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Chapter 24 Strategic Planning and Distance Education

Santosh Panda
24.1 INTRODUCTION
As is widely reported and argued, educational institutions are inherently different from business organisations. Traditionally, they have preserved their academic identity through graduate teaching, disciplinary research, and collegial decision-making. For some time, educational institutions have been facing pressures to reform. These pressures are mainly from, but are not confined to, two quarters: 1. As a consequence of policies to widen access and promote lifelong learning, flexible and blended modes of learning are coming to occupy a sizeable chunk of educational space. This is also transforming policy and management. 2. Technological developments coupled with globalisation and continuing professional development needs (especially niche markets) necessitate adoption of new educational technologies. These developments demand new strategies of planning and management. Haughey (2003) submits that the recent developments affecting postsecondary institutions require a redefinition of academic work life (p. 56), which includes reengineering, restructuring, and transforming (though she underlines the need for holistic planning, to which we shall return towards the end of this chapter). Distance/open/flexible/online/blended learning are part of this redefinition and have been at the forefront of this transformation. In the first instance, though, such new teachinglearning systems require the dynamics of strategic planning.
24.2 STRATEGIC PLANNING

The definition of planning is somewhat difficult, in terms of confining its description to one framework. The interpretation of planning includes 477
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478 Santosh Panda

future thinking, to plan action in advance; controlling the future, to act on the plan; and decision-making, todetermine in advance actions, resources, alternatives and the best alternative. (Mintzberg, 1994b, pp. 78)
Mintzberg further emphasises that Planning may be so elusive because its proponents have been more concerned with promoting vague ideals than achieving viable positions, more concerned with what planning might be than what it actually became (pp. 67). The concept of strategy, associated with scientific planning, originated from military applications, where operations involved coherent actions designed by the strategist and not known to the enemy (Whipp, 1998). The arrival of strategic planning for business dates back to the 1960s, when corporate houses adopted strategies to further empower their competitiveness (Mintzberg, 1994a). At this time, higher education institutions globally started experiencing dwindling public subsidy and increasing institutional costs, and therefore planning long the lines of strategic planning within the business community became important, to expand the student base, contain unit cost, and enhance the institutional competitive niche. Strategic planning as a structured management discipline and practice (Dorris et al., 2002, p. 6) was considered a rational tool for systematic institutional advancement by institutional leaders. The academies started to be viewed as academic enterprises. The seminal work of Keller (1983) on academic strategy had the most significant influence on higher education institutions to move towards mission and vision, environmental scanning, situational analysis, goal setting, strategy formulation, strategy implementation, feedback loop, and other features of strategic planning. The meaning of strategy is very clear: the pattern or plan that integrates an organisations major goals, policies and action sequences into a cohesive whole (Quinn, 1980, p. 7). This cohesive whole puts the organisation in a competitive advantage against its competitors or similar providers. Strategic planning is a systematic, disciplined, and data-based decision-making process in which internal and external contexts are analysed, based on which resource commitment is exercised to conform to pre-stipulated mission and vision, so that the organisations strengths and opportunities are optimised, and it surpasses its weaknesses and threats. If the mission is what one is and what one stands for, the vision refers to what one wants to achieve in the coming years, and strategic planning underlines how to achieve it (Kilfoil, 2003, p. 14). Strategic planning may be cyclic, take place only for the initiatives of transformation and innovation, be used to solve specific problems, and augment the particular area of institutional strengths and take advantage of its opportunities. Such planning has many benefits, all of which may not necessarily be achievable:
promotion of strategic thinking and action; enhancement of institutional preparedness and responsiveness; improvement of decision making; enhancement of institutional performance; and facilitation of working together with clear roles to achieve organisational goals. (Bryson, 1995, p. 7)
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Strategic Planning and Distance Education 479
Evaluation
Forecasting
Goal setting
Scanning
Monitoring
Implementing
Figure 24.1: The Process of Strategic Planning
The process of strategic planning (Figure 24.1) proceeds with environmental scanning, through evaluation of issues, forecasting, goal setting, implementation, and to the end process of monitoring as a cycle (Renfro and Morrison, 1984, quoted in Morrison et al., 1984). Strategic planning is described as the process of determining the alignment of the institution with the external environment. It is the response to environmental changes. It is a decision-making process based on analysis of internal and external environments, with accurate resource deployment based on maximising strengths and opportunities, and minimising weaknesses and threats. These must be compatible with the institutional vision and mission. As compared with long-range planning which strengthens internal strengths over a period of time to optimise preparedness for the future, strategic planning strategises the present, based on the prediction of future developments and opportunities. Within education, strategic planning has emerged in response to market-driven programme development and delivery, and concerns of cost-efficiency. SWOT analysis (for internal strengths and weaknesses, and external opportunities and threats) (Figure 24.2) is an important component of strategic planning, and environmental scanning and focus on the strategic niche are core to this exercise.
Internal strengths
Internal weaknesses
External opportunities
External threats
Figure 24.2: SWOT Analysis
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Process (present strategies)
Input (resources)
Output (performance)
Figure 24.3: Input-ProcessOutput Linkage
An input (resources)process (present strategies)output (performance) analysis (internal to the environment) (Figure 24.3) is also conducted on the external environment forces and trends, competitors and collaborators; and key resources are determined. The mission, vision, and strategies are then interlinked. The strategic positioning of the institution to best predict the future needs to be combined with looking into the institutional history to create the future therefore, such planning would emphasise the process over the product (Lorenzo, 1993). The process of strategic planning has matured in recent years, especially during the 1990s. Organisations are gradually introducing flexibility, dynamism, imagination, and inventiveness into their strategic planning and implementation. Strategic thinking has come to greater focus a synthesis involving intuition and creativity (Mintzberg, 1994b). The distinction by Loewen (1999) is worth consideration (Table 24.1). Given this distinction, it is not surprising that organisations are gradually replacing strategic planning with strategic management that is the gelling of strategic thought and action with strategic planning.
Table 24.1: Strategic Planning and Strategic Thinking

Strategic Planning Top management Structured planning Structured agenda-based sessions Correct answers (conforming top management) Definite steps Normative measuring through control Formal Strategic Thinking Entire personnel Continuous planning Theme-based, unstructured No immediate answer Creative Innovative measuring based on client satisfaction Informal
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24.3 STRATEGIC PLANNING IN DISTANCE EDUCATION

In the past two and half decades, there has been tremendous worldwide growth in distance education. A variety of models of institutional delivery have emerged across the regions. These include Single-mode open universities; Dual-mode university distance education centres; Consortia and networked learning; Corporate/private for-profit institutions; and Single-mode virtual universities.
While all these models or institutional delivery mechanisms devise their own institutional policy and planning, their operation (including the mechanisms of accreditation) heavily depends on their national education policy and the planning initiatives to effect such a policy. In most national contexts, though there is a synergy between national policy intents and institutional mission and vision, this synergy is rarely visible for definite national policies for distance and online learning within the national educational policy. This is depicted in Figure 24.4. The above situation can be exemplified by considering the case of the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), the second largest mega-university in the world (Panda et al., 2006). For instance, While there is lack of a full-fledged national policy for distance and online learning, the detailed national Five Year Plan documents for education attach significant importance to distance education, with substantial state funding. The models of institutional delivery in the open and dual-mode universities are, therefore, guided by concerns of access and equity. Such models for consortia and private providers (including online learning institutions) are out of this purview.
National educational planning
Models of distance and online learning Institutional vision and mission Accreditation bodies National education policy Distance education policy
Figure 24.4: Distance Education Policy, Models of Delivery and Accreditation
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482 Santosh Panda The existing national mechanisms of institutional evaluation and accreditation for conventional higher education heavily influence the accreditation process for distance teaching institutions. The private providers of distance education have managed to stay out of this jurisdiction. The national open university has the dual responsibility of being an open university as also a national nodal agency to promote, fund, evaluate, and assure quality for the distance education system in the country. Therefore, the institutional vision and mission of provincial open universities and dual-mode distance education universities are heavily guided by the vision of the national open university:
Indira Gandhi National Open University, the National Resource Centre for Open and Distance Learning with international recognition and presence, shall provide seamless access to sustainable and learner-centric quality education, skill upgrading and training to all by using innovative technologies and methodologies and ensuring coverage of existing systems for massive human resource required for promoting integrated national development and global understanding. (IGNOU, 2002, p. 7)
In todays world of competition and need for collaboration and consortia (as in the case of India through the Distance Education Council of IGNOU), the teacher is no longer the sole arbiter of knowledge with full control over teaching and learning (as was in the past). Gumport and Pussers (1997) description of institutions as loose networks of connected and interdependent work processes holds good in todays context in which a teacher depends on a host of teachinglearning support centres, without much control over any of them. Todays teacher therefore, by compulsion and by necessity, is part of a strategic planning process. Institutional strategic planning exercises vary, depending upon institutional vision and policy. Outlined below are brief descriptions of institutional cases of dual-mode and single-mode distance teaching institutions, exemplifying strategic planning in a particular thematic area for each: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Texas Tech University, USA, for technology. Open Learning Institute (now OUHK), Hong Kong, for focus. Athabasca University, Canada, for mission and research. University of South Africa, South Africa, for quality distance education. Indira Gandhi National Open University, India, for SWOT analysis.
For a sophisticated technological institute like the Texas Tech University, USA, the strategic process in planning for outreach/distance education programmes had to be meticulous and clear. The Universitys strategic plan of 2006 presents the mission, followed by the vision statements, which are broken down to goals, with each goal having critical success factors, and objectives which included strategies and assessments. Consider the goal on technology:
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Goal 4. Technology: Maximise the use of technology in instruction, operations, and community engagement. Critical Success Factors (measures of the degree of success over the next 5 years): Offer 15% of all programs on-line. Effectively employ advanced technology in 50% of the Divisions operations. Perform 40% of communications with students electronically. Objective 4.1: Integrate the use of technology in distance learning and community engagement offerings, while ensuring electronic privacy. Strategies: Systematically research new technologies and software applications that support our strategic endeavors. Develop additional electronic courses and expand the number of non-credit electronic programs. Establish electronic student bulletin boards. Establish programming for IVC delivery based on market demand. Hire additional technical staff and provide technical training needed to integrate technology into our operations. Assessments: Implementation of appropriate technologies and software applications. Number of courses and programs offered electronically. Objective 4.2: Offer programs electronically consistent with appropriate pedagogies. Strategies: Include instructional design specialists in design teams. Keep up to date on research on pedagogy and technology. Work with the Teaching, Learning, and Technology Centre and Information Technology Division to investigate pedagogical and technological issues. Assessments: Courses meet Principles of Good Practice and other indicators of quality. (Texas Tech University, 2006, pp. 56)
Goal 4 had in total five objectives, with the last three objectives being to: Assure appropriate maintenance of technology resources; Integrate the use of technology to disseminate information to students, employees and the general public; and Implement e-business applications to streamline operations. The nine goals (i.e. access and diversity, academic excellence, engagement, technology, partnerships, human resources and management, tradition and pride, fiscal stability, and accountability) have twenty-seven objectives to comprehensively articulate the vision statements. Such detailed articulation is obviously reflected in the detailed planning document of the university, which includes strategies for implementation.
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484 Santosh Panda The Open Learning Institute (OLI) (now the Open University Hong Kong: OUHK) case stands out as significantly different, since it represents a not-for-profit business model of Open and Distance Learning (ODL). The OLIs strategic planning was therefore very clear:
Our strategic planning therefore was not meant to be a paper exercise full of platitudes, it was an exercise that clearly and unambiguously stated the nature, types and names of courses we intended to offer during the plan period, the number of enrolments we hoped to achieve, the level of fees we wished to impose, the number of hours of tuition we planned to provide and the income we had to generate in order to support the level of anticipated expenditure. (Dhanarajan, 1993, p. 20)
AU1
The planning exercise involved all the stakeholders it exemplified collective leadership. Any units or departments planning activity is reflected university-wide thereby giving the unit full confidence of its importance and the university full responsibility for its achievement. A case to closely observe is that of the Athabasca University (AU), which has significantly transformed itself over the past years. Its strategic case for research deserves attention. AU received self-governing status under the Albertas Universities Act in 1978, and the 1985 Mission Statement read as follows:
Athabasca University is dedicated to the removal of barriers that traditionally restrict access to and success in university-level studies and to increasing equality of educational opportunity for all adult Canadians regardless of their geographical location and prior academic credentials. In common with all Universities, Athabasca University is committed to excellence in teaching, research and scholarship, and to being of service to the general public. (AU, 1996)
The Vision of the 20062011 strategic plan for the open university stated
Athabasca University will continue to be an open and distance university, a research university and, above all, a university focused on excellence. The university continues to provide open university-level distance and e-learning education (to anyone over the age of 16). In 2015, Athabasca University will be acknowledged as one of the top three universities of its kind in the world not the largest, but one of the very best (AU, 2006, p. 2)
with barriers that traditionally restrict access replaced by barriers that restrict access; educational opportunity for adult Canadians replaced by educational opportunity for all adult learners worldwide; and In common with all universities, Athabasca University is committed to replaced by We are committed to. The changes were obvious and strategic.
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Strategic Planning and Distance Education 485 The emphasis in both its Vision and Mission was reflected in its latest strategic plan including values, requirements, goals (strategic objectives and achievements within each goal). Its values statement read as:
We value excellence. The search for excellence is the hallmark of all our endeavours. We value learning. Student learning and satisfaction are measures of our success. We value scholarly research. We engage in reflective practice through the scholarship of discovery and the scholarship of teaching. We value the free exchange of ideas. A respectful climate for open discourse promotes innovation, discovery and social responsibility. We value openness and flexibility. Reducing barriers to education enhances access and social equity. We value diversity and inclusiveness. Diversity and inclusiveness enhance the quality both of learning and of the workplace. We value our employees. The commitment, innovation, creativity and continuous learning of every employee contribute to our success. We value accountability. We are accountable to our students, to each other and to the public. (AU, 2006, p. 4)
AU2
Till 2011, the university has committed itself to six strategic areas: ensuring quality in learning; enhancing open access; focusing on quality research; building communities; recruiting and retaining excellent people; and allocating resources. Commensurate with the mission statement, AU had developed a strategic research plan to align with its mission. The mission-oriented research themes included distance and online learning applied to particular disciplines; electronic publishing; space science and astronomy; globalisation and technology; changing workplace/workplace and community education; indigenous education; interdisciplinary research in environment and sustainability; health research; and those identified for/by the Canada Research Chairs (CRCs) (AU, 2003). The research activities are guided broadly by the philosophy of removing barriers to educational opportunities in order for graduates to participate fully in society. The research agenda was also designed to match the high teaching profile, under a new trademark Canadas Open UniversityTM . The alignment of research, teaching, and strategy was in keeping with views of the teaching and research profiles of OU academics, as well as identifying niche areas to which scholars are invited through the CRCs. Examples of serious strategic planning initiatives for distance education in developing countries are rare. One of the best examples is that of the University of South Africa (UNISA), which has emerged strategically stronger after its merger with Technikon South Africa and the distance education centre of Vista University in 2004. The new UNISA, which promises education to every African (with the slogan African University in service of humanity), had developed a comprehensive 2015 Strategic Plan (UNISA, n.d.) with detailed consideration of context, mission, situation analysis, strategic objectives with key strategies and targets. The university had ten strategic objectives. An example of the second strategic objective on quality distance education is outlined below to highlight strategic initiatives in this area and to illustrate the rigour that had gone into this exercise.
AU3
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6.2 Position Unisa as a leading provider of quality distance education programmes through an academic product range that expands on its comprehensive character. Unisa is recognised world-wide as a major provider of distance education. The Universitys programmes provide a flexible option for students who choose to study at their own place and pace using appropriate technologies and having access to a range of learning support. Our product range incorporates general academic, professional and vocationally-oriented programmes that are aligned to legislative and socio-economic imperatives and are nationally and internationally accredited. Although Unisas objective is clearly to be an Open and Distance Learning institution we must strive to ensure that access is translated into success. The Universitys open access policy provides opportunities while its materials, quality assurance and student support based on best practice in open and distance learning ensure success for the reasonably diligent student. Strategies Establish a common understanding of the nature and role of Unisa as a comprehensive open and distance education university: internally, among all staff; and externally, among our students, market and stakeholders. This will be accomplished through communication and assertive and targeted marketing, placing an emphasis on what it means to be a comprehensive university. Strive to make distance education a method of choice for South African and African students in particular and position Unisa as a university of first choice and not last resort, by instituting a tuition model appropriate to the purposes of the programmes, and the context and needs of students. Develop an appropriate and relevant programme and qualifications mix (PQM) aligned with the comprehensive nature of the institution, its vision to become the African University in the service of humanity, its need to maximize economies of scale wherever possible, as well as legislative and socio-economic imperatives. Ensure the relevance of Unisas PQM and research by regularly conducting needs analyses of our markets, our students and our stakeholders, both at an institutional level and within Colleges and organisational units, while at the same time benchmarking these with the highest international standards. Manage access by providing students with the necessary competencies through RPL, access and foundation programmes and a more deliberate engagement with the Further Education and Training (FET) sector. Maintain and improve on Unisas position as a quality provider of distance education through committing to continuous quality improvement in internal systems, liaison with professional bodies, liaison and partnerships with business, industry and the public service, peer institutions. Actively seek out national and international benchmarks, accreditation and financial support. Ensure that the curriculum for each module is up-to-date and well-researched, with aims and learning outcomes appropriate for the level of study; and with teaching, learning and assessment methods that are consonant with those aims and outcomes.
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Increase headcount enrolments in line with national parameters to a plateau of 250,000 students by 2015. Growth will be encouraged particularly in the fields of Science, Engineering and Technology, as well as Agricultural and Natural Sciences. Appropriate enrolment caps and targets within the programme profile of Unisa will be used as an instrument. Targets To maintain Unisas position among the top ten mega-universities of the world (currently number 6) using critical benchmarks of comprehensive learner support, use of ICTs, research output, ODL methods, and output (UG and PG) rates. To position Unisa as one of the Top 5 Universities in South Africa by 2015, based upon criteria such as outputs (UG and PG), research units published, number of NRF rated researchers, number of full professors, size, etc. To position Unisa as the top comprehensive university in the country by 2010 based upon appropriate and relevant evaluation criteria. A review of all curricula and the PQM in a phased approach to make transparent the teaching, learning and assessment assumptions; and to demonstrate consonance with the values, objectives and character of Unisa, as well as its Africa orientation, by July 2007. In line with the new programme and qualification mix, and with the intended paradigm shift, 100 priority modules revised or developed each year according to Unisas new tuition and ICLD models. All quality assurance systems related to teaching and learning in place and operational by January 2007. General Unisa Satisfaction Index (GUSI) aspiration of 100% in 2015 (Currently 76.86%) with a minimum threshold of 90%. Full-time student headcount enrolment of 235,000 by 2010 and 250,000 by 2015 (Currently 215,825 students) in the light of enrolment-capping. Growth will be pursued after vigorous advocacy of Unisas strategic positioning to cater for a larger proportion of the target pool. As a general rule no non-strategic undergraduate courses with less than 20 students enrolled per year by 2008. A threshold for viability of a programme will be set at 300 enrolments. The targets will be less in the Sciences and considerably more in the high volume programmes. Academic and academic professional staff-to-student ratio of 1:140 by 2015. (UNISA, n.d., pp. 1516)
UNISA strives hard and invests considerable time and energy (and publicly displays so) to implement its strategies in a manner almost commensurate with any business enterprise. In contrast, the second largest university in the world (i.e. IGNOU) that had contributed a considerable amount of scholarship, dialogue and articulation to develop its Vision and Mission (IGNOU, 2002) has never publicly presented, within and outside the institution, reference to the implementation of its 2002 document. In examining its positioning nationally and globally, it is worth quoting its realistic SWOT analysis, which further guides its strategic mission and twelve thrust areas, with the corresponding strategies to enable their achievement.
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Threats and Challenges to the System Attracting best talent and retaining them. Sustain quality education under resource constraints and pressure of large numbers. Continued efforts required to upgrade standards in the context of global competition. Increased focus on learner-centric learning, particularly for those from remote and rural areas. Developing mechanisms and capabilities to compete internationally to advance frontiers of knowledge to emerge as the leader of ODL system. Continuing professional development of faculty and staff, especially for technology-enabled education and training. Strengths of the System It is now well accepted that the ODL system has reached a stage where highly professional inputs are required for the design, development and delivery of education. The very effective intervention of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) has made it even more effective, technical and dynamic. Such a system can be handled only by experts. As a premier open and distance learning institution, IGNOU has developed in-house expertise to design, develop and deliver multi-media self-instructional materials. The other major strengths include Centre of Excellence for disseminating knowledge through the distance mode. Leadership in technology-enabled education. Internationally acclaimed quality instructional materials in diverse need-based areas. Extensive, efficient and functionally effective network for diversified student support and collaborative learning. National capability for delivery through educational TV channel Gyan Darshan and Gyan Vani the network of FM radio stations. Increased acceptance by national and international agencies. Phenomenal growth of students due to credibility and cost-effectiveness of the system. Internationally recognised training capabilities in diversified areas of education, HRD and extension. Weaknesses of the System Reliance on conventional communication links. Weak Wide Area Network with Regional Centres and Study Centres. Scope for better database management. Access not beyond district level. Insufficient component of interactive multiple-media in courseware. Lack of tracer studies on learners and quality research studies on the system. Inadequate mechanism for continuous professional development of faculty and staff due to phenomenal growth of the system. Lack of initiative to promote collaborative inter-university alliances/ consortium.
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Opportunities In the emerging scenario, the ODL is probably the only sustainable system for enhancing seamless access to education in the country. The University has continuously strived for improving the credibility and quality of the system. The opportunities stem from: Ever increasing demand for higher education and upgradation of life-coping skills. Need for continuous training of a huge workforce in the developing countries with large populations, projects and plans. Enhancing access to education to the employed (with low qualifications), dropouts, adults learners. Global alliances of ODL systems to provide and share rich learning experiences through collaborative educational programmes. Convergence between the open and conventional university systems (and other educational and training organisations) to enhance sustainable access. Scope for imparting education using emerging technologies. Focussing on disadvantaged groups and less developed regions. (IGNOU, 2002, pp. 46)
Accurate matching of its SWOT analysis with its ambitious and all embracing vision (noted earlier) reveals significant challenges with respect to implementation. Some scholars and leaders have expressed surprise as to how such a huge university, with about 1.5 million cumulative student enrolments from 32 countries, can manage its operation to the satisfaction of all (Panda, 2005). A detailed discussion of strategic planning in distance education, including SWOT, inputprocessoutput analysis, strategy design and implementation, and monitoring and evaluation with examples from three types of institutions home network, office college, and public university could provide a useful guide for this system (Kilfoil, 2003). Consideration of the approach to planning (such as top-down or bottom-up) is also crucial. In case of the Australian Universities, the Hoare report had noted that Some universities favour a top-down approach in planning, where the broad directions are set by the vice-chancellor and advisers, while others favour bottom-up where the corporate plan is the amalgamation of the faculty and other subsidiary plans (Anderson et al., 1999, p. 6). Both the approaches are equally applicable to distance education. While, for instance, the provision of learner support services across all the learning or study centres may be the responsibility of the top management, departments and faculties (and even individuals) must be encouraged to devise innovations, for instance, in course development models and the nature of self-learning materials. These decisions will of course vary across institutions. The application of strategic planning in distance education aligns with Watsons (2000) summation of higher education in the United Kingdom that is, there is a gap between
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490 Santosh Panda the promise of strategic planning (as theory) and the existing management strategies of higher education institutions (as practice). The reasons are varied and complex:
The paradox of competition versus collaboration. Marrying volatile and unpredictable external environment with the internal dynamics and trajectory of their own institution (p. 1) which leads to blandness and inclusiveness where there should be differentiation. It is therefore not surprising that mission statements result in list of imprioritised promises (broad, universal, and all-embracing statements that are difficult to focus and follow). Existence of cynicism, including the mission and the university itself: At the core of such cynicism is the issue of loyalty. Traditional academics do not regard themselves so much as working for a university as working in it (p. 3)
In such a context a very important aspect of success in institutional management has been the management of morale, to take action concerning low morale in organisations. In higher education, there is the lack of power of managers (individually and in teams) to act upon their instincts without considering (some would say calculating) how to carry along with them the other individuals and groups with whom they share direct responsibility for the quality and success of the enterprise (Watson, 2000, p. 5). Consideration of alternatives is therefore inevitable. Strategic planning in distance education tries not only to respond to the changing environment by repositioning the institution and by ensuring flexibility in the operational tasks and units of the institute, but also to capture and own the environment as its niche/specialism, and to continue to command the area for a long period of time. In the strategic planning process, various sub-units and tasks like curriculum design and development, media and technology choice and mix, instructional delivery, learner support, assessment and evaluation, certification, and so on are inter-linked to conform to the broad mission and vision. It is, however, argued that strategic planning models have limited applicability in distance education in so far as wider and effective involvement of its people (Panda, 2004) is concerned. Leadership holds the key for effective institutional planning and management in distance education.
24.4 LEADERSHIP AND GOVERNANCE

It is therefore important to consider what leadership roles and what patterns of governance exist and/or are intended to be achieved. Institutional strategies must be linked to detailed curriculum development and staff development (Cowan, 1978), and have clear implications for instructional transaction and learner support. The role of the leader both at the institutional and at the departmental/project level is crucial. Contributions in this area (Perry, 1976; Paul, 1990; Daniel, 1999; Bates, 2000; Evans and Nation, 2000; Latchem and Hanna, 2001; and Panda, 2003) are useful to both experienced and inexperienced practitioners. Of particular use and application for policy makers and planners are the strategic questions underlined by Robinson (2004, pp. 183186), including
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Strategic Planning and Distance Education 491 What forms of governance are in place? Is the policy for ODL adequate for its governance? Does the policy for ODL accommodate different forms of ODL and their governance? Are responsibilities of stakeholders and implementing agencies well defined? Are there mechanisms for reviewing and monitoring governance, and for accreditation? How is quality assurance mechanism used for governance? What relationships exist among self-regulation, external control, and globalisation? Is there transparency in governance, and is it oriented to protect the students? Crucial to institutional development is also the existing models of governance. For the OLI Dhanarajan wrote, Rather than compile each units individual plan into an institutional one we plan for the institution as a whole when departments have or are ascribed a role. It is neither a top-down nor bottom-up process (1993, p. 20). Effectiveness of any organizational productivity depends on effective leadership and good governance. Policy studies and R&D in this area for distance learning are the most neglected of all. In a recent study by Tsui and others (Tsui et al., 2000) on fifteen ODL institutions in the Asian region, it was pointed out that, except for a few institutions, the leadership style was commanding, and the administrative style was bureaucratic, managerial, and directive. Correspondingly, the institutional culture was perceived to be bureaucratic and of corporate culture. The authors suggest that institutions in the region need to shift to a new paradigm: Flexible and dynamic structure within the organization and its networks. Power shared by and empowerment of all. Valuing creative contribution of faculty and staff. Dynamic, intuitive, and expanding process of management. Inspiring and caring people to develop institutional ethics and commitment.
It has also been suggested that leadership in the four areas of budgeting, infrastructure, staffing, and policy revisions are essential in linking strategic planning to implementation of specific programmes (Berge and Schrum, 1998). This is certainly difficult to strategise and put in place the process of strategic planning. Pauls (1990) description of the adoption of a democratic process of consensus building resulting in disaster, and the subsequent corrective action concerning shifting decision from what to how, speaks a lot about the difficulties the top management encounter in institutional planning and implementation. Therefore, leadership is critical to both strategic and other planning approaches. Writes Paul (2003):
It is a serious mistake to castigate opponents of major change in our universities as dinosaurs or Luddites. Instead, the effective leader must encourage real debate on issues of change and capitalize on the positive energy that can be generated by an open and thorough consideration of alternatives. University faculty members are highly articulate and forceful in the presentation of their opinions and, while that doesnt make change any easier, at its best, it can ensure that every major step has been well thought through and really does have significant support in the institution. (p. 79)
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492 Santosh Panda It is also argued that Successful, forward-looking and democratic institutional heads have involved researchers and critics of the system in an advisory role so as to enhance institutional performance reflected through transparent research data, critical reflection and public opinion (Panda, 2004, p. 95). While a Fordist approach to quality control is neither possible nor desirable, a processoriented quality assurance mechanism can better facilitate individual and group reflection and reform. Given academic freedom and professional autonomy, especially with respect to the faculty/teachers, quality can be ensured through self-regulation, though external control/monitoring/audit/accreditation will reconfirm the self-regulation. Alternatively, a sense of institutional professional ethics can be imbued and will constantly evolve if we follow a holistic planning approach towards dialogue, discourse, and innovation and change.
24.5 CHANGING NATURE OF PLANNING

It seems we are obsessed with planning, and also use it to achieve a number of hidden aims other than to plan for the future. This is where strategies may fail planning is used to achieve something which is neither articulated nor intended clearly in the planning exercise and its documentary output. This relates to what Quinn (1980, quoted by Mintzberg, 1994b) remarked about corporate planning as a rain dance the people involved in it think that it will have an effect on the weather, whereas the planning results in improving dancing than affecting the weather. It has been contended that strategic planning succeeds in only ten per cent of cases (Rosenberg and Schewe, 1985), and therefore it is not surprising that it is at times considered a management fad (Birnbaum, 2000). Since doing is better than saying, one needs to implement to make management difference and facilitate change. Leaders therefore prefer using the term strategic management, which combines both effectively implementing a well-articulated strategic plan. In reality, strategic planning has often been critiqued on the basis of cases of its poor implementation. Mintzberg (1994b) emphatically notes the malady of lead boots and paperwork mills that generally guide an organisations strategic process papers and words alone do not lead to effective action. Further, in any organisation or system, things must change over time, which is not usually the case. Pacey (1992), in considering strategic planning for open learning, notes, It is natural not to question why the turkey tail is removed before roasting when generation after generation has followed that procedure. But the turkey tail was removed because of the limits set by the size of the oven. When ovens became larger there was no need to continue following past practice. When does an organisation begin to question its practices or recognise that the limitations that were once there have disappeared or could be removed? With the removal of these limitations, new opportunities become possible (p. 9). Has strategic planning in higher education failed? Dorris et al. (2002) write, After reviewing the literature and consulting with knowledgeable colleagues, we have concluded that a convincing, generalizable empirical study on the efficacy of strategic
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Strategic Planning and Distance Education 493 planning in higher education has yet to be published. There is, of course, no shortage of anecdotes from both sides of the aisle that is, from the proponents and the critics of strategic planning in academe (p. 9). Strategic planning often results in long-term planning and is designed as a linear process by the top management to be implemented mostly by the majority in the organisation. Bell (1998) appropriately remarks
It can be seen, therefore, that strategy is deployed in most contemporary organisations is based on power and social relationships derived from modes of activity which are rooted in conflict and competition as the prime determinants of social order. It is also based on inaccurate assumptions about organisational dynamics, the predictability of the environment and the capacity to know about that environment. The world is required to be an orderly, predictable place where the whole is equal to, but no greater than, the sum of its parts. Change comes through planning, usually by those at or near the top of the organisational hierarchy. This involves deploying strategy through the construction of a neat and linear alignment between ends and means for others in the organisation to implement. Thus, the paradigm from which those organisations are derived which was appropriate in its time, have now outgrown its usefulness, as has the concept of strategy which is associated with Newtonian organisations. (pp. 456457)
Wilkinson (2006), in a recent work, analyses the Virginia Techs evolution of its holistic approach to distance education from a three-dimensional model (academic, administrative, and support sub-systems), through a five-dimensional model (education, access, communication, technology, and satisfaction sub-systems) to the current six-dimensional model (learning effectiveness, student satisfaction, faculty satisfaction, access, cost effectiveness, and system effectiveness). Many universities, especially in the dual-mode and consortia sectors, do vie for such holistic models to increase satisfaction in their clients or stakeholders (a term which Wilkinson has used to represent students, faculty, instructional designers, service personnel, and institutional leaders). Most appropriately, strategic planning could address such a holistic approach to DE quality. What requires special attention is the way such quality parameters are defined. Wilkinson (2006) encapsulates the six dimensions in to two aspects of quality access, and system effectiveness. Consider the key quality indicators for access:
1. By 2012 at least 95% of academic departments are engaged in developing and/or delivering distance and distributed eLearning courses. 2. Distance and distributed eLearning enrolments increase by 10% annually. 3. Programs and courses provide for timely and appropriate interaction between students and faculty and among students. 4. Students have access to and can effectively use appropriate library resources, and have access to laboratories, facilities and equipment appropriate to the course or programs. 5. Students have adequate access to the range of services appropriate to support the programs, including admissions, financial aid, academic advising, delivery of course materials, and placement and counselling. (p. 3)
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494 Santosh Panda A close examination of the key quality indicators would suggest a very important learner requirement, that is access to the content and presentation of the learning resources and facilitation of learning, which is missing from the representation of quality in access. It is therefore not surprising that in many strategic planning initiatives such crucial essentials miss out to the mundane but strategically important elements based on environmental scanning and institutional niche . There has been an established trend in the higher education institutions in the strategic planning era to place greater stress on cost saving, institutional restructuring, and adoption of best practices (Kezar, 2000, quoted in Haughey, 2003). However, the practice of strategic planning towards a culture of best practices in lieu of research or R&D is a potentially dangerous trend, more suited to commercialisation than innovation. In the strategic planning exercise, there is considerable ICT reengineering, restructuring of work practices (e.g. outsourcing, privatization, partnership, and alliances), and transformation of the instructional system (e.g. knowledge management, best practices, and the like). It is contended that the approaches of outsourcing and best practice (in place of context-specific R&D and system-wide reflective work structure, including technology applications) are not going to help much in the long run because of their inadequacy and inefficiency to create and sustain a system-wide/systemic knowledge base and sustained capacity building. Further, for example, simple convergence of units, tasks, technologies, and systems is not working any more (nor even any incrementalism); project-based implementation is not getting into the whole institution; and it is not able to address the traditional faculty culture. Therefore, it is not enough to just have a strongly planned strategic niche setting objectives and gearing the institution to achieve them. It requires a holistic transformation of the institution. Distance education, and for that matter any educational system or learning environment, is constructivist in nature and is grounded in the context of ones own institutional and social culture. Therefore, adoption of best practices and outsourcing to partner or collaborator institutions is not going to produce desired institutional transformation. Planning and management of the DE system and its sub-systems in an institutional context need to be holistic (i.e., system-wide and comprehensive), and to be grounded in the R&D context of the institution and/or the system itself. Technology adoption and media deployment is a case at hand. Even if the latest full-scale digital technology is in place, the faculty and staff may not necessarily be predisposed towards it; and, therefore, may not integrate this into their work environment, work culture, and work ethics. What is therefore suggested is adoption of blended learning (and therefore blended media) strategies for institutional course design and media mix, and for addressing diversified learners learning styles; and
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Strategic Planning and Distance Education 495 an institution-wide holistic planning perspective and mechanism to which all the stakeholders, especially the faculty and staff, contribute through internal strength, diversity, debate, discussion, dialogue, and personal development. It is worth noting what Bell (1998) has argued in the case of holistic planning in the school system, in which there should be wider distribution of power to ensure multi-functional (rather than hierarchical) and holistic work relationships. Bell quotes two works by Handy and Aitken (1986) on right brain and left brain functioning, and by Tarule (1998) on problem-solving by women in management. The leftright brain perspective tells us that while the left brain activities are sequential, rational, logical, analytical, and time-oriented (and therefore strategic), the right brain activities are intuitive, creative, imaginative, and timeless (and may be holistic). The dominance of the left over the right needs to be reversed. One feminist perspective that can facilitate this is the discourse on problem-solving by women managers, accepting Tarules (1998) distinction between separate knowing (which is objective, exclusive, critical, away from personal relationships, and therefore Newtonian and strategic) and connected knowing (which is collaborative in which meanings are constructed through narratives within inclusive relationships and commonality of experiences, and therefore holistic). Such a holistic process brings in flexibility in inclusive policy formulation, and sharing in differentiated values and perspectives. Bell (1998) quotes Zohar (1997) to compare the two perspectives to symphony and jazz in a symphony orchestra, the players play individual scores to the script of the conductor and the whole is the sum of the individual scores; in jazz, individuals may be experts in many instruments and perform without any conductor or set score. There is an evolving background theme that organises the parts, but the composite sound is always a surprise (Zohar, 1997, p. 126). In the context and organisational set up of distance education, with multispecialism and teamwork, it is not easy to hold the flexible and diversified parts to the evolving (if at all) background theme and the unpredictable composite sound.
24.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS

Contextualising the process of planning and implementation by providing flexibility and opportunity to experiment with institutional work, including curriculum and course design, and even media mix and media integration, is presumed to work better than simply setting strategic objectives and efficiently mobilising resources to achieve them. Technology deployment is an issue in which every leader wants to engage and which every faculty is required to become involved. Writes Haughey, If academics view the move to transformation of the instructional system as the imposition of technology they are unlikely to support the venture (2003, p. 60). While such technology-enabled mass experimentations imposed from the top (unfortunately) continue to dominate institutional decision-making, it is extremely important for any leader to locate traditional established (may be best) practices which had been contexualised over a period of time, and encourage faculty and staff to initiate best alternatives and even supplementaries to address, for instance, student heterogeneity, massification, and quality processes, including student learning experiences. Instead of (or even besides) undertaking an accountability perspective (with quantitative performance indicators how many came in and
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496 Santosh Panda how many went out with what cost), it is essential to devise a managerial perspective (Panda, 1991) to seriously examine the quality of processes and build research and scholarship into its very foundation. What is therefore emerging is that institutions cannot escape strategic planning and thinking (even if it is inadequate) it is a basic requirement. They need to account for student registration, progression, graduation, attrition, and for cost efficiency. However, they must simultaneously go beyond to contextualise their planning for greater flexibility, quality, and long-term sustainability. This chapter does not intend to end with a passive note (especially for strategic enthusiasts) about transformation of universities as seats of scholarship. However, it is worth noting the recent excellent study on tracking strategies at McGill University by Mintzberg and Rose (2003, p. 289): universities exhibit a sensible kind of stability in a world of often senseless change. And so they may well be beacons for a more reasonable future for our organisations. Perhaps the proper response to all the hype about change and turnaround and turbulence is not more dramatic intervention but more respect for institution.
REFERENCES
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Evans, T. and Nation, D. (eds) (2000). Changing University Teaching: Reflections on Creating Educational Technologies. London: Kogan Page. Gumport, P. and Pusser, B. (1997). Restructuring the academic environment. In Planning and Management for a Changing Environment (M. Peterson, D. Dill, L. Mets and associates eds) San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 453478. Handy, C. and Aitken, R. (1986). Understanding Schools as Organisations. London: Pelican. Haughey, M. (2003). Planning for open and flexible learning. In Planning and Management in Distance Education (S. Panda ed.) London: Routledge, pp. 5362. IGNOU (2002). Vision and Mission of IGNOU. New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Open University. Keller, G. (1983). Academic Strategy: The Management Revolution in American Higher Education. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press. Kezar, A.J. (2000). Higher Education Trends (19971999). ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education. Kilfoil, W.R. (2003). Strategic Planning in Distance Education. Washington, D.C: Distance Education and Training Council. Latchem, C. and Hanna, D. (eds) (2001). Leadership for 21st Century Learning: Global Perspectives from Educational Innovators. London: Routledge. Loewen, J. (1999). The Power of Strategy. Johannesburg: Zebra. Lorenzo, A.L. (1993). Managing uncertainty: Thinking and planning strategically. New Directions for Community Colleges, 84, 4760. Mintzberg, H. (1994a). The fall and rise of strategic planning. Harvard Business Review, 72(1), 107114. Mintzberg, H. (1994b). The Rise and Fall of Strategic Planning: Reconceiving Roles for Planning, Plans, Planners. New York: Free Press. Mintzberg, H. and Rose, J. (2003). Strategic management upside down: Tracking strategies at McGill University from 1829 to 1980. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 20(4), 270290. Morrison, J.L., Renfro, W.L., and Boucher, W.I. (1984). Futures Research and the Strategic Planning Process: Implications for Higher Education. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Research Reports Report 9. Pacey, L. (1992). Strategic Planning and Open Learning: Turkey Tails and Frogs. Paper presented at the World Conference of the International Council for Distance Education, Bangkok. Panda, S. (1991). Programme evaluation in distance education: a perspective and proposed agenda of actions. In Educational Technology: Third Yearbook Vol. 1 (M. Mukhopadhyay et al. eds) New Delhi: All India Association for Educational Technology, pp.168181. Panda, S. (ed.) (2003). Planning and Management in Distance Education. London: Routledge. Panda, S. (2004). People: Staffing, development and management. In Policy for Open and Distance Learning (H. Perraton and H. Lentell eds) London: Routledge, pp. 7699. Panda, S. (2005). Distance education and national development: Reflections on the Indian experience. Distance Education, 26(2), 205225. Panda, S., Venkaiah, V., Garg, S., and Puranik, C. (2006). Tracing the historical developments in open and distance education. In Four Decades of Distance Education in India: reflections on policy and practice (S. Garg et al. eds) New Delhi: Viva Books. Paul, R. (1990). Open Learning and Open Management: Leadership and Integrity in Distance Education. London: Kogan Page.
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Paul, R. (2003). Institutional leadership and management of change. In Planning and Management of Distance Education (S. Panda ed.) London: Routledge, pp. 7585. Perry, W. (1976). Open University: A Personal Account of the First Vice Chancellor. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Quinn, J. (1980). Strategies for Change: Logical Incrementalism. Homewood, IL.: Irwin. Renfro, W.L. and Morrison, J.L. (1984). Detecting signals of change: the environmental scanning process. The Futurist, 18(4), 4956. Robinson, B. (2004). Governance, accreditation and quality assurance in open and distance education. In Policy for Open and Distance Learning (H. Perraton and H. Lentell eds) London: Routledge, pp. 181206. Rosenberg, L.J. and Schewe, C.D. (1985). Strategic planning: fulfilling the promise. Business Horizons, 28(4), 5462. Tarule, J. (1998). The Characteristics of Connected and Separate Modes of Knowing. Paper presented to the Joint UCET/AATCDE Seminar, London. Texas Tech University, (2006). Division of Outreach and Distance Education Strategic Plan. Lubbock, TX.: Texas Tech University. Tsui, C., Jegede, O., Zhang, W. et al. (2000). Leadership Styles and Institutional Cultures in a Changing World: A Survey of Open and Distance Learning Institutions in Asia. Paper presented at 14th Annual Conference of AAOU, Manila, October 2527. UNISA (n.d.) 2015 Strategic Plan: An Agenda for Transformation. Pretoria: University of South Africa. Watson, D. (2000). Managing Strategy. Buckingham: Open University Press. Whipp, R. (1998). Creative Deconstruction: Strategy and Organisations. Paper presented to the ESRC Seminar Series Redefining Educational Management, Cardiff. Wilkinson, T. (2006). The Holistic Quality Thread in Distance Education. Paper presented at the Annual Conference on Distance Teaching and Learning. University of Wisconsin, Wisconsin. Zohar, D. (1997). Rewriting the Corporate Brain. San Francisco: Berrett-Kochler.
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Chapter No: 24 Query No AU1 AU2 AU3 AU4 AU5 Contents Please check if the change made is OK. Please check if the change made is OK. Please Teknikon has been changed to Technikon. Is this OK? Please Sense not clear. Please clarify. Please provide the page range for the author referenceBerge, Z.L. and Schrum, L. (1998).

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Chapter 24 Strategic Planning and Distance Education

24.2 STRATEGIC PLANNING

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Figure 24.1: The Process of Strategic Planning

Figure 24.2: SWOT Analysis

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Figure 24.3: Input-ProcessOutput Linkage

Table 24.1: Strategic Planning and Strategic Thinking

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24.3 STRATEGIC PLANNING IN DISTANCE EDUCATION

National educational planning

Figure 24.4: Distance Education Policy, Models of Delivery and Accreditation

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24.4 LEADERSHIP AND GOVERNANCE

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24.5 CHANGING NATURE OF PLANNING

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24.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS

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