A history of England, not by Alan Fournier ( Cararea Pierduta ), but by Andre Mouris, as retold by epure.

Nota introductiva Daca Daca Daca Daca e vi se pare ca e tarziu, asta e, hiba voastra. vi se pare inutil, asta e, hiba me vi se pare prost facuta, asta e, poate aveti voi mai bine facuta v-i de folos, asta e, inseamna c-a meritat.

I. Renaissance - definition - features - English Renaissance The Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Florence in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. As a cultural movement, focused on a resurgence of learning based on classical sources, the development of linear perspective in painting, and gradual but widespread educational reform. Traditionally, this intellectual transformation has resulted in the Renaissance being viewed as a bridge between the Middle Ages and the Modern era. ( da da, e DIRECT de pe wiki luata asta.. da si eu puteam face asta! da, dar nai facut-o ) You know what? Important aspects of this subject are: renaissance was the next evolutionary step in thought, bringing forth the end of the middle ages. In literature the humanists studied the ancient texts of philosophers in their original form, debated amongst them and so forth. In art, painters adopted a more realistically style, with a linear perspective. Also, they applied such technics as light and darkness, to attract the viewers attention to certain parts of the painting. For more information on the subject of Renaissance, please visit this place All this new way of thinking, more freely than what was accepted during the Middle Ages, led to some interesting developments in a totally different field: religion! There were ideas of emancipation from the old church, the catholic which was predominant in western Europe in those days. Why did some men decided that an institution highly regarded as the church was rotten at its core and it needed reformation? Because during the Middle ages, the church had a lot of power over everything, and some members of it started abusing their attributes. The Mass was in Latin ( who understood Latin? Quite no one actually ), taxes went to churches, Bishops lived in opulence etc, etc.. Martin Luther ( founder of the Lutheran church ) from Germany with his thesis attracted the attention of the church and of the people, Jean Calvin, from Switzerland, was another important figure in the Protestant movement. What do these guys havta do with England? Be patient, its going to get nasty later on English Renaissance! The English Renaissance was a cultural and artistic movement in England dating from the early 16th century to the early 17th century. It is associated with the pan-European Renaissance. This era in English cultural history is sometimes referred to as "the age of Shakespeare" or "the Elizabethan era", the first period in English and British history to be named after a reigning monarch.Poets such as Edmund Spenser and John Milton produced works that demonstrated an increased interest in understanding English Christian beliefs, such as the retelling of mankinds fall from paradise in Paradise Lost; playwrights, such as Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare, composed theatrical representations of the English take on life, death, and history. Nearing the end of the Tudor Dynasty, philosophers like Sir Thomas More and Sir Francis Bacon published their own ideas about humanity and the aspects of a perfect society, pushing the limits of

metacognition at that time. England came closer to reaching modern science with the Baconian Method, a forerunner of the Scientific Method. Sir Thomas was a lawyer, social philosopher, author, statesman and noted Renaissance humanist. He was an important counsellor to Henry VIII of England and for three years toward the end of his life he was Lord Chancellor. He was an opponent of the Protestant Reformation and in particular of Martin Luther, and William Tyndale. More coined the word "utopia" - a name he gave to the ideal, imaginary island nation whose political system he described in Utopia, published in 1516. Utopia contrasts the contentious social life of European states with the perfectly orderly, reasonable social arrangements of Utopia and its environs (Tallstoria, Nolandia, and Aircastle). In Utopia, with communal ownership of land, private property does not exist, men and women are educated alike, and there is almost complete religious toleration. Some take the novel's principal message to be the social need for order and discipline rather than liberty. The country of Utopia tolerates different religious practices but does not tolerate atheists. He opposed the king's separation from the Catholic Church and refused to accept the king as Supreme Head of the Church of England, a status the king had been given by a compliant parliament through the Act of Supremacy of 1534. He was tried for treason and beheaded. Francis Bacon was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, lawyer, jurist, author and pioneer of the scientific method. He remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method during the scientific revolution. Bacon has been called the father of empiricism. His works established and popularized the, or simply the scientific method, through experiments to reach to the truth ( pe scurt ) William Shakespeare was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language. He is often called England's national poet. Plays in many languages, great influence, renaissance spirit, yea yea.. ( un pic cam mult nu? Eh, se poate schematiza foarte fain, atata tot sa stii ce sa iei de unde.. sorray )

II. The Monarchy of the Tudors

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New possition of the monarchs Background info. on Henry VII and Henry VIII

Henry VII H.7 was the first Tudor on the throne of England, following the end of the War of the Roses. He married Elizabeth of York. Following the end of the feudal system, Henry VII acted in a different manner than his predecesors. He was no longer the the first among the equals, but he was the monarch. Since money was becoming

the means of power in Britain, Henry gathered a vast amout of riches to his court. As king, he needed an army and the support of parliament, but he had none ( only a small personal guard ). His authority was not contested and he was revered with great admiration. This situation arose from a few consequences: the war of the roses shattered the nobility and made the English weary of medieval anarchy, not wanting to return to the old feudal system of the Anglo-Norman rule. There was the Parliament, but during troublesome times, it failed to proove itself trustworthy. There was the house of Commons, but they were constantly siding with whoever was in power, in order to make their presence felt. There was a need for somebody to fill the transition from a feudal rule to a parliamentary one and that was the King. Being a visionary, he understood that in order for England to become great and to be able to stand off any of the Continental Powers ( France and Spain especially ), it was needed to expand its territories, and where else than in the New World? He encouraged shipbuilding and sailing. One successful voyage led to the discovery of Newfoundland, by Cabots expedition. Henry forbade the import of wine in other ships than English, by a Navigation Act ( 1489), thus encouraging local merchants. Speaking of which the merchants and the middle class expanded during Henrys reign, his purpuose being that of weakening the old barons. He made reforms in the law too, dealing with grave charges in his own Star Chamber ( star chamber because it was decorated with stars. ), where he was aided by his Council. He rarely gave a death sentence, but preferred to fine those found guilty so he got rich!... His council was now made up of merchants, burgesses and men trained in the universities: a new type of men. The Council, in close connection with the local administrations, could rule the country fairly and with no problems. Henry 7s legacy consist mostly of bringing back peace in England, after the war of the roses, transforming the position of king into a respected institution, preserving the Parilament and its authority and giving way to money as a means of controlling his servants. Henry VIII H.8 was a great historical figure in English history: at the same time, a Medieval King but a Renaissance Prince too. How so, thou may asketh easy! Medieval king courteous, chivalrious, devout. Renaissance prince cruel, cultured, libertine. Add these and you get Henry VIII legally cruel, conjugally libertine and splendid. ( in other words, a true badass of his days, or a pimp if you prefer. ) He became king in 1509, at the age of 18, historians remembering him as a fine athlete, a proud person, avid hunter and horserider. He was well educated and manifested an interest in literature. He married Catherine of Aragon, his first wife ( daughter of Ferdinand of Spain ). But Henry was a ladys menso here the fun follows: C atherine was the widow of his brother, so that makes Cahty his sisterin-law. See the problem? There were rules that forbade this kind of marriages between sister-in-law and brother-in-law. But presumably, the marriage of Henrys brother was not consumed ( no sexy-sexy time happened. No intercourse. Back then virginity was sacred) so he could marry her, because Spain in those days was the greatest power in Europe. It helped knowing that your father-in-law has the best army there is, when in a war But Henry managed to prove that the marriage was not right under Gods eyes, so he managed to divorce ( but broke contact with Rome and well.. Spain wasnt so friendly after this episode. ) Henry+Catherine= Mary Tudor. But Henry needed

a MALE heir. He fell in love with Anne Boelyn and married her in secret, before the divorce was pronounced ( ouch!... ) . Furthermore, he began reforming the church of England to suit his needs, which was a direct influence of the Protestant movement, but you know what? This matter shall be dealt with in the following chapters! ( you shant escape it. ) Back to H8 reign he reorganized the fleet, such as H7 did before him, managed to annexe Whales and to pacify Ireland. Through his reform ( church reform, that is ), he destroyed a great number of monasteries, confiscated their wealth for his own purposes, and managed to put England in a position that the rest of the countries of Europe would not achieve for more than 200 years later the separation of Church and State. what he do? What he do? (ai rabdare pana la capitolul cu reforma! ) in short, the churches of England fought among themselves so no anti-clerical movement was formed. But the separation was bloody Position of monarchs ( the new position, that is!) The Tudor dynasty brought forth a new way of leading a country. A Renaissance way, in which no longer the old aristocratic classes were in charge. The way was open to the middle classes, the bourgeoisie, to prove their worth. The monarchs started distancing from all the troubles of the realm, now being aided by the Council or Parliament in finding the best solution for all. The remains of the former Anglo-Saxon and Normandys rule was that the small communities were well organized and did not require the constant intervention of the king in their issues. These kings brought an era of peace and non-aggression with other countries, their care was to keep the country in peace and prosperity. Because of them ( the Tudors ), old feudal institution managed to fade into memory, being replaced by more-effective local institutions.

III.Local institutions during the Tudor monarchy New classes New institutions

Yeomen and Gentry. During the reign of the Tudors, there appeared certain new social classes. One of these was the gentry. The gentry was made up of all the country gentlemen ( a nu se confunda cu termenul gentleman din francezul gentilhomme ). The gentry appeared from the old knight class, merchants, former important people in the community ( mayor, lawyer ). He ( the gentleman ) need not own lands, nor have a noble rank ( power to the people baby!!! ). The same amount of annual revenue was fixed for becoming a gentleman, that is 20 pounds ( sterling. Cam 80 si ceva de lei de azi ), the same amount that was fixed for the knight aswell. What did this mean for society? That wealth started to substitute birth as the basis of the small aristocracy. The gentleman could become part of the justice of peace ( more on this subject to follow. Da avizi de cunoastere ati devenit! ). The yeomen were a new class that appeared during this period too! ( yes, there was more than one new thing in that age! Amazing!) they were said to be above

the peasantry, but below the gentry. To be considered a yeoman, one had to gain a total revenue of 20 shillings ( cam 2 pachete de guma orbitcred). Again, it was not necessary for the yeoman to own land. He could be a farmer or a scribe, as long as he had those 20 shillings revenue/year, it was all o.k. During the seventeenth century, the yeomen numbered over 160.000, they were the backbone of England. ( why? Think of the TAXES! ). The yeomen were what had remained of the old archers from the Hundred Year War ( if you remember, those archers were baddass. They helped England win the war and helped France become poor, because of looting. ). This social class made up a solid economical, political and social body. By now, the English feared the effects of social disorder and civil war so of course the yeomen sided with the king, whose authority they respected. Local Institutions As a difference between English officials and French ones, one can notice that in France there was a well-developed hierarchy that depended on and was paid by the central government, as opposed to the English system, where the custom was to take up official functions voluntarily. This derived from the old AngloSaxon custom of the moot. ( do you remember the moot? No, you dont remember the moot! Or if you do, good for you! ) The Tudors liked to use what was at hand, so this way of organizing things prevailed. After a few centuries, what was left from this moot were the parish meetings, in which people discussed and agreed/disagreed upon what was there to be done to the church. At first, there were expenditures for the books that were needed, for wax or minor repairs. Then, a man was hired for keeping all the records, one for digging the graves etc etc.. The parish obtained its revenue from the land: from its herds mostly and from the church rate ( asta a ramas si la noi ), that was settled depending on each ones revenue. So we can openly say that the Parish was a local institution in Tudor times. But what else did it provide? During those days not all was cotton candy dandy lions everywhere, there were a lot of poor that depended on others for support: the poor relief. The Tudors adopted the parish as a mean of controlling this problem, each parish being responsible for the poor people in its area. The parish appointed representatives to gather the poor relief from others, each contributing with what he could. The ones who refused to pay were sometimes sent to prison, after being summoned to see the bishop. As the poors situation generally never improves nowhere, the poor relief became obligatory in time. A law was passed that ordered the building of hospitals and houses for the infirm, aged, crazed these houses were provided with raw material, so that they could provide work for the workless ( mind you, NOT the aged, crazed or infirm! ) and were poor children could learn a skill, by becoming an apprentice. Furthermore, each cottage built required that it had at least 4 acres of land, so that the owners could produced their foodstuff. If a parish could not support all its poor, another richer parish was to help it. All this help worked on a local level, without the need of the government to take part. As there was no police force back then, each parish had one man appointed a constable. He had to maintain order, stop illegal gambling and other police-like duties. He was elected for a period of a year. But it was not an easy task: this one man, was responsible for the peace in the whole parish. If someone else arrested a vagabond, the constable had to pay a fine, for not doing his job correctly. If he arrested someone, he had to keep him in his own house until the

trial, for there were no prisons. But as every cloud has a silver lining.. when a new constable was elected, the old ones were ready to give him advice and provide assistance. The constable the police of the Tudor times. The Justice of Peace. He was the link between the parish and county, being elected by the king, from the squires ( the guys with the $$$, only in sterling pounds ). Usually they were rich landowners, respected members of the community. Each county had a fixed number of representatives to the justice of peace, but in time, this number could vary. (at first there were 9, but there are cases when a county had 39 ) The Justice of Peace had a great role in keeping order in the county. If the central seat of power failed, the law had to be kept alive locally, by aid of these capable men. So, what they did more exactly? Simple answer: dealt with crimes and various cases that required a higher authority to deal with. Ahaa! So a kind of judge, righ? Yep. If the constable wasnt always happy of his duty, not the same can be said of the Justice of Peace, because it was regarded as a honorable position and the sign of importance to the local community. These are the important institutions that appeared during the Tudors time in England. The yeomen and the gentry provided their services for the aid of their local community, while the central power neednt worry about the enforcing of the law in the land. This all because of the English customs ( of which we have discussed during the first term ) IV. Henry VIII and the Reform! -

The reform wha? Whe? why? Who? What did Henry do and why

As you may recall from somewhere above (if not, go read ) H8 was married to Catherine, his sister-in-law. She failed to provide him with a male heir, so he tried to find other methods of procuring a male heir but first! Remember that in Europe Renaissance thought meant freedom from the indoctrinating views of the church? There was one Martin Luther, from Germany. He was the most fervent protestant preacher against the Church ( roman catholic ). He accused them ( the Church ) of being corrupt, of not preaching the true word of God, of being too complex and useless in its rites and especially of the fact that ( in Germany, but elsewhere also ) the mass was in Latin, and the common man could not understand the word of God. To these accusations, the church decided to take action, at first, by excommunicating Luther. But he couldnt be stopped. He started gathering attention and the public sided with him. Meanwhile, in (our beloved) England, Henry had not yet conceived the idea of divorcing. England was still catholic. He denounced Luther and accused him of heresy in an open letter. For his actions, the pope called him a guardian of faith . Nevertheless, Henry wanted something more: he was deranged by the fact that even though the people respected HIS authority, the church of England respected ROMEs authority Things started looking bad for Catherine after she failed to give birth ( ow yea, like it was HER fault that she gave birth to a girl! ) to a male heir, because Henry was not a patient kind of man. He had set his eyes

upon Anne Boleyn ( to which he had secretly married, and well she was pregnant ). He had to divorce Catherine of Aragon, but as a marriage was blessed by God, it could not be declared null unless the marriage was not ethic ( or normal? ). Enter Thomas Wolsey, the man Henry entrusted with most of the ruling busyness of the country. He is important for what was to follow, so I am to speak of him a little bit in detail. Wolsey was appointed cardinal, then Papal Legate in England. This new authority, combined with that of actually ruling the country, gave him grand ideas ( as well as the people of England a prime example of a man wielding both ecclesiastical and civil power ). He wanted to become Pope and threatened with separation of the church if this was not granted. But what else did he do? He led a lavish and rich life, which he could afford only by robbing monasteries of their wealth. He was involved in foreign affairs as well, trying to find the best side for England, in allying with France or Spain, but he chose badly ( not Spain ). In the mean time, Henry decided that a male heir was obligatory, to spare England of further civil wars, so he tried his hand for obtaining permission to divorce his wife. By now, Wolsey became a problem: he was in the position to aid Catherine ( as a Papal Legate ), but also, he was a servant of his king thus he was accused of treason, his wealth confiscated and nearly killed, if it werent for his weak health ( but he still died.. ) Thomas More took the position formerly held by Wolsey that of lord chancellor. He managed to pull a plan to give Henry the right to divorce ( look into it, will ya ? are de-a face cu o curte eclesiastica adunata special pentru asta si ceva tertipuri de-a lui More ). Henry was pronounced divorced only in England by a court that was favourable to his cause. He shortly married ( this time legally ) Anne Boleyn. The consequence was inevitable: the breach with Rome had cometh and Henry was excommunicated. ( now there should be a part in which I speak about the other wives he had, but that is not the most important matter here. If you want to say more about them, do it, but I am focusing on something else here ). Enter Thomas Cromwell his role was that he inspired Henrys future actions against the church, telling him of the German princes that had broken contact with Rome If Rome refused to acknowledge the separation of Cath and H8, then why should H8 and the whole English nation respect the authority of the pope? Using the same means he used against Wolsey, Henry accused the entire clergy of conspiring against him ( treason! Treason!! ). As a compensation, H demanded 2 million pounds and the title of Protector and Supreme Head of the Church, and that the taxes that were once destined for Rome, to be destined now for the King. He issued two acts: the Act of Supremacy making him the spiritual and lay ruler of the church, the Act of Succession, in which he stated that his first marriage was null and that the throne would go to the children born within the wedlock with Anne. More was executed, on the fact that he did not accept the fact that he had to acknowledge the fact that the Bishop of Rome was usurping the title of Pope. ( More Thomas became a saint ). Cromwell took his place. The monks who did not agree with this new order of things, were deprived of their belongings. Almost all the monasteries had their proprieties confiscated in the name of the King. Thus, during a 5-year period, the monasteries were literally pillaged, priests ran to Scotland or Ireland, the king got very rich and his close ones ( friends, aides, etc ) became loyal to this new church. Although he had broken apart from the Roman church, he wanted a national catholic church for England. After

persecuting the old believers, he turned his eyes to the protestants, which did not have part of a gentler treatment Henry continued his reform with the Six Articles, in which he enounced the general principles of the new church ( celibacy of the priests, needlessness of communion, etc etc ) Soap opera: Anne Boleyn cheated Henry, but she gave birth to Elizabeth. Anne lost her head. ( literally ). Jane Seymor died while giving birth to the ONLY male heir Edward VI ( non important, died young ). Anne of Cleeves suggested by Cromwell, she was ugleh in the eyes of the king. Anne got back home in Germany, Cromwells head met his feet Catherine Howard chip chop on the block cheated him, she lost her head too. Catherine Parr she survived, Henry died

V. Elizabeth Queen of the Renaissance - profile, background, personality, - Popularity - religious policies This Queen was the first monarch of England to have a period named after her, so she mustve done something good, right? Verily.. She was the daughter of Henry 8, born from Anne Boleyn. Although by the act of succession, she shouldve followed on the throne of England, being a girl, she didnt have this occasion. ( remember? H8 wanted a male heir! ). After her brother, Edward VI passed away and after her sister, Mary Tudor done some nasty things for love and religion she killed many protestants, in a time in which Anglicanism was taking shape. Elizabeth was a protestant so she was more than welcome on the throne. She conquered the hearts of her subjects ( just like lady Di, in a more latter time ) because she knew how to use her intelligence and could see further than her own interests. For the good of the country, yes? She was remembered also as the virgin queen. She never married (maybe she fancied some guys, but nevah had sexy-timeso they say), and she couldnt become a mother ( this would to become a somewhat problematic thing after her death ). She did not engage in wars on the continent, for she had no standing army ( just like the Tudors before ), she did not levy new taxes and asked not much for herself. This was the key to her success. In matters of religion, she supported Anglicanism, but tried to bring peace and understanding between Catholics and protestants. The book of common prayer was made compulsory for every subject ( in it there were prayers in english ) aaand the pope was still neglected. The 39 Articles, were adopted in 1536, which were to become the basis of the Anglican church. This meant that most of the catholic rites were kept, the language was now english during sermon and the Pope got nothing from the English subjects ( protestant religion, yes? ). The pope reacted by

excommunicating the Queen, thus relieving the need for loyalty to her, by her catholic subject. She was made responsible for the loss of so many souls ( excommunicating, etc etc) that some voices murmured that her death would not be a crime in the face of God ( yeah, like we know what GOD thinks ) Puritans started to appear in England ( Calvinists, or simply put hard-headed religious zealots that wanted something totally not accepted by the Queen ). They opposed the Queen, but did not manage to destabilize her position in the hearts of the people. VI. Elizabeths conflicts Conflict at sea the Great Armada Differences between Spain and England Spanish colonial expansion

Spain was catholic. Very devout. Very nasty against protestants. ( does the Inquisition ring a bell?). And they were suparati on the English. Why? Remember good ol Henry 8 first divorce? No? GO READ!... SO, as I was saying, Spain was a great power in Europe, thanks to its colonial empire in the Americas, from which its riches came (lots of riches ). Spain controlled Itally, the Mediterranean, the trading routes of Flanders They controlled the seas ( the Portuguese did too, but on a smaller scale). So England was left to find a way of breaking their domination. Captains tried to find a N-E or even a N-W passage to the Indies, because the Spanish had the S-W, Portugal the S-E. English merchants traded with the Spanish ports in the Americas and many times even attacked Spanish ships. Letters of marque were given to those captains who were robbed by foreign ships. These letters actually gave the captains a legal mean of piracy John Hawkins started harassing the Spanish, was captured and his ships confiscated. The queen found him on the guilty side, but nevertheless, made him Treasurer of the Navy, so that she can benefit from his knowledge. Spain held large parts of N and S America. England wanted a share of the benefits! Francis Drake started harassing Spanish ports and even robbing them. He managed, on his round the world voyage, to get his hands on the gold from Eldorado, that was of course destined for Spain ( every year ) and of course the Queen got a share of the gold, on his return Spain grew impatient of these acts. They now treaded with english pirates as if they were heretics ( nasty treatment ). In the meantime, Hawkins was preparing the fleet for war. Elizabeth made Francis a Sir and put him in charge of a royal fleet, a position from which he continued to harass the Spanish ports war was inevitable. In 1588, Philip II of Spain readied his Armada for war. 30,000 men were bound for England and another 30000 from the Netherlands. The englis fleet was led by Lord Howard, who had Drake and Hawkins under his command and a total of about 34 warships and 150 merchant ships, provided by ports. The Spanish fleet was led by the Duke of Medina-Sidonia and his experience at sea was wasnt He arranged his ships in a classic formation as preparing for a land battle, in expecting the English. When they arrived, the English vessels formed an indian line, to the surprise of the Spanish, and opened fire! ( the battle took place near Plymouth ). When the English opened fire, their cannons out-ranged the Spanish ones, so them beated guys hurried back to to the low countryes but they were beaten badly. Victory well, if the English had had more ammo, surely the outcome wouldve been BAAAAAD for Spain. The Duke of Parma, leader of the Spanish fleet, was not ready to aid the Duke of Medina-Sidonia, and asked for more time

to prepare in the mean time, English came and blasted some more ships The Spanish fleet tried escaping to the North Sea, but there the cannons of the enghlish gave them a run. The Duke tried to debark in Ireland, still a catholic country, and gather support for attacking England. But he chose to get there round Scotland, a difficult passage for his ill-prepared ships. He never got to Ireland, but retuned to Spain with 100 of 150 ships, many losses and with his Armada shattered Spain no longer had the supremacy of the seas. But was still master on land. England tried making a colonial empire.. the beginning! There was the land in Newfoundland and sir Walter Raleighs Virginia ( guess in whose honor? ). But what developed was the trading at seas. Great companies were founded, with the sole purpose of trading with the colonies or distant lands. They established monopolies on their trade routes and brought forth a new era of expansion, and, of course, $$$ to the crown VII. Elizabethan England culture drama, poets, etc etc etc etc

During this times of prosperity, people started fancying the arts and luxury. Everyone wanted to look pretty, to be smart, to read poetry Puritanism was starting to make its presence felt too. The people were delighted with the plays and sonnets of Shakespeare, the vesrses of Spencer, Marlowe There was a lot of translating done from the Italian writers, such as Boccacio or the French Montaigne essayist. From these foreign sources, Spencer or Shakespeare borrowed the themes and adapted them to the English specific, the gentle gravity, the rustic poetry, homely philosophy of their race Theatre, although not liked by puritans, developed outside the reaches of their law. The most famous playhouse was Shakespeares Globe. The spectators were avid consumers of plays, from dramas, to poetic works of Marlowe and Shakespeare or Ben Jonson. New schools were founded, for the benefit of more eager students to learn : Eton, Winchester, Harrow. Culture was spreading to all people, through the printing press had decreased the price of books, the Inns and Courts offered a place that was for the benefit of the poets of the day.. (in carte nu scrie asa mult despre astea, mai va documentati voi din surse secundare )

VIII. The early Stewarts -

who where they, how did they come in power James I, Charles I conflicts, origins, flaws

After the death of queen Elizabeth, the next on the throne was James VI of Scotland, a son of Mary Stewart, who would reign as James I of England, uniting the two crowns.

Being from Scotland, he had different ideas of how to rule a state, he believed that Kings were to rule the states because God intended it to and subjects must give obedience so he was above the Law, only in some exceptions when he wanted to submit an example, he was subdued by the law ( only by his bidding ). In Scotland, this worked, but in England, where a Parliament had a long tradition, this would cause problems. He had no troubles with the Anglican church, but with the catholics. They hoped for reconciliation with Rome, but the king thought that the person they should offer their highest respect was HIM not the POPE. This was against the beliefs of the catholics and some of them, disappointed by this new lost hope, plotted against him. The most dangerous of these plots, was that of the Gunpowder Plot. The catholics wanted to blow up the house of Lords, when it was assembled. Word was put out that on the 5 of November, there would be sparks all over, but word got to the king, and the plod was stopped before it was too late. Guy Fawkes, the brain behind the scheme lost his head. The catholics were deprived of their rights and were discriminated. This king seemed to be doing good, until he turned against parliament. He could not conceive a state where a king could not do what he pleased. He wanted to impose a hereditary right of kings, which was a new idea to parliament. He thought that he was only responsible to God, not to his servants, but things were long since gone for those times in England. The conflict between absolutism and parliament began with the Stewarts. The king needed money, so he tried to force the hand of parliament to grant him more $$$. He had the tonnage and duties on wool and leather, that gave him about 150000 pounds/year. Because the parliament refused to give him the sums he asked for, he decided not to summon it no more ( 1611 1621, no parly. ) He waged no wars, because he could not afford none He tried to make an alliance with Spain, through a marriage, but failed to do so. Buckingham, his closest friend/advisor, was left to deal with the country, while James idled doing nothing he died in 1625. Charles I followed on the throne, being the son of James and Maria Henrietta, daughter of Henry IV of France. He resembled his father and thus, he decided to rule without a parliament ( until 1640 there was no parliament in England. ) He was not too good in ruling a country The Scots attacked and occupied the north of England. Charles summoned a parliament to give him an army, but the parliament refused to do so, because they had unsolved grievances too.He then moved to Oxford and gathered an army. Civil war followed shortly IX. Cromwell and the new model army New model army? Protectorate Civil war

The country was divided between royalists and parliament. Oliver Cromwell was on the parliaments side. King Charles having been defeated, surrendered himself to the scots, in 1645 Oliver Cromwell, was a simple squire, but proved to be very important for the parliament. He was a puritan by education. He managed to form a new model army, that was well disciplined, well trained and very effective. He was very

devout and religious, but despite being puritan, he treaded fairly with the others of different confessions his army was made up of different people and faiths, but all respected Cromwell. He decided that the need for a professional army led by solders not politicians was needed. The parliament voted in his favor, so the New Model Army was created, led by Sir Thomas Fairfax and Cromwell. They defeated the royalists in 45 and Parliament was victorious buuut nobody felt good after this. Parliament was victorious, but the people needed a monarchy. They did not like the harsh religion of Cromwells men. The conditions were difficult to understand, because now the army demanded freedom of confession and said that an absolutist monarchy was no different that a despotic parliament. The Long Parliament was so called because it was sitted from 1640 untill 1648. It was later dissolved by Cromwell. The rump parliament appeared after it was purged of those deemed undesirable by the army. ( after 1649 (

King Charles was now a problem, because he sided with anyone that he thought could help him get his throne back. He was captured by parliament, tried and sentenced to death in 1649. Oliver Cromwell took the title of Lord Protector and led England until his death. The scots made an agreement with Charles II, but they were defeated by the Parliament army. Cromwell turned his eye towards pacifying Scotland and Ireland. In Ireland, the catholics were the problem, because the english protestants were in danger ( they were murdered! Ok?!) Cromwell led a New Model army there and repaid massacre by more massacre. Ireland was pacified. Scotland on the other hand, was furious, because Charles was a scot, and they reeealy did not like the idea of regicide. They sided with Charles II and wanted to attack England but Cromwell defeated them too and the young Charles II had to flee across the channel. Cromwell reigned supreme. But this doesnt mean he was loved. The army was costing too much to keep, the country was in chaos because of the former civil war He called the end of the Rump Parliament in 1653 and formed a new one, the Barebone Parliament, made up of clergymen from all the churches and confession of England. Cromwell died in 1658, leaving the country in still a state of uncertainty, because the parliament army and people still couldnt find a way to figure their problems in 1660, the restoration took place, and all that Cromwell tried to do, fell into ruin.

X. The Restoration Context Charles II Political parties

After Cromwells death, Charles II returned to England as king. He did not want to be put again in the position to flee his own country, so he wanted to rule lawfully, but secretly wanted to do the emancipation of catholics. He summoned a parliament that had remained in power for 18 years. They granted him no standing army and not enough money so that he could not do as he pleased. The king, remembering what happened to his father, accepted these conditions. During this period, political parties started to take shape: the Whigs( liberals ) aristocrats, merchants, and the Tories, the Kings men, or the ones who sided with the king ( conservatives ). Their representatives fought for control of the parliament, in elections and speeches directed against the others. Usually, the Whigs controlled the parliament, but the Tories had their fair chances too. By the end of Charles reign, the Tories held power. Charles died and was followed on the throne by his brother, James II, a catholic. Because of this, he did not stay much on the throne, being replaced by a revolution in 1688 by William of Orange. A constitutional Monarchy then followed ( until this day )

XI. The Enlightenment! Features Age of reason Political philosophy Smart people worth mentioning

Enlightenment came after the end of Renaissance in Europe. It brought forth a more avid discussion on human rights, liberties and how a state should be ruled. This was not a school of thought, but rather a set of values, that questioned the traditional institutions, customs and morals and held in high regard science and rationality. Thats why its called the Age of Reason, because people THOUGHT of WHY things happened as they did! Thomas Hobbes tried to answer to the question of how a state should be led, in his book Leviathan. Hobbes and Locke ( John Locke ) tried to figure out the human condition, what was a human being and what was its purpose. During Cromwells reign, the country was left in a state of religious control, of the puritan kind. No comedies, no theater, strict morals and such after 1660, these restrictions were declared null, so culture once again flourished! New playwrights began publishing, such as Etherege, Whycherby. John Milton, a devout puritan, wrote Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained, two epic poems dealing with mankind and its flaws. John Dryden was the one to bring classic poetry into England. The age of Reason, in literature, was known as the Classicism. People of this period started looking back to the perfection beauty of the ancients ( much as the Renaissance man before him ) but with a sense of respect and desire for order. Even though comedies were written an played, theatre embraced this new

way of thinking and the plays became more rigorous. Poetry was sober, with a perfect geometry. From these thoughts the Parnassian movement would later appear. Other smart people of the time: J. Swift satirist. Daniel Defoe important for his work Robinson Crusoe ( the embodiment of the enlightenment man ). The men of those days tried to find a fundamental truth in order to organize the world around it. In politics, king James II succession was debated, because he was a catholic, and well the country was REAAAALY protestant. William III was followed on the throne by Anne, the daughter of James II. During this time, there was a war for the Spanish Succession. England had a great general in the person of John Churchill, who defeated the French at Blenheim, afterwards the peace of Utrecht was signed. In 1701 the act of settlement, that dealt with English Succession was signed. It said that the king or queen of England had to be Protestant and from the house of Hanover. After queen annes death, George I came on the throne, because of this act of settlement. Thus the Georgian age began. Robert Wallpole the first prime minister, the first man to hold this function the link between parliament and king. The government responded directly to parliament. Ow yeah the novel as a genre appeared during this period. ( duuh! Robinson Crusoe? ) XII.Loss of the American Colonies Why did Britain lose them Why did they rebel? 7 years war Boston Tea Party!!! War of Independence + French Resistance Consequences

Britain decided that if it were to become a great power ( a playa playa ) on the scene of Europe, it had to use what it knew best: its fleet. Since the Elizabethan age, the English/British navy ( because back then Elizabeth hath not had a Britain, ye?) was feared, for it was well-equipped and a strong foe to fight against. Because Britain was an island state, it did not rely on a regular army when times came to defend its territories, they would rather send their fleet with some men and wreak havoc on the enemys side. Spain was leading the Colonial race back then ( not a real race, just for the fun of it I said It was a race), having acquired territories mostly in Southern America, from where they brought back great amounts of gold ( Senor Don Rodrigo de Bogatano, yes?). France was expanding in North America: Quebec, Pennsylvania, Quiberion England had only some small colonies there they were gealous! The 7 years war started just of this ambition of Britain to have its own Colonial Empire ( it would help trade, increase revenue, increase power, etc etc, become

big boo-ha of Europe ). The war was fought on a large scale, because it not only composed the American Continent, but also India, where France and Britain had commercial interests ( spices mostly. ) William Pitt ( the elder ) was the head of the Parliament at that time, he being the promoter of war agains France. He had public support on his side, but that didnt mean it would be an easy war. He moved the interest of continental intervention to the one of colonial intervention, to the disapproval of king George II. War started in 1756, but Britain lost the start, the French occupying Minorca ( island in Mediterranean ). The Austrians decided to break the alliance with Britain and side with France, so Britain had to find a new ally Prussia. Prussia was attacked on all sides by France, Austria and Russia, thus leaving Britain to fend of the French attacks in the Electorate of Hanover ( from where George I, II, III were ). Then war broke out in the colonies too. In America, there were about 1,200,000 English as opposed to about 60,000 Frenchmen from 1759 and almost to the end of the war, Pitt had victory by his side. Quebec was capturet and many French colonies too ( fort Duquesne Pittsburgh, in his honor ). In India, with the aid of the great merchant companies, British rule was enforced, the French being driven out ( India was to become to Britain the pearl in its crown, the same as South America was to Spain -$$$!) After the death of George II, his son, king George III followed on the throne. He was only family related to the house of Hanover, he was more English than anything else. But he had interesting plans he wanted to become THE KING, meaning to restore power into his hands, but in a time where Parliament ruled, his ideas were provoking. He made William Pitt resign ( if it werent for Pitt, probably America wouldve had French origins. ) and replaced him with someone more close to his ideas Bute, but this guy was not fancied by public opinion So, back to Amerika ( fuck yeah! ) in order to prevent the rebellion of the French population in the newly acquired colonies, there needed to be an armed force to control a possible rebellion. But why should Britain pay for these solders? It was so decided that the colonists should pay for them. ( from here, bad things happen to merican colonists ). From this came the motto: no taxation without representation because the colonists had no representative in Parliament at that time still, the law passed and the tax was settled. Furthermore, the British colonies were not permitted to trade with anyone else than British ships they had to buy everything from them ( monopoly thus ensued ) The colonists were not allowed to produce the things that Britain exported ( wool mostly ), and they could trade only with English ports even more, the colonists could trade only what they produced over there which was not usually found over here, such as tobacco. This prevented the colonies to feel free but in returned, it filled the coffers of Britain and the great companies ( the guys who went round the world and got rich because of monopoly ). The Stamp Act ( tax on almost anything. Had to be agreed by the empire, had to be paid for ) was another tax, that helped pay for the British troops stationed there, but this was an abusive tax. ( they had to pay in gold ). Finally, because of the more and more rebellious colonists, the Stamp Act was suppressed by k.George3 but there was kept a small duty on secondary articles, such as tea and glass. NOW the problem was that the great trading companies wanted to sell their tea directly to the

consumer, not with the aid of the local merchants, who got left behind. This tax angered the tea drinkers everywhere, a tax on my tea? This is madness! Guess what happened next! In Boston, a group of men, disguised as Indians, boarded the ships carrying tea and threw their cargo in the sea. This act was not tolerated by Britain and soon enough, the conflict was open. The 13 colonies sided with one and other in this fight. Parliament thought that it would be an easy fight, seeing that the colonists had no standing army, no fleet, no fortified towns war broke out in 1776, when the colonists rejected the rule of George3 in favor of their own rule. This was not an easy war, for neither sides. France, that was the great looser of the 7 years war, saw this occasion as a revenge! ( eh, eeet this, filthy englishes!). The French gave the Americans a fleet, money, weapons and aid in fighting the British. Outcome of the war: England lost the 13 colonies. America was born. France was broke. England was supreme master of the seas. India was good for their trade. England reigned supreme. ( even though it had LOST a big part of its empire in America ) King George 3 was ill ( ill is a beautiful word for his CRAZYNESS. He talked to trees, ok? ). William Pitt helped propel Britain as an imperial power, the trading companies grew rich, the country was rather stable politically and economically, new things to follow XIII. Agricultural and Industrial revolutions What, who and why ? ( mostly )

If the Black Death killed like ONE THIRD of England helped the emancipation of the serf ( peasant for the pretentious), the 1700s brought a new dimension of agriculture and industry. Population started to grow because of many reasons: discoveries in medicine helped diminish the death rate, parish aid supported large families, the migration villagetown forced people to move in more crowded housing ( where morals did go to the drain and the poor multiplied ). Industrialization was taking over the country ( note: Britain had sparked the industrial revolution. This is important ), and so, manufactures appeared, where young children were employed ( again, population boom was benefic for these people ). But a greater populace needs more food. The old ways of agriculture were not enough to support all these hungry mouths. A change was needed. The great landowners wanted more, so gradually the enclosure came to being. What was an enclosure? To explain it simply great amounts of land, under one mans control. Big farms on short, or even better the beginning of the modern farm. The old habit of letting the earth rest for a year, after 3 years exploitation (medieval practice). Soon, new methods of cultivating were developed ( such as instead of letting the ground rest for a year, something like clover was grown this provided food for the animals for example ). Fertilizers appeared, so now it was easier to grow grains and other things were previously it was not possible. But because of the enclosures, nevertheless, transforming England into a grain-exporting nation, left the peasants without their free land ( the commons, where everybody was master and no one was master the same time ). The lords took the commons to add them to the enclosures, the peasant was left with no means of working so he went to the town( imediat zic de ce e important) The law that said that cottage needed 4 acres of land to be built, was abrogated. New houses could be built more closely ( ca blocurile astea socialiste ), but the

downside of this new situation was that in the towns, the slums developed ( mahala ), where living conditions were bleh Keep in mind that we are talking of the period between 1700 and somewhat 1800, so the Independence of the Americas was not heard of yet. More people decided to move to the colonies, in hope of finding better conditions, seeming as a refuge to the landless farmers those who decided to stay, entered the lords service. The yeoman started to fade away, as the independent and tenant-farmers were now known only as farmers, that depended on the gentry ( personal, mi se pare ca-I un regress fata de ce era inainte- conditia lor, nu faptul ca s-a trecut pe moduri mai eficiente de exploatare a pamantului ). Society was in for a change, in this period. Besides a development in agriculture, the industry boomed too. Inventions were put to use for the benefit of man ( and for the benefit of the industrialists ). Capitalism was taking shape. Wool, previously being made at home, could now be made in factories, where the work of 100 men was replaced by a single machine. Steam engines are defining for this age. Coal was now the main resource of an industrialized country ( steam engines replaced the manual labor, more efficient ). Roads developed too. John McAdam ( no ia ghici ce-a inventat asta !? ) developed a method of laying a water-resistant surface on the road, thus the speed of coaches increased to about 10 miles per hour. Furthermore, after 1830 railroads developed that further led to an increase of travel speed and of shortening distances and transporting more material from point A to point B. Capitalism brought forth a new method of seeing what country was best: by its positive balance of trade with other countries thus leading the way to the modern era ( capitaliszmus bby! ) XIV. Political reforms in Victorian England. Secret ballot The bills Romanticism

The bills! Queen Victoria the Victorian age- 19th century. Victorian England was made up of many middle-class men, that lived in the city. Times had changed for them, following the industrial and agricultural revolutions. Cheap newspapers appeared and fed the need for information of the masses. Telegraph technology shortened even more the distances between people and events were now learnt of much faster. In 1832 a reform act was passed by the liberals, because it was needed. The situation of the peasants was dear and the workers demanded a minimum wage to be settled upon. The talks for a reform started in parliament in the 1830. The tory have been leading the country for about 50 years. The wigs were in the opposition and sided with the population that demanded the reform. After it was passed, in 1832, it allowed more representatives from the country to take part in the parliament, and created an electorate of middle class townsmen and farmers ( which previously had no right to vote ). The rotten boroughs brought the downfall of the tories ( rotten, because of the fact that it had few voters but could be manipulated by someone easily ) mai pe romaneste, erau comunitati mici,

care aveau multe voturi la dispozitie in parlament, fapt cam aiurea, avand in vedere ca Manchester si Liverpool erau comunitati de vreo 800000 suflete fiecare, iar Old Sarum, de exemplu, avea dreptul la 7 voturi, pe cand astealalte la mult mai putine. THATS why the first bill was passed. In 1867 a second bill was passed, by the conservatives, led by Disraeli. This reform again dealt with voters and said that ownership of a house was required in order to be able to vote, or to receive a sum, the limits of which were lower in the poorer boroughs. Thus more than a million voters appeared, that were influencable. The third bill, was passed by Gladstone and the liberals. This gave the right to vote to the agricultural workers ( previous bills focused more on the townsfolk, because the great amount of population was centered there ). In total, there were now five million voters that took part in the political process of the country. Furthermore, the secret ballot was introduced, that stifled electoral corruption. More on the social changes during victorian England: slavery abolished in 1807. The reform of the education system in 1891 made elementary education compulsory. More schools and hospitals were built. The Crimean war broke out in 1855, in which England and France fought against the Tzarist empire. ( In Tzarist Russia, Europe fights you! ) here be told about the Oriental Problem, care ati dat din istorie in a 12a stiti despre ce-I vorba, care nu, va prezint pe scurt The Ottoman Empire was in decline ( Der Untergang des Ottomanreich ) aaand he was called the sick man of Europe, because they still controlled a great deal of land there ( the Balkans, Greece, Bosfor strait). While Enlightenment and Modernism swept through EU, in the Ottoman Empire, all was chillax But Russia had imperial ambitions and on the pretext of defending the Christians in Europe, wager war against the ottomans. England and France intervened on the ottoman side because of a simple reason: if Russia controlled the Bosfor strait, it had access to the Mediterranean sea and from there, the world. Russia was a baad boy, because it had resources. So yeah, Russia was beaten, peace at San Stefano then at Berlin. Peace all over Europe. But wait, heres more! Romanticism! A cultural movement opposed to the classic school of thought. They prized the emotions, the soul and the heart of man. As inspiration, they turned to the Medieval Times, national history and places. It was a nationalistic movement ( helping the revolutionaries of 1848 ). Main theme love Other traits: nostalgia of times passed, admiring the nature, the fate of the human soul Authors: Shelley, Byron, Wordsworth.

Novel: Frankenstein. (representative.)

BUN! GATA! Greu a fost! In decursul a 48 de ore am terminat chestiunea asta. A FOST MAI GREU CA SEMESTRUL TRECUT! Daca nu va place, asta e, nu ma acuzati pe mine ca nu-I bine sau ca va induc in eroare, nu va oblige nimeni sa invatati de aici. Ideea de baza este de a va oferi destula informatie can aventi nevoie sa promivati examenul si cu ce-I aici.. lejer promovati. Si eu invat tot dupa astea, ca voi (+ ce mai iau din carte) pentru ca nu trebuie sa va bazati DOAR pe ce e aici. No spor la studiat! Marius I.