rate of diffusion depends on mass(molecular mass low, rate high) +temp( temp low, rate low) solid : particle

are packed closely together in an orderly manner; can only vibrate and rotate abt their fixed position; strong forces between the particles; low energy content as movement is restricted fluid: particles are packed closely together but not in an orderly arrangement; can vibrate,rotate and move throughout the liquid, they collide against each other, are held together by strong forces but weaker than the forces in a solid, higher energy content. Gas: particles are very far apart from each other and are in a random arrangement; can vibrates, rotate and move freely, the rate of collision is greater than the rate of collision in a liquid; weak forces between particle, highest energy content as movement is random. Sublimation: iodine, ammonium chloride, NH4CL, dry ice(solid CO2) Heating of naphthalene(mp:80) : during the melting process, the temp remains constant because the heat energy absorbed by the particles is used to overcome the forces between particles so that the solid can turn into a liquid. At this temp, both solid and liquid are present water bath is used to ensure nap heted evenly+nap is flammable Cooling of naphthalene: during the freezing process, temp remain constant becoz the heat loss to the surroundings is exactly balances by the heat energy liberated as the particles attract one another to form a solid. nap is stirred continuously to avoid supercooling( temp drops below freezing point, without appearance of solid) Daltons : ball, Thompson: electron, Rutherford: proton+nucleus, Bohr:electron move in shells, Chadwick: neutrons Isotope: same num of proton, but diff num of neutron, diff physical property(density, mp, bp) cobalt-60: radiotherapy for cancer,plutonium-238: regulate the heartbeat,iodine-131: thyroid disease,uranium-235: nuclear power, phosphorus-32: uptake of phosphate+metabolism of phosphorus, carbon-14: understanding of photosynthesis+protein synthesis, estimate the age of bones, wood or fossils, sodium-24: trace leaks in gas or oil pipes+ventilating systems, cobalt-60(gamma rays): pass through food to destroy bacteria, krypton-85: control the thickness of plastic sheet mole=mass/molar mass=num of particle/avogrado constant=volume/molar volume massnum of mole of atomsratio of moles simplest ratio of moles empirical formula

H2 gas is tested with a lighted wooden splinter. If the gas burns quietly without a pop sound, then all the gas has been totally removed from the combustion tube(mixture of H2 and air will cause an explosion when lighted) periodic table: 1.antoine Lavoisier:groups(gas, non metal, metal, earth) ; 2. Johann W.Dobereiner: triads, 3 elements 3. john newland: atomic masses, law of octaves; 4.lothar meyer: atomic volume against atomic mass; 5. Dmitri Mendeleev: ascending order of amotic mass, similar chem properties called a group; 6. Hjg Moseley: proton num Group 1: alkali metal, 2: alkaline earth metal, 3-12: transition element, 17: halogen, 18: noble gas Proton num 58-71: lanthanides, 90-103: actinides group 18 atomic radius inc. Low MP BP inc( atomic size in, van der waals forces of attraction between atoms stronger, more heat energy is required to overcome the interatomic forces of attraction). Density inc (atomic mass is bigger compare to volume). Duplet/ octet electron arrangement. Helium: fill weather balloons+airships, artificial atmosphere for divers, thermometers, protective atmosphere for silicon+germanium(microchips). Neon: fill advertising light bulb with reddish-orange colour,indicator lights. Argon: fill electric bulb(prevent tungsten filament from being oxidized),inert atmosphere for welding, carrier gas in liquid-gas chromatography. Krypton: fill high speed photographic flash lamp, lasers to repair retina. Xenon: electron tube+stroboscopic+bubble chamber. Radon: treat cancer(radioactive) Group 1 reactivity inc( when going down, atomic size in, single valence electron further away from nucleus and is screened by more inner shell containing electrons, effective nuclear charge felt by single valence electron de+can release more easily), as reducing agents(good electron donor), electropositivity inc(measurement of the ability of an atom to donate e- to form a positive ion). Dissolve in water produce metal hydroxide solutions. React with bromine:reddish-brown bromine vapour decolourised.

group 17 salt-former(reactive non-metal, exist in mineral salt), exist as diatomic covalent molecules. Electronegativity de(measurement of strength of its atom to pull e- towards its nucleus). Colour darker(F2:pale yellow, Cl2: greenish yellow, Br2: brown, I2: purple, dissolve in solvent con O2 like water,ethanol C2H3,methanol CH3OH). Low mp dp in. Low dens in. Don conduct electricity/heat. Reacitivity dec(each halogen atom will gain 1 more electron to achieve a stable octet electron arrangement, atomic size in, outermost occupied shell further away from nucleus and is screened by more inner shell, effective nuclear charge dec, strength of nucleus to attract 1 more e- into valence shell dec). As oxidizing agent(good e- acceptor). Solubility in water dec. React with water produce acidic solution(HOCl hypochlorous acid-bleaching agents). React with iron form iron(lll)halide/brown salt(soda lime-solid mixture of calcium hydroxide+sodium hydroxide used to absorb excess poisonous Cl gas, bromine/iodine vapour to prevent gas escape to surrounding). React with cold sodium hydroxide sol produce water+salts containing sodium halide+sodium halite(l)colourless sol.

period 3 atomic size dec(have 3 shells occupied with e-, proton num in, causes an inc in +ve charge of nucleus, pulling force exerted by increasing nuclear charge of nucleus stronger and e- pulled closer to nucleus). Electronegativity inc. Solid to gas. Si is a weak conductor of electricity but become a good con(semiconductor) when doped with small amount of boron/phosphorus. Metal form oxides with both acidic and basic properties=amphoteric oxide. semimetal/metalloid(si): make diodes, transistor, microchip transition element electronegativity inc. Atomic size almost same. Solid with shiny surface,ductile,malleable,high tensile strength,high mp bp,high density, good cond of heat and electricity. Iron used in steel, Copper used in electric wires/cable, zinc is not trans element (1) form coloured iron/compound: aqueous sol react with sodium hydroxide sol+ammonia sol to form coloured precipitate of metal hydroxide. Added to paints and glass. Fireworks=gunpowder+diff salt of trans. (2) Exhibit diff oxidation num (3) Form complex ion: complex ion=bigger-sized polyatomic ion formed when a fixed num of small molecule/ion/ligands bonded to a central trans metal ion. (4) Act as catalysts: haber process( Contact prosess pressure 200-300, temp 450-550) pres 1 atm,temp 500, sulphur trioxidesulphuric acid

Ostwald process pres 2-5 atm, temp 850, nitrogen monoxidenitic acid Hydrogenation of vege oil ( vege oil+hydrogenmargarine) catalyst nickel, temp 200. metal+metal= ionic bond , non-metal+metal = covalent bond charge of +ve ion = num of pro num of elec Charge of ve ion = - ( num of elec num of pro)

formation of MgF2 1) Magnesium atom has a proton num of 12 and electron arrangement of 2.8.2. 2) A magnesium atom has two valence electron 3) 4) 5) +ve ion, Mg is formed Fluorine The transfer of 2 e- from a Mg atom to two F atoms to form the ionic compound magnesium fluoride
2+

6) 2+ 7) The Mg and F are strongly attracted to each other by strong electrostatic forces called ionic bonds 8) Hence, the ionic compound magnesium fluoride with the formula MgF 2 is formed formation of H20 1) An oxygen atom has an e arrangement of 2.6. It has six valence e 2) Each oxygen atom needs two more electrons to achieve a stable octet electron arrangement 3) A hydrogen atom has an e arrangement of 1 and one valence e 4) Each hydrogen atom needs one more electron to achieve a stable duplet electron arrangement 5) Two hydrogen atoms will combine with one oxygen atom through the sharing of e . Each of the two hydrogen atoms contributes one e and one oxygen atom contributes two e for sharing 6) By doing so, an oxygen atom is bonded to each of the two hydrogen atom by a shared pair of e

Lewis structure 7) Hence, a covalent molecule, H2O, with two single covalent bonds is formed. 2 types of covalent molecules : simple----water, CO2, ammonia, tetrachloromethane Macromolecules/giant molecule----silicon dioxide, diamond(atoms are bonded in a giant lattice structure) organic solvent: prepare sol + remove and clean dirt

R of R : the change in a selected quantity during a reaction per unit time. Quantity of product can be num of mole/mass of solid/volume of gas/conc of sol Measure in 2 ways: average rate of reaction/ instantaneous

*total surface area of zinc+conc of HCl dec eith time. Hence, R of R also dec with time. factor affect R of R: total surface area, conc, temp, pressure, use of catalyst max volume of CO2 gas collected in ex is less than the theoretical volume becoz a small volume of the CO2 has dissolved in the water. Method to overcome this diff is by saturating the water with CO2 gas before collecting the gas in burette. 3 3 If the 150cm conical flask are replaced by bigger 250cm , time taken longer becoz the base area of 250 is bigger and the depth of the 50 sol becomes shallower. Hence, a bigger amount of sulphur prep is required to cause the mark X to disappear form sight If HCl of the same conc is used to replace sulphuric acid, the R of R lower becoz HCl is a strong monoprotic acid whereas sulphuric acid is a strong diprotic acid. Hence, the conc of hydrogen ions in HCl is only half the conc .. change in volume of HCl does not affect initial rate but affect the amount of product catalyst: substance which can alter the rate of a chemical reaction while itself remains chemically unchanged at the end of reaction. Does not change the quantity of products, is specific in its action, only a small amount is needed to achieve a big increases, finely powdered catalyst is more effective than lump catalyst, can be used in solid/liquid/gas/aqueous state, transition element. Run an industrial process to achieve shorter time, higher yield, lower cost of production effective collision: achieve a activation energy with the correct orientation according to collision theory, RofR is determined by frequency of collision, magnitude of activation energy Conc inc, num of particles per unit volume inc When particles of gaseous reactants are compressed to occupy a smaller vol, pres inc, num of gas particles per unit vol inc Inc in temp will cause kinetic energy of reacting particles to inc, reacting particles move faster and collide more often/causes more colliding particles to posses higher energy that is enough to overcome the activation energy When +ve catalyst is used, enable the reaction to occur through an alternative path which requires a lower activation energy, more colliding particle are able to overcome the lower activation energy organic compound=carbon-containing compounds except CO,CO2,CaCO3,NaHCO3,KCN,AL4C3 carbides International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) alkane(CnH2n+2) physical: cant conduct electricity, low mp bp, dissolve in organic solvent, insoluble in H2O,less dense than H20 Halogenations: substitution reaction(Cl2,Br2,F2)/ Chlorination of methane(expose to UV light) CHCl3+Cl2HCl+CCl4 alkene(CnH2n,n=2..) unsaturated hydrocarbon. Al,et,prop,but=gas. Chemically more reactive than alkane coz C=C Combustion: burn with sootier flames coz have higher percentage of carbon in their molecules than alkane o Addtion of hydrogen(Hydrogenation): ethane reacts with H2 at 180 c in the presence of nickel/pt catalyst to produce ethane CH2=CH2+H2CH3-CH3 Addition of halogen(Halogenation): addition of halogens to alkene (ethane is bubbled through a sol of Br in H2O/tetrachloromethane in the dark, reddish-brown Br is decolourised and a colourless liquid 1,2-dibromoethane is formed. Hence Bromine water test for the presence of C=C.

Addtion of hydrogen halides(HCl,HBR,HI): no catalyst Addition of water(Hydration):don react with cold water, mixture of alkene and steam pass over catalystalcohol

Addition of hydroxyl group: dilute acidified potassium manganate(7) soldiol(purple decolourised). Test for C=C ethane-1,2-diol Polymerisation: heating ethane at 200 C and 1200 atm in the presence of oxygen
o

isomerism in alkens is due to branching of carbon chain + diff positioning of double bond isomers have diff physical prop, from the same homologous series have same functional group, have same chem prop Alcohol contain hydroxyl group,non-hydrocarbon,neutral compound, CnH2n+1OH

fermentation hydration physical prop: liquid at room cond, colourless, sharp smell, completely miscible with water, low bp(78),highly volatile combustion: releases high amount of heat, use as fuel Oxidation: oxidizing agent( acidified potassium dichromate(6)orange to green/potassium manganate(7)solution Oxidified to carboxylic acid Dehydration: removal of water from alcoholalkene 2 method(1) ethanol vapour is passed over a heated catalysts such as unglazed porcelain chips,porous pot,pumice o stone /aluminium oxide (2) ethanol is heated under reflux at 170 Cwith excess conc sulphuric acid Uses of alcohol: solvent, fuel, source of chemical, source of medicinal products, central nercous system depressant drug(slows down both physical+mental activity, causes the person to feel high and to loss shyness), addictive drug(cause chronic liver disease)

carboxylic acid (CnH2n+1COOH,n=0) Physical prop: low molecular mass are colourless liquid, 10/more carbon atoms are wax-like solid, bp high, soluble in water

Physical prop of ethanoic acid: colourless liquid, sour smell like vinegar, very soluble in water Pure ethanoic acid = glacial ethanoic acid Buthy ethanoate : colourless sweet-smelling liquid, forms an oily layer which floats on water Uses (ethanoic acid/acetic acid: major indrustrial chemical, convert into ester for the use of solvent, vinegar) (methanoic acid/formic acid: coagulate latex) ester CnH2n+1COOCmH2m+1 (-COO carboxylate group) alkyl carboxylate CH3COOH + C2H5OH CH3COOC2H5 + H2O conc H2SO4 is used as catalyst+to absorb H20 to push the reaction to produce more ester Physical prop:fruity smell, colourless liquid, bp low, volatile compound, not soluble in water but dissolve in organic solvent Fats and oils are esters of glycerol and fatty acid uses : storage reserve of energy, food+drug preservatives, prevent dehydration+attack by micro, preparation of cosmetic+perfume, Solvent for organic compound, production of soups+detergents, production of polyester cold pack: ammonium chloride, potassium nitrate, sodium thiosulphate Hot pack: anhydrous magnesium sulphate, anhydrous copper(II) sulphate, calcium oxide Reusable heat pack: sodium acetate heat of prep/double decomposition/prep method: heat change when one mole of particle is formed from its ions in aqueous sol white prep, barium sulphate/silver chloride yellow prep: lead(II) iodide EX: value of heat of prep less than theoretical value coz computation of the theoretical value of heat of prep is assumed that no heat is lost to the surrounding+plastic cup doesnt absorb heat heat of displacement : the heat released when one mole of a metal is displaced from its salt sol by a more electropositive metal Excess mg and zn are used to make sure all the copper(II) ions are displaced to form copper Amount of heat absorbed by the remaining unreacted mg and zn is very little+can be neglected in the cal of heat heat of neutralization: the heat produced when a mole of water is formed from the reaction between an acid and an alkali Value depends on strength of acid/ alkali heat of combustion: the heat produced when a mole of a subs is completely burnt in oxygen Excess oxygen to make sure combustion is complete Determined by bomb calorimeter EX: make sure the flame from the burning of alcohols touches the bottom of copper can Stir the water continuously The spirit lamp must be weighed immediately coz the alcohols are volatile Always use a windshield to flame from air currents ( coz accelerate heat loss) Thin copper can is used ( copper is good conductor of heat thus it can transfer the heat given out during combustion) Wire gauze is not used ( it might absorb some of the heat) -1 fuel value: amount of heat energy given out when one gram of the fuel is completely burnt in excess of oxygen, kJg