Water Quality

Turbidity
BY MICHAEL J. SADAR

Revealed
Measurement, monitoring, and calibrated equipment improve operation and enhance water quality.

ASUALLY, TURBIDITY IS referred to as the cloudiness, or degree of clarity, of water. Scientifically, turbidity is the interaction between light and suspended particlessilt, clay, algae and other microorganisms, and organic matterin the water. Suspended particles scatter light or absorb and re-radiate light in a manner dictated by their size, shape, and composition, allowing sensitive turbidity-measurement equipment to reflect a change in type, size, or concentration of particles present in a sample. Turbidity isnt a measure of the quantity of suspended solids in a sample but, instead, an aggregate measure of the combined scattering effect from the suspended particles on a specified light source. Although not a direct measure of particulates in water, turbidity might be the most informative single water quality measurement from treatment start to finish. Turbidity readings can indicate the removal of organic materials that reduce the effectiveness of disinfection and particulates that support the growth and transport of harmful organisms. Operators armed with the sensitive readings made by todays advanced turbidity instrumentation have real-time assessment of par24 Opflow

ticle content changes in influent, during filtration, and during backwash. They can make process decisions not possible with other methodologies, such as laboratorybased gravimetric total suspended solids (TSS) testing. INSTRUMENT DESIGN CRITICAL Most modern turbidimeters apply 90, or nephelometric, detection, a technique considered extremely sensitive to particle scatter over a wide range of particle sizes. This means the nephelometers (or nephelometric turbidimeters) measure the light scattered at an angle of 90 from the light beam. Readings are in nephelometric turbidity units (ntu) and cant be compared directly to absorbance or transmittance readings made by generalpurpose photometers. Depending on type, nephelometers use a wide array of light sources with different wavelengths that interact with suspended materials in different ways. Instruments that meet US Environmental Protection Agency Method 180.1 design requirements are more sensitive to small particles than instruments meeting the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 7027 design standard. However, the longer-wavelength ISO-design instruments are less sensitive to the inter-

ference caused by dissolved color in samples, making them useful in process control. Depending on source water, operators might use both kinds of instruments to optimize filtration system efficiency. Laser-technology turbidimeters are sensitive enough to detect minute particle spikes that result as a filter run nears its end. Fast-responding, probe-type turbidimeters are ideal for backwash control monitoring. Particle counters further characterize and help troubleshoot filter performance. MEASURING ACCURATELY Accurate measurements support better process decisions. When measuring turbidity at 0.1 ntu or less, the slightest contamination can create significant error.
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January 2007

Light scattering by particles is a complex process, making it difficult to correlate turbidity with the amount, number, or mass concentration of particles in suspension.

Michael Sadar is a senior application scientist for Hach Company in Loveland, Colo.

bidimeter is certified as nonsusceptible to the radio waves transmitted by cell phones and other electromagnetic interferences in the instrument landscape. Follow instructions. Dont shortchange your process turbidimeter maintenance program; to do so will cost you more later than you can save now. A rigid instrument maintenance schedule will eliminate accuracy problems that can be caused by decaying lamps, plugged flow lines, and dust contamination on the optical and measuring chamber surfaces. Maintain proper and consistent sample flows. In a nutshell: rely on the operators manual for complete instructions on sample handling and instrument maintenance. CALIBRATING ACCURATELY With both laboratory and on-line turbidity measurement, the key to normalized readings that can be compared meaningfully with each other and with regulatory values is accurate instrument calibration.
Primary turbidity calibration standards.

Operators can achieve accurate, low-level turbidity readings by being careful and following some simple steps. Eliminate interferences. In a bench-top environment, keep the work area and testers hands clean to minimize sample and instrument contamination. Acid wash sample vials (cells) and collection containers, rinse them several times with deionized (DI) or water that has been treated with reverse osmosis, and immediately cap the cells tightly and store them filled with DI water. Prior to collection, rinse the cells and containers several times with sample water. Fill each sample cell slowly to prevent formation of air bubbles that can scatter light and be seen by the instrument as turbidity, then immediately cap the
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cell. Even if bubbles arent visible, letting the cell stand for a minute or two allows developing bubbles to dissipate. Or, degas the sample. Invert the cell once or twice, gently and slowly, immediately before measurement, to re-suspend any particles. If the analysis is in an environment with high humidity, an air-purging system for the sample cell chamber will eliminate interfering condensation on the cell. Handle the cell as directed in the instrument manual. For on-line monitoring, install instruments as close to the sampling point as possible to minimize response time and contamination from particle shedding or entrained air. Look for instruments with built-in bubble traps and electronic bubble rejection. Make sure your on-line tur-

USEPA guidelines require that laboratory and on-line turbidimeters used for regulatory reporting be calibrated at least quarterly with a primary calibration standard. The formazin and stabilized formazin polymers, recognized by the water industry and regulatory community as primary turbidity standards, contain a highly reproducible (statistically consistent) range of irregularly shaped particles sized from 0.01 to 10 microns. This particle profile statistically represents the variety of natural particles in a water sample and mimics the light scatter of a sample. Comparative calibrations. Because different instruments typically read the turbidity of a sample differently, operators often find it difficult to accurately calibrate one instrument against a reading from another instrument. Operators sometimes generate a significant error without being aware of the error when they dont know about instrumental interferences (e.g., stray light, particularly from bubbles) when attempting to match
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photograph: Sean d. brubaker, hach

Water Quality

Turbidimeter Tip
Get more accurate measurements by maintaining a steady, controlled flow rate up to and through a turbidimeter to allow air bubbles to be removed efficiently.

Turbidimeter Design
Nephelometers, or nephelometric turbidimeters, measure the light scattered at an angle of 90 from the incident light beam.
Incident Light Beam Glass Sample Cell

Lamp Transmitted Light Lens Aperture 90 Detector 90 Scattered Light

Sample In Sample Out

measurement values across different optical systems. So calibrate the instrument by using values recommended by the manufacturer, who knows calibration curves and has incorporated the best calibration method for the instrument to achieve the highest measurement performance.
Minimize the effect of calibration error.

Contamination, along with dilution (volumetric transfer) error, often creates at least a 0.2-ntu error in the actual value of a formazin-calibrated standard solution. A higher-concentration standard solution suffering a small contamination or dilution error has much less impact on the accuracy of low-level measurements than a 1.0-ntu solution with the same preparation error does. When a turbidity standard is prepared, two components make up the standard: dilution water and the concentrated or stock standard (formazin). Both have turbidity, though ideally only the stock standard should have a high turbidity. Thus, if a standard is prepared with water that has unidentified turbidity, that standard will have a high error. For example, an operator intends to prepare a 1.0 ntu standard through dilution, but unknown to the operator, the water is 0.2 ntu; so the prepared standard would actually be
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1.2 ntu, which is a 20 percent error. This shows how error can be introduced into standards and why low-level standards are discouraged, because the effect of an error is magnified. Because the relationship between turbidity and nephelometric light scatter is highly linear between 0 and 40 ntu, operators can accurately calibrate with higher-concentration and more accurate turbidity standards. For this reason, turbidimeter manufacturers usually recommend use of higher-concentration primary calibration standards such as 20 ntu or 40 ntu, even when expected measurements are less than 1 ntu. Performing a calibration using accurate standards and following manufacturers instructions will result in the highest possible accuracy. Other standards are used to verify any questions about the validity of the calibration. After calibration, operators should use ultra-low turbidity standard solutions, such as prepared, stabilized formazin verification standard solutions of 0.10, 0.30, 0.50, or 1.0 ntu, to validate the low end of the calibration. Operators can use these verification standards as often as needed after primary calibration to confirm instrument stability and repeatability, check for possible lamp degradation or optical system contamination, and validate operator technique. Even more convenient are mechanical calibration verification devices that operators can use quickly and repeatedly. Turbidity reading verification with wet or dry secondary standards is the ultimate

proof of the effectiveness of the entire filtration and turbidity control program. A dry verification uses a method and calibration device that does not involve the use of a traditional calibration standard (a wet standard). Dry calibration standards can be stable, self-contained gels or optomechanical devices that simulate stable light scatter. OPTIMIZED FILTRATION EQUALS BETTER WATER QUALITY Accurate, very low turbidity measurements are possible only through meticulous turbidity monitoring. They are worth the effort required, because operators can use them to consistently maximize filter runs and the efficiency of filter backwash cyclesoptimizing the treatment process and final product quality. Every water utility, large or small, should scrutinize its turbidity monitoring program, from sampling and handling techniques to instrument maintenance, to find opportunities for monitoring improvement. Based on this evaluation, utilities can implement an operators training program that targets the facilitys specific needs and supports good monitoring habits. The big payoff is more consistent and accurate low-level turbidity measurements that will help the entire staff optimize the treatment process and final product quality. A version of this article originally appeared in the January 2006 Alaska Water and Wastewater Management Association News & Information.
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January 2007