Lin, K.-C., Dai, 2., and Faeth, G.M., Smoke-point properties of non-buoyant round laminar jet diffusion flames, Proc. Combust. ., 28,1965, Inst 2000. 41. Ross, H.D., Basics of microgravity combustion, MicrograaityCombustion: in FreeFall, Ross,H.D. Ed., Fire AcademicPress, SanDiego,CA,2001,Chapter1. 42. Glassman, Combustion, ed., Academic Press,San 1., 3rd Diego,CA,1996. 43. Alsairafi,A., Lee,S.T.,and T'ien, J.S., Modeling gravity effectson diffusion flames stabilized around a cylindriwith liquid fuel,Combust. Technol., cal wick saturated Sci. t76,2165.2004.

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Combustion Phenomena

on normal speed scales of the thousands of cycles per minute. Fuel charge preparation and in-cylinder flow are invariably intertwined, as certain preparation strategies rely on the directed flows to achieve reliable ignition, in addition to having a large degree of influence on the motion itself. 46. Roquemore,WM. and Katta, V.R.,Role of flow visualization in the development UNICORN,J. Vis.,2,257,2000. This chapter will treat the three modes of combusof 47. Peters,N., Reduced Kinetic Mechanisms Applications tion in spark-ignited IC engines: homogeneous-charge for combusin Combustion Systems, Peters and B. Rogg, Eds., spark-ignition (HCSI, premixed-turbulent N. tion), stratified-charge spark-ignition (SCSI, partially Berlin, Germany,1993,p. 3. Springer-Verlag, 48. Vlarnatz,J., Combustion Chcmistry, W.C. Gardiner,Ed., premixed-turbulent combustion), and homogeneousSpringer-Verlag, New York, 1984, p.197. charge compression-ignition with spark assist (SACI, 49. Barlow,R.S.,Karpetis,A.N., and Frank,J.H.,Scalarpro- premixed-turbulent combustion). This range of fuel files and NO formation in laminar opposed-flowpar- preparation and in-cylinder motion strategies covers Flame,127, the time span from the basic incarnation of the SI tially premixedmethane/airflames,Combust. 2102,2001.. engine to future engine concepts that will probably 50. Takahashi, and Katta,V.R.,Chemicalkinetic structure F. play a major role in the future of ground transporof the reaction kernel of methane jet diffusion flames, tation. The highlights and governing characteristics Comb Sci. Tcc nol.,155,243,2000. ust. h 51. Lewis,B. and von Elbe,G., Combustion, Flames Explo- of each combustion mode will be discussed and visual and examples of each casewill be presented from a running siotrs Gnses,3rd AcademicPress, of ed., New York,1987. 52. Takahashi, Linteris,G.,and Katta,V.R., F., Furtherstudies engine with optical accessesthat were obtained with 16thAnnual Halon a high-speed camera (12000 frames/s) that recorded of cup-burnerflame extinguishment, Options Technical Working Conference (HOTWC), combustion luminosity. The viewing area within the Albuquerque,NM, May 2006. engine is presented in Figure 8.2.1, which shows 53. Tsang, W Progressin the development of combus- prominent features, such as the fuel injector, spark tion kineticsdatabases liquid fuels,DataSci.[.,3,1, plug, and intake/exhaust valves. Further details of the for 2004. engine can be found in the work by Smith and Sick [1]. These visual examples will help to explain the observations made from pressure-based measurements, such as ignition delay, combustion duration, and heat releaserates.
and stabilizing mechanisms of jet diffusion flames in microgravity, Pr oc. Comb ust. Inst., 29, 2509, 2002. 45. Takahashi, F. and Katta, V.R., Further studies of the reaction kernel structure and stabilization of jet diffusion flames, Proc. Combust.Inst., 30, 383, 2005.

44, Takahashi, F. and Katta, V.R., Reaction kernel structure

8.2

Combustion

in Spark-Ignited

Engines 8.2.2 Homogeneous-Charge park-lgnitionEngines S

lames D. Smith and VolkerSick 8.2.1 Introduction

Spark-ignited internal-combustion engines have been in existence for well over 100 years, with the first example being presented by Nikolaus Otto in 1876.However, age should not be deceiving in this case, as significant research and development efforts are still being applied to this concept to achieve more powet better efficiency, and lower emissions. Fuel charge preparation and incylinder motion are the two main parameters affecting ignition and combustion, and therefore, have a large degree of influence on the aforementioned quantities. Depending on the method used for preparing the fuel/ air mixture, the combustion regime ranges from near perfectly premixed to highly heterogeneous diffusion burning in a multiphase, Iiquid /vapor environment. In-cylinder motion is also crucial to engine operation at various speeds. As engine speed increases, so do in-cylinder turbulence levels, yielding faster burning velocities, without which engines cannot operate

HCSI engines are the most common spark-ignition engines in existence.While methods for mixture preparation have varied from carburetors to port fuel injection, the overall goal is the same: to have a well-mixed fuel/air charge at all locations in the combustion chamber. With this concept, the air/fuel ratio is close to stoichiometric to promote reliable combustion and facilitate emissions after treatment. Since the ratio of air and fuel must be kept nearly constant, intake-air throttling is used to control engine power output. At low engine-load conditions, high throttling is necessary and has a negative consequence on the volumetric efficiency. Conversely, at high loads, near-ambient intake manifold pressures are used to draw in the maximum possible amount of air/ fuel mixture to the combustion chamber. Once the well-mixed air/fuel charge is inducted into the combustion chamber, the rising piston compresses and heats the mixture. At a point near the peak travel of the piston (top dead center; TDC), ignition is initiated through a spark plug. Normally, this occurs at a singular poinf however, some instances of using two or more