IPTPrelim

H e i n e m a n n
Information Processes and Technology
1234567890-1234567890-1234567890QWERTYUYIOPQWERTYUYIOPQWERTYUYIOP ASDFGHJKL:ASDFGHJKL:ASDFGHJKL: Z X C V B N M < > ? Z X C V B N M < > ? Z X C VPRELIMINARY COURSE BNM<>? !@ $%^&*()_)_+!@ $%^&*()_)_+ 1234567890-1234567890-1234567890QWERTYUYIOPQWERTYUYIOPQWERTYUYIOP ASDFGHJKL:ASDFGHJKL:ASDFGHJKL: ZXCVBNM<>?ZXCVBNM<>?ZXCVBNM<>? !@ $%^&*()_)_+!@ $%^&*()_)_+
G. K. Powers
Heinemann
1234567890-1234567890-1234567890QWERTYUYIOPQWERTYUYIOPQWERTYUYIOP ASDFGHJKL:ASDFGHJKL:ASDFGHJKL: ZXCVBNM<>?ZXCVBNM<>?ZXCVBNM<>? !@ $%^&*()_)_+!@ $%^&*()_)_+ 1234567890-1234567890-12345678 QWERTYUYIOPQWERTYUYIOPQWERTYUYIO PRELIMINARY COURSE ASDFGHJKL:ASDFGHJKL:ASDFGHJ ZXCVBNM<>?ZXCVBNM<>?ZXCVBNM !@ $%^&*()_)_+!@ $%^&*()_ 1234567890-1234567890-12345678 QWERTYUYIOPQWERTYUYIOPQWERTYUYIO ASDFGHJKL:ASDFGHJKL:ASDFGHJ ZXCVBNM<>?ZXCVBNM<>?ZXCVBNM !@ $%^&*()_)_+!@ $%^&*()_
Information Processes and Technology
G. K. Powers
Heinemann A division of Reed International Books Australia Pty Ltd 22 Salmon Street, Port Melbourne, Victoria 3207 World Wide Web hi.com.au Email info@hi.com.au Offices in Sydney, Brisbane, Adelaide and Perth. Associated companies, branches and representatives throughout the world. Gregory Powers 2000 First published 2000 2003 2002 2001 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 Copying for educational purposes The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10% of this book, whichever is the greater, to be copied by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that that educational institution (or the body that administers it) has given a remuneration notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL) under the Act. For details of the CAL licence for educational institutions contact CAL, Level 19, 157 Liverpool Street, Sydney, NSW, 2000, tel (02) 9394 7600, fax (02) 9394 7601, email info@copyright.com.au. Copying for other purposes Except as permitted under the Act, for example any fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review, no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission. All enquiries should be made to the publisher at the address above. Publisher: Rosie Adams Editor: Stephen Dobney Designer: Gerry Theoharis Design development: Giulia De Vincentis Cover designer: Peggy Bampton Illustrations: Peter Green Photograph researcher: Janet Pheasant Typeset in 10.5/12.5 Berling by Idczak Enterprises Film supplied by Type Scan, Adelaide Printed in Hong Kong by H & Y Printing Limited National Library of Australia cataloguing-in-publication data: Powers, G.K. (Gregory K.). Heinemann information processes and technology: preliminary course. Includes index. ISBN 0 86462 501 4. 1. Information storage and retrieval systems. 2. Electronic data processing. 3. Information technology. I. Title 004 Disclaimer All the Internet addresses (URLs) given in this book were valid at the time of printing. However, due to the dynamic nature of the Internet, some addresses may have changed, or sites may have ceased to exist since publication. While the authors and publisher regret any inconvenience this may cause readers, no responsibility for any such changes can be accepted by either the authors or the publisher. The names, addresses and telephone numbers included in screen captures and sample data in this book are fictitious and are intended for demonstration purposes only. Any connection to real people or their contact details is coincidental.
Contents
To the teacher Heinemann Information Processes and Technology and the Preliminary Course Outcomes v vi
Part 1
Information processes and technology

Introduction to information skills and systems 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Information systems in context 1.3 Information processes 1.4 The nature of data and information 1.5 Digital representation of data 1.6 Social and ethical issues Chapter review Tools for information processes 2.1 Collecting 2.2 Organising 2.3 Analysing 2.4 Storing and retrieving 2.5 Processing 2.6 Transmitting and receiving 2.7 Displaying Chapter review Planning, design and implementation 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Understanding the problem 3.3 Making decisions 3.4 Designing solutions 3.5 Implementing 3.6 Testing, evaluating and maintaining 3.7 Social and ethical issues Chapter review Personal and group systems and projects
1
2 3 6 12 19 23 30 35 37 38 48 52 55 62 70 79 87 89 90 91 96 100 106 109 113 119 121 122 124 126 128 131
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
4.1 4.2 4.3
Guidelines to projects Personal information systems Personal projects Group information systems Group projects
Part 2
Application software
Word processing 5.1 Basic features 5.2 Editing text 5.3 Formatting text 5.4 Additional tools Chapter review Databases 6.1 Basic features 6.2 Modifying a database 6.3 Finding information 6.4 Reporting Chapter review Spreadsheets 7.1 Basic features 7.2 Formulas 7.3 Formatting a spreadsheet 7.4 Charts Chapter review Graphics 8.1 Basic features 8.2 Modifying a graphic 8.3 Bit-mapped graphics 8.4 Vector graphics Chapter review Desktop publishing 9.1 Basic features 9.2 Design elements 9.3 Page layout 9.4 Printing a publication Chapter review Multimedia 10.1 Basic features 10.2 Presentation software 10.3 Types of media 10.4 Multimedia design Chapter review
133
134 135 139 145 152 159 161 162 168 172 177 181 183 184 190 197 202 207 209 210 215 219 223 227 229 230 235 243 248 253 255 256 261 265 269 273 275 276 280 285 289 294 296 302 310 311
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
The Internet 11.1 Basic features 11.2 Web browsers 11.3 Electronic mail 11.4 Internet publishing Chapter review Appendix: ASCII and EBCDIC codes Glossary Acknowledgments Index
Function
To the teacher
This book has been written as a textbook for the New South Wales Information Processes and Technology Preliminary Course. The aim of this course is to enable students to become confident, competent, discriminating and ethical users of information technologies and information processes. This book addresses this aim and provides an excellent understanding of all aspects of information technology. There is no prerequisite study for this course. Students undertaking this course will differ substantially in their knowledge, understanding and skills in relation to information technology. This book has been written to cater for students with a wide range of abilities. It is appropriate for students with a basic knowledge of information technology and those with an extensive knowledge.
Organisation of the text

The book closely follows the syllabus and the software/course specifications. It is divided into two parts: Part 1 focuses on the content of the syllabus. Topics include introduction to information skills and systems; tools for information processes; planning, design and implementation; and personal and group systems and projects. Part 2 focuses on the content of the software specifications. Topics include word processing, databases, spreadsheets, graphics, desktop publishing, multimedia and the Internet. Information processes are integrated throughout each topic to provide a link with the syllabus.
Teaching approach
Teachers can decide on the sequencing of the content depending on the ability and knowledge of their students. This book caters for a range of approaches. Application approach: The application chapters (Part 2) are taught separately and integrated throughout the teaching program. All activities within the application chapters refer to information processes. All applications are taught before students complete their projects. Information process approach: The application chapters are taught within the topic Tools for Information Processes. Activities from appropriate application chapters are taught within the context of the seven information processes. Side headings (see opposite) included in the application chapters provide cross-references to the information processes. Project approach: The content of the course is taught through a series of projects. Students apply their knowledge of information processing to complete their projects using the application chapters. Additional resources to support and extend this book are available at the Heinemann World Wide Web site hi.com.au. These include a sample teaching program, assessment advice, answers to exercises from the textbook and additional literacy questions.
collecting
Heinemann Information Processes and Technology and the Preliminary Course Outcomes
The following grid shows how the chapters in Heinemann Information Processes and Technology: Preliminary Course link with the Preliminary Course Outcomes. Numbers in bold indicate chapters in which that Outcome is emphasised Part 1 (chapters 1 to 4) focuses on information skills and systems; tools for information processes; planning, design and implementation; and personal and group systems and projects. Part 2 (chapters 5 to 11) focuses on application software, including word processing, databases, spreadsheets, graphics, desktop publishing, multimedia and the Internet. In addition to the links shown below, each of the chapters in Part 2 includes links to the information processes described in Part 1.
Preliminary Course Outcomes Chapter(s)

P1.1 Describes the nature of information processes and information technology Classifies the functions and operations of information processes and information technology Identifies the information processes within an information system Recognises the interdependence between each of the information processes Identifies social and ethical issues Describes the historical development of information systems and relates these to current and emerging technologies Selects and ethically uses computer based and non-computer based resources and tools to process information Analyses and describes an identified need Generates ideas, considers alternatives and develops solutions for a defined need Recognises and applies management and communication techniques to project work Uses technology to support group work
1, 2, 3, 4
P1.2
1, 2, 3, 4 1, 2, 3, 4 1, 2, 3, 4 1, 2, 3, 4
P2.1
P2.2
P3.1 P4.1
1, 2, 3
P5.1
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
P6.1 P6.2
Functio
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
P7.1
2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
P7.2
vi
Part 1
Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter 1 2 3 4 Introduction to information skills and systems Tools for information processes Planning, design and implementation Personal and group systems and projects
chapter
INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION SKILLS AND SYSTEMS
Outcomes
After completing this chapter you should be able to: explain the impact of information technology represent an information system diagrammatically identify the environment of an information system describe the purpose and context of information systems describe the participants, data/information and information technology of an information system describe the seven information processes describe the nature of data and information outline the advantages and disadvantages of digital data identify the social and ethical issues of data security, data accuracy and copyright.
Overview
This chapter describes the impact of information technology. You will learn that an information system requires participants, data/information and information technology to complete the seven information processes. This chapter describes the nature of data and information, and how it is represented digitally. It concludes by examining the issues of data security, data accuracy and copyright that arise from the processing of information.
Function
1.1 Introduction
Information is a vital part of our society. Every day we receive information from people, newspapers, books, magazines, television, radio, video, computers and the Internet. Todays society is called the Information Age because we deal with many times more information than at any other time in history. The amount of information is growing exponentially, with no prospect of it slowing down. Many people believe that information is more important than natural resources as a source of social and economic power. If people are going to I realise this is the information age, but do we really need a survive in this society, they need to have fax machine in every stall? access to this information and know how to use it intelligently. In the past few centuries, great advances have been made in our ability to process information. Some of the major developments have been the printing press, photography, telephones, computers and the Internet. Per capita, Australia has among the highest levels of ownership of computers and mobile phones, and use of the Internet. Australians have been quick to adopt the latest developments in technology, partly because of our geographical location. Technology has cut down the time taken to transfer information. It makes it easier for Australians to communicate with the rest of the world and across large distances within Australia.
Information technology
Information technology (IT, pronounced eye-tea) refers to the electronic hardware and software used to process information. Electronic computers, which have been developed in the second half of the twentieth century, are a major component of information technology. Their evolution is linked to advances in integrated circuits and digital communication. Integrated circuits are silicon chips containing transistors that can store and process data. The first integrated circuit was built in 1958 and only contained a few thousand transistors. Since then, the capacity of integrated circuits has been doubling every couple of years. Todays integrated circuits contain tens of millions of transistors. These advances in technology have resulted in computers with greater speed and power. Personal computers have become available at a cost that is affordable for many people. They are much easier to use than early computers and do not require specialist computer training. At the same time, developments in digital communication have increased our ability to transfer data. Local area networks (LANs) allow computers to communicate information and share resources. Global communication is routinely achieved using the Internet.
Impact of information technology

Information technology is having a fundamental impact on our society. There can be little doubt that it has made our society more efficient and raised the
Introduction to information skills and systems
Functio
4
standard of living of most people. Organisations have used information technology to save time, reduce effort, increase output, develop new products and ultimately save money. Some of these changes are described below. Banking has changed drastically with the use of plastic cards, automatic teller machines (ATMs) and electronic funds transfer at point-of-sale (EFTPOS). Internet banking and bill paying are further transforming the way we use money. Businesses have adopted a range of software applications such as word processors, spreadsheets and databases to become more efficient. Employees are expected to be proficient with these software tools. The printing and publishing industries have become computerised, using word processing and desktop publishing software. This has revolutionised the way documents are published. The use of information technology has become widespread in the education sector. Teachers and students have access to a range of software to improve learning, and current information from the Internet. Governments now store and analyse huge amounts of information using information technology. This allows them to provide better services to the community and plan for the future. Voice mail, facsimile, mobile phones, pagers, email and video-conferencing are widely used to aid communication, and information is accessed from the Internet. Scientists use information technology to automatically collect experimental data and investigate possible solutions to environmental problems. Many shops use point-of-sale (POS) systems to process transactions efficiently. A barcode reader is used to enter data; the product description and price is displayed on the cash register and receipt; and the system maintains an inventory of the stock. Designers use computer-aided design (CAD) software to produce drawings of products. This allows them to visualise the product in many different ways. Electrical engineers use sophisticated programs to design circuits for appliances and for integrated circuits. It not only helps them draw the circuits but also calculates the currents and voltages at key points. Pilots use flight control systems to guide aircraft to their destination. Sensors are used to monitor the aircrafts position, speed and other information needed by the pilot. Managers depend on information technology to provide data about purchasing materials, stock inventory, sales, payroll, orders and budgets. Doctors use expert systems to help diagnose a patients illness and recommend a possible treatment. Robotic devices are used in surgery and three-dimensional computer images show the position of tumours Figure 1.1 Information technology is used by meteorologists to in the body. monitor the weather and make forecasts.
Function
Farmers use stock management systems to keep detailed records of animals. They may make use of portable computers to collect data in the field. Travel agents use specialised software to check the availability of flights and accommodation and make travel bookings. When new information technology is introduced, the impact is not always positive. There may be advantages for some people and disadvantages for others. For example, ATMs are a convenient technology for many people, Figure 1.2 Information technology does not necessarily benefit all groups equally. but some groups such as the elderly may have difficulty using them (see Figure 1.2). Some people do not enjoy using the technology and prefer a more personal service. In other cases, a benefit to an organisation can be a disadvantage for the individual. For example, if new information technology increases productivity it can lead to staff redundancies. The introduction of information technology has forced many people to learn new skills. Individuals need access to information and for this they may need to be proficient in using information technologies. If they do not have access to information, or are unable to use the technology, they will be disadvantaged. With the increased use of information technology, a range of ethical issues have emerged which affect people who are directly or indirectly involved with the technology. These issues include: the privacy of the individual the security and accuracy of data and information the changing nature of work the appropriate use of information copyright laws health and safety concerns. The social impact of these issues is discussed throughout Part 1 of this book.
Exercise 1.1
1 Why have Australians been quick to adopt the latest developments in technology? 2 What is information technology? 3 How has digital communication improved the transfer of data? 4 What has been the impact of information technology on organisations? 5 Describe the recent changes in banking that have resulted from information technology. 6 How do pilots use information technology?
7 How can information technology benefit an organisation but be a disadvantage for an individual? 8 List some of the ethical issues that have been raised by the introduction of information technology. LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Describe three activities that were not possible 20 years ago, but are now possible as a result of information technology. Select the three activities that you regard as the most significant. 2 What impact has information technology had on education since you have been at school? Describe the positive and negative effects on students and teachers. 3 Interview three people who use information technology in their jobs. What has been the impact of information technology on them? Outline both the positive and the negative effects of information technology. 4 During this term, collect newspaper articles on the impact of information technology and any issues raised by the use of information technology. Use the articles to outline some of the positive and negative effects of information technology on our society. 5 Information technology has brought nothing but problems. It has increased unemployment, forced people to learn new skills and invaded our privacy. Form groups and debate this statement.
1.2 Information systems in context

A system is a group of elements that work together to achieve a purpose. The education system is one example. It is made up of students, teachers, schools, resources and processes. The education systems purpose is to provide students with the basic skills and knowledge necessary to take part in society. Systems can be large, such as the legal system, or small, such as the system you use to brush your teeth. A systems may be designed by people, such as the banking system, or occur in nature, such as the water cycle. In this course we are concerned with information systems. An information system performs a set of information processes requiring participants, data/information and information technology. It performs the information processes of collecting, organising, analysing, storing/retrieving, processing, transmitting/receiving and displaying information. Information systems are created for a purpose and operate in a particular environment. The relationships between the elements of an information system are shown in Figure 1.3. The links between the elements are represented using two-headed arrows. This emphasises that the elements influence each othera change in one can affect the others. For example, the availability of new technology could change the information processes, which in turn might affect the type of skills required by the participants.
Functio
6
Function
Purpose
Information systems have a purpose, Environment which means they address the needs of a group or an individual. The systems Purpose purpose is the reason for its existence and Who is it for? it is used to measure its success. Infor Need(s) they have mation systems are created to solve a problem and provide benefits to an organisation or individual. There are Information many different reasons for existence of an system information system. Individuals may require an informaInformation processes tion system whose purpose is: to keep track of income and expenses to publish a weekly newsletter for a Data/ Information Participants Information technology local athletics club to design a multimedia presentation for the next staff meeting Figure 1.3 A diagrammatic representation of an to communicate with other people on information system. the Internet. Organisations may require an information system whose purpose is: to provide stock inventory, sales, payroll, share market, commodity prices or interest rates information to assist decision-making by summarising and comparing data to share data and information between individuals and offices in different locations to store and organise information on consumer trends, competition products or labour costs.
Environment
The environment is everything that influences or is influenced by an information system and its purpose. It includes any factors that affect the system or are affected by it. For example, the environment of the local library is not only the building, but also factors outside the building, such as its location, electrical power, air-conditioning, communications, and funding from the government. The environment of a system is constantly changing. Managers of large information systems need to be aware of new factors that are affecting the system. One of the main reasons for the environment to change is the progress in information technology. Twenty years ago, organisations were largely restricted by geographical boundaries. Today, the environment of many organisations is the world. The Internet has provided a global marketplace for goods and services. Organisations can transfer information around the world and move finance easily between countries. Information technology continues to change at an extraordinary rate and will continue to affect the environment of information systems.
Information technology is the set of tools used by an information system or its participants to perform workit is the hardware and software used by information systems. It is important to understand that information technology has no effect unless it is used within an information process. To be effective, the information technology must be able to support the information process.
Hardware
Hardware is the physical equipment involved in processing information, such as a computer, network cables and data storage devices. It refers to objects that you can see and hold. Computers often form the basic hardware of an information system. Computers are electronic devices that can process data according to stored sequences of instructions. They have five basic functions: input, processing, storage, control and output. Input involves entering data into the computer. A device designed to assist the entry of data is called an input device. Input devices include the keyboard, mouse, scanner, digital camera, video camera and microphone. Processing changes data to produce information by following a series of instructions. Processing is performed by the computers central processing unit (CPU). The CPU is the brain of the computer. It takes the data from an input device, changes it to produce information and sends it to an output device to be displayed to the user. Storage involves retaining data over a period of time. Before, during and after processing, data and programs are held temporarily in memory. To retain data more permanently, storage devices such as magnetic disks, magnetic tape, optical disks and flash memory are used. Control coordinates the operations of input, processing, output and storage. The control unit is part of the CPU. The control unit is the organiser that
INPUT PROCESSING CONTROL OUTPUT
Functio
ST ORAGE
OUTPUT
Figure 1.4 The basic functions of a computer.
Function
9
directs the flow of data in the computer in the same way as traffic lights control the flow of cars at an intersection. Output involves the presentation or display of information to a person, or the transfer of data to another computer. Common output devices are the computer screen and the printer. The information presented is the result of a participants work on the computer. All the functions of computer hardware work together. Data is entered using an input device and is processed in some way before being presented using an output device. The computers power comes from its ability to perform these functions with speed, accuracy and reliability. The concepts of input, process, storage, control and output are used in a huge range of computers. They are often classified according to their power and capabilities as: personal computers, midrange computers, mainframes and supercomputers. A personal computer (PC, also known as a microcomputer) is a single-user computer that generally sits on a desktop. Portable computers such as laptops, notebooks and palmtops are also classified as personal computers. PCs are suitable for individuals needs, such as word processing, spreadsheets and graphics. In organisations, they can be joined together to form a network. A midrange computer or minicomputer is a central computer that performs the processing for a number of users working at terminals. A terminal is an input/output device (usually a keyboard and screen). Midrange computers are typically used for accounting, database management and specific industry applications. A mainframe computer is a central computer for a large number of users. It is more powerful than a midrange computer and often has thousands of terminals connected to it. Mainframe applications include payroll computations, accounting and airline seat reservations. A supercomputer is the fastest, most powerful and expensive type of computer (see Figure 1.5). Supercomputers are designed for applications requiring high-volume and high-speed calculations, such as simulations of the weather and aerodynamics design. Advances in technology have blurred the differences between these types of computers. Todays PCs use similar microprocessors to both mainframes and midrange computers. However, using PCs for a mainframe-type application requires the PCs to be linked in a network. While midrange and mainframe computers are designed to accept input from multiple users simultaneously, PCs do not support this type of application.
Figure 1.5 A supercomputer.
ITTFact t I Fac
The name Big Blue refers to IBM (International Business Machines Corporation), whose identifying colour is blue. Deep Blue is IBMs supercomputer that became known as the chess machine after winning against world champion chess player Garry Kasparov.
Software
Software is the detailed instructions (computer programs) used to direct the hardware to perform a particular task. A computer needs software to tell it what to do and it needs hardware to carry out the actual work. There are two main types of software: application software and system software. Application software is a computer program used for a specific task. It allows the computer to achieve the task for which it was designed. Application software includes word processors, databases, graphics programs and spreadsheets. System software manages and controls the hardware so the application software can perform the required task. It determines the way the participant interacts with the information system. System software includes operating systems and utility software.
Data and information

Data is the raw material entered into an information system. This raw material could be in the form of images, audio, video, text or numbers, and is entered using an input device. Data may or may not be relevant or useful for a particular task. A key role for an information system is to process data into information. (Although the word data is the plural of datum, it is widely used as both a singular and a plural.) Information is data that has been ordered and given some meaning by people. It is created or modified by the information processes. The form and content of information must be appropriate for a particular use. It is used within the information system or is the result of the information system. (Data and information are discussed in more detail in section 1.4.)
Participants
Participants are the people who carry out the information processes within the information system. They are the people who do the work. Participants need to know what to do, how to do it and when to do it. All information systems have participantseven the most automated systems rely on people if the system fails. Participants have an essential role in an information system, and the success or failure of the system depends on their skills, interests and commitment. Participants are often referred to as direct users, or simply users. They interact with, or are in control of, the information technology (see Figure 1.6). For example, when you use a word processor to write a letter, you are a participant in an information system. Participants have different levels of skills, from the novice experimenting with software to system specialists. System specialists include people such as managers and operators. Managers oversee the information system and ensure that personnel and machines are working efficiently.
Functio
10
Function
Figure 1.6 Participants interact with, or are in control of, information technology.
Operators look after the information technology resources. In addition to participants (direct users), there are also indirect users. Indirect users, such as customers, are not part of the system, but it is their needs that form part of the purpose of the system. Although information systems affect participants, the systems are often designed with little regard for them. The nature of the impact depends on the individual characteristics of the participant. People come from different backgrounds and have different levels of expertise. Some participants may be able to work in a very structured environment and complete repetitive tasks, while other people will find this unsatisfactory. For example, the introduction of new technology may provide a more challenging job and an opportunity to learn new skills. On the other hand, it might deskill a participants job and make it boring.
Exercise 1.2
1 What is an information system? 2 Describe the purpose of an information system. 3 Outline one reason for the environment of an information system to change. 4 List the five functions of hardware. 5 What function is performed by the CPU? 6 What part of the computer coordinates the operations of input, processing, output and storage? 7 Describe four different types of computers. 8 How is system software different from application software?
11
LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Which element of an information system does each of the following represent? a product sales for the week b the operating system c a manager d a manager producing the sales figures e the keyboard and mouse f an annual report. 2 A personal computer will work for many years if participants are careful and perform basic maintenance. Outline some rules for the care and maintenance of a computer. 3 Write a checklist that a person could use to ensure that they were correctly setting up a personal computer. 4 Describe the information technology available on todays personal computers. Obtain five advertisements for personal computers. Select the best value for money and give reasons for your selection. 5 A personal computer can do wonderful things, but at times they cause problems. Fortunately many of these problems are simple operating faults that can be easily overcome. List some possible reasons for the following faults. a b c d No display on the screen. Software will not start or crashes. Unable to save work. Computer not working.
6 The first electronic computer, called ENIAC (for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), was developed in 1946 by John Presper Eckert and John William Mauchly. Even though the capabilities of todays personal computers are many times greater than ENIACs, they have the same five basic functions: input, processing, control, storage and output. Do you think the basic functions of a computer will remain for another 50 years? Why? What will computers be like in the future?
1.3 Information processes
Functio
12
Fifty years ago, sorting, finding and comparing information was all done manually. It was often a lengthy and expensive process. Data was usually represented on paper and stored in filing cabinets. Even deciding where to put the paper could be a problem. Sorting and searching huge amounts of paper was labour-intensive (see Figure 1.7). Information could not be easily transferred from one form to another. Reports were created by copying the information into a different form rather than transferring the data. Developments in technology have been responsible for major changes in information processing. Today, information processing refers to the creation of information by processing data using information technology. This changing of data into information involves seven steps called information processes. These processes describe the procedures that an information system performs to process data into information. The information processes start with the
Function
collection of data and conclude with the displaying of data. The steps are not necessarily separate and sequential. Several steps may occur at the same time, and they may occur in almost any order. The rate at which these information processes are carried out is critical to the efficiency of an information system.
Collecting
Collecting is the information process that involves deciding what to collect, locating it and collecting it. It involves more than simply entering data. Collecting involves four steps: defining the required datadeciding what data is needed Figure 1.7 Fifty years ago, sorting, finding and comparing identifying the source of the datawhere information were all done manually. the data can be found determining how the data will be gatheredwhat tools will be required gathering the datacollecting and entering the data into the information system. Data can come from either primary or secondary sources. Primary sources refers to data that is collected first-hand. Many organisations prefer to generate their own primary data because they consider it meaningful and reliable, although it is time-consuming and costly. Data from primary sources is acquired by interviewing people, conducting surveys and questionnaires, or observing a system in operation (see Figure 1.8). Secondary sources refers to data that is collected or created by someone else. For example, newspapers, books, other print media, electronic databases, CD-ROMs and the Internet are secondary sources. This is often the quickest and least costly method of collecting data. Data is entered into an information system either manually or electronically. Manual entry involves typing the data using a keyboard. Electronic entry involves entering the data using input devices such as scanners, digital cameras, microphones or sensors. It is important that procedures are in place to ensure the data is accurate, up-todate, relevant and secure. If the data collected comes from unreliable sources or is inaccurate, the information gained from it will be incorrect. This is referred to as garbage in, garbage out (GIGO).
Figure 1.8 Surveys are a primary source of data.
13
Organising
Organising is the process that arranges, represents and formats data for use by other information processes. It is carried out after the data is collected. The organisation of data depends on the purpose of the information system. For example, if the information system is used to store and search a large amount of data, the data needs to be categorised. This will allow it to be stored in a database. Organising gives some structure to the data. When developing an information system it is essential to determine the format in which the data will be represented. The format of the data determines the most appropriate software application and the processing that can be carried out. For example, if a text document is scanned and represented as an image, the text cannot then be processed using a word processor. If data is poorly organised, it may result in the use of inappropriate applications or the processing of unnecessary data.
Analysing
Analysing is the process that interprets data, transforming it into information. It involves examining data and giving meaning to it. When data has been ordered and given some meaning by people, it is called information. The particular type of analysis depends on the format of the data and the information that is required. For example, to obtain a report on all the sales in the past month would involve searching, selecting and sorting data. Charts and graphs are often used in the analysis of data. They make it easy to interpret data by making instant comparisons and revealing trends. Charts help people to make quick and accurate decisions. Analysing data may involve the use of a model to represent some aspect of the real world. When a model is used to simulate a real situation, people can make predictions and examine the effect of their decisions. For example, an organisation might want to know the likely impact on sales if their advertising budget was increased by 10 per cent. In business there are many simulation programs that help organisations make decisions about marketing and sales.
Storing and retrieving

Storing and retrieving is a two-step process for retaining data: storing saves data for later use; retrieving obtains data that has been previously saved. These processes are important, since most information systems need to retain data for further processing and to guard against data loss. Before, during and after processing, data and programs are held temporarily in memory. To retain data more permanently, storage devices such as magnetic disks, magnetic tape, optical disks and flash memory are used. The loss of data is a major concern in any information system. The costs of replacing data that changes rapidly can be enormous. If a system crashes, the data is retrieved from a secondary storage medium. If data is saved regularly, then the information system can be rebuilt without a problem. However, if the secondary storage medium is corrupted or damaged, the data may be lost. This could occur if the information system was infected with a computer virus. A backup is then needed to rebuild the system. A backup is a copy of data or software kept for the purpose of safety. It is usually kept in a fireproof safe or offsite. Secure and reliable backup procedures are vital to guard against data loss.
Functio
14
Function
ITTFact t I Fac
Computerphobia is a term used to describe fear and anxiety associated with computer equipment and technology. It is also referred to as technophobia or cyberphobia.
Processing
Processing is the manipulation of data and information. It occurs whenever the data or information is modified and updated. Processing is carried out by the central processing unit (CPU). The CPU accepts data from an input device, changes this data according to the instructions given by the user, and then sends the results to an output device (see Figure 1.9). These results are the information the user requires to solve the problem. A processor consists of millions of electrical components located on a thin silicon wafer called an integrated circuit or silicon chip. The speed of a processor is measured in megahertz (mHz) and is called its clock speed. Fast processors can manipulate larger quantities of data. In some information systems, the processing is carried out by more than one processor. This is called parallel processing and is much faster than using one processor. Parallel processing divides the processing task among a series of processors. This requires special software that can recognise how to divide up problems and bring the results back together again.
Figure 1.9 A PC with input and output devices.
Transmitting and receiving

Transmitting and receiving is the transfer of data within and between information systems. Data is transferred between computers and devices in two ways: serial transmission and parallel transmission. Parallel transmission is the transmission of pieces of data simultaneously using separate lines. Serial transmission is the transmission of pieces of data one after the other. Serial transmission is used with many peripheral devices, such as mice, keyboards, modems and plotters. Parallel transmission is used for most printers. For data and information to be exchanged between information systems, compatible communication settings are required. This is referred to as handshaking. Communication settings include baud rate, parity and file transfer protocol. The Internet is a tool used by millions of people to transmit and receive information. Email is used to send data and information from one side of the world to the other in a matter of seconds.
15
Displaying
Displaying is the presentation of information from an information system. Information must be well organised, attractively presented and easy to read and understand. Before information can be displayed, it is necessary to decide on the form the information will take. For example, will it be a text document, a report from a database, a chart from a spreadsheet or a multimedia presentation? Information is displayed using different peripheral devices, including: screensused to display text, numerals, images and video (see Figure 1.10) printersused to display text, numerals and images speakers and synthesisersused to display audio plottersused to display images.
Figure 1.10 A screen used to display a chart from a spreadsheet.
Case study
Woolworths
uses the universal product code so that items are consistent on a global scale. It identifies the country of origin, the manufacturer and the product. The participants of the information system are the staff working at the store and personnel who work outside the store on the central computer.
Functio
Woolworths supermarket is a large retail store whose purpose is to sell food and other domestic products. The environment is not only the store itself, but also factors such as location, electrical power, air-conditioning, communications, suppliers, competitors and customers. The environment of the supermarket is constantly changing and includes factors such as the marketing strategies of competitors, current interest rates and commodity prices. The supermarket uses the POS system and has EFTPOS available to its customers (see Figure 1.11). The information technology used by the supermarket involves the use of electronic cash registers linked to a central computer. Each checkout contains a barcode reader (scanner) and POS terminal (cash register). The POS system is controlled by custom software purchased by the company. The barcode is data entered into the information system. All the items have a barcode determined by the Australian Product Number Association (APNA). The APNA
Figure 1.11 The POS system in use at a supermarket.
16
Function
The staff at the supermarket Purpose are continually carrying out to sell food and other domestic products information processes. The barcode on each item is passed over the scanner at the checkout. The product description Information processes and the price appear on the update product inventory scan product checkout display panel and the display product information search database customers receipt. The price of the item is stored by the central computer and is not part of the Participants Data/ Information data contained in the barcode. Information technology The manager of the super store staff barcode electric cash registers market determines the price of computing product details central computer each item. Every time an item is personnel receipt barcode reader scanned, the central computer INFORMATION SYSTEM decreases the stock total by one and thus keeps a running inFigure 1.12 Purchasing goods at Woolworths. ventory. Once the stock of a certain item reaches a minimum level, the computer auto transmitting and receivingtransmatically reorders that item. When the ferring information between the POS transaction is completed, the customer terminal and the central computer receives a receipt containing the date, displayingshowing the product the name of each item, the quantity information on the POS terminal and purchased, the price of each item, the printing the receipt. total price and the method of payment. These processes do not operate in The information processes involved are: isolation. They are all interrelated and collectinggathering data by scaneach one depends on the others. For ning the barcode example, storing information about organisingensuring the data is in each item is dependent on collecting the correct format to be used by the the data using the barcode reader. database Each of the components of the infor analysingsearching the database mation system is important. The superfor the product description and price market will only be efficient and effec storing and retrievingretaining tive if participants are trained to carry information about each item out the information processes, the data is appropriate, and the information processingupdating the product technology is reliable. inventory and calculating the price
Exercise 1.3
1 Describe how information was processed 50 years ago. 2 List the seven information processes. 3 Describe the steps involved in the collection of data. 4 List some of the techniques used to collect primary data.
17
5 Why is the format of data important to its organisation? 6 Why are charts and graphs often used in the analysis of data? 7 Explain why storing and retrieving are important information processes. 8 Describe a processor. 9 How is the speed of a processor measured? 10 Explain the difference between serial and parallel transmission. 11 What is hand-shaking? 12 The following questions relate to the Woolworths case study. a What is the purpose and environment of the system? b Describe the information technology, data and participants of the system. c List the information processes in the system. d How are the information processes interrelated? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 What information process is used in each of the following tasks? a backing up the daily transactions b sorting addresses into alphabetical order c adjusting the balance of a bank account after a withdrawal of $500 d conducting a phone survey to determine the most popular soap powder e transferring a file to an interstate office f printing a glossy brochure for distribution g interpreting a sales chart h producing a report of overdue library books i scanning a credit card j searching a file for a customers membership number 2 Describe the information processes involved in the following tasks. List the procedures and techniques used to complete the task. a writing a letter using a word processor b creating a document containing a piece of clip art 3 The majority of people in a random survey agreed that using a computer was an essential skill. However, they also agreed that a personal computer is not as vital as a car, television, telephone or microwave oven. Are these results inconsistent? How would you rank the importance of computers compared to the other appliances? Why? 4 Interview three people who use information technology in their jobs. Briefly describe the information system. How is information processed? Outline the data, information and participants. 5 Woolworths provides a shopping service using the Internet. Investigate the services provided by Woolworths and similar companies. Outline the information processes used in these information systems. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Internet shopping?
Functio
18
Function
1.4 The nature of data and information

As we saw in the previous section, data is the raw material entered into an information system. It is the input of the system. Data can be thought of as unorganised facts that mean little by themselves. Information is data that has been ordered and given some meaning. It is the output of the system. In an information system, information technology, participants (people) and information processes combine to transform data into information. This information may be used as the input for another information system. The distinction between data and information is important. It explains why it is possible for an information system to collect huge amounts of data but fail to satisfy an organisations information needs. For example, an organisation may perform thousands of transactions each day, and record them using an information system. Simply making a printout of every transaction, however, will not provide useful information for managers. The information processes of organising, analysing, processing and displaying help to convert data into information using methods such as: choosing data pertinent to the problem deleting irrelevant data combining data displaying data in an understandable way.
Data
Data is a vital ingredient of an information system. If the data collected is meaningless, the information presented will be meaningless. Organisations need to ensure that appropriate data is available at the correct time for processing. Data will be appropriate if it is: relevantuseful to the purpose of the information system accuratecollected from a dependable source and entered without errors timelycurrent, and kept up-to-date secureprotected from deliberate or accidental damage or loss. Data with the above characteristics needs to be entered into the information system in the correct form. This depends on the input device, the application software to be used to process it, and the type of information (output) that is required. When the data is entered into the information system it is organised as a particular data type. The data type describes the kind of data, such as images, audio, video, text or numbers. Images are data in the form of pictures, such as drawings, paintings or photographs. They can be stored, edited and transferred in similar ways to text. The meaning of an image is determined by looking at the image and interpreting it. Audio is data in the form of sounds. It may be a noise used to get a users attention or a voice to explain the operation of a piece of software. The meaning of audio data is determined by listening to and interpreting the sounds. Video is data in the form of pictures and sounds combined and displayed over time. It may include text, graphics, animation and audio. The meaning of video is determined by watching and listening to it over a period of time.
19
Text is data in the form of letters, numbers and other characters whose meaning and format is not specified. For example, the characters entered into a word processor are text. The meaning of text is determined by reading and interpreting it. Numbers are data in the form of predefined characters (usually numerals) whose meaning and format are specified. Calculations are often performed on this data type. For example, numbers may be defined as currency, date or time. A collection of data can contain a combination of different data types (see Table 1.1). For example, Web pages often contain both text and images.
Data type
Text Number Image Audio Video
Examples
Sarah, M, Yes 41, 3.456, $10, 89% Diagrams, photographs, charts Music, voice recording Film clips
Table 1.1 Examples of different data types.
Figure 1.13 Web pages often combine different data types.
Functio
20
Information
Information is an important factor in an organisations current and future success. Companies require information on their products, employees, competitors and general operation. Information is an asset and there are substantial costs associated with its collection, maintenance and storage. However, organisations are prepared to make this investment because information is vital to their decision-making. Information will be valuable if it is: relevantuseful to the purpose of the information system accurateverified to ensure it is correct
Function
timelyappropriate and current organisedarranged to meet the purpose of the information system cost-effectivethe benefit to the organisation is greater than the costs of producing it. Information can have the above characteristics but unless it is appropriately presented it may not be effective. Information must be presented in a way that is attractive and easy to read. A format needs to be chosen that is appropriate for the end users of the information. For example, some people may understand information better if it is presented graphically, while others may understand it better in a table. Information technology makes it easy to present information in many different forms using one or more data types. For example, a multimedia document could use all of the data types in Table 1.1. Information can be displayed using a range of hardware devices, such as screens, printers and speakers. If possible, information should be tested with its end users to ensure that it is appropriate and achieving its purpose.
Case study
Big V Video
business at any time. The type of information that is regularly required includes: determining whether a particular video is in the store listing all the videos available in a particular category producing a list of overdue videos finding a customers membership number if a card is lost sending promotional material to valued customers.
Big V Video is a video store that uses an information system. The participants of the information system are the manager and staff. The information technology consists of a personal computer and an electronic database. The database stores membership details, video details and all video transactions. When a new customer comes into Big V Video, they fill out a membership form containing their personal details. The member data consists of their family name, first name, address, phone number, age, sex, date of birth and work number. It is entered into a membership table. New customers select a personal identification number (PIN) and receive a membership card with a barcode. When a new video is bought, data is entered into a video table. The video data consists of an identity number, the title, the main stars, the rating and an entertainment category. The videos are also allocated barcodes for efficient processing. When a customer borrows a video, the membership and video barcodes are both scanned. This data is automatically inserted into the membership and video tables. The electronic database provides readily available information about the
Figure 1.14 Customers browsing at Big V Video.
21
The manager and staff at Big V Video are continually using information technology to carry out the following information processes: collectingscanning the video and membership barcodes organisingensuring the data is in the correct format to be used by the database analysingsearching and sorting the database to produce reports storing and retrievingsaving the database to a disk processingcalculating late fees on overdue videos
transmitting and receivingtransferring the data between peripheral devices displayingobtaining a weekly report of all video transactions. These processes are not necessarily completed in a particular order. The staff can move from organising the data to displaying the information. However, the rate at which these information processes are carried out is critical to the efficiency of the store. If the staff are not proficient in producing reports of overdue videos, the information system will not be operating efficiently.
Overdue videos
SURNAMES Ashforth Cerlini Bastion Clark Atta Jordan Ho Theoharis Konstas FNAMES PHONE NO Leigh Kristen Graham Natalie Ahmed Daniel Nguyen Jim Effie 729 8821 870 4141 738 2456 818 1810 720 2727 720 9191 701 8102 638 2356 215 1860 750 2709 TITLE A Bugs Life Sliding Doors The Mask of Zorro Ever After The Full Monty Titanic Blade The Vanishing BORROWED 12-Jan-00 12-Jan-00 12-Jan-00 13-Jan-00 16-Jan-00 16-Jan-00 17-Jan-00 17-Jan-00 DUE BACK 15-Jan-00 15-Jan-00 15-Jan-00 16-Jan-00 17-Jan-00 18-Jan-00 18-Jan-00 18-Jan-00 18-Jan-00 18-Jan-00 OVERDUE 4 4 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 1
Saving Private Ryan 14-Jan-00
De Vincentis Giulia
Shakespeare in Love 17-Jan-00
Figure 1.15 Using the database, it is easy to produce a list of overdue videos.
Exercise 1.4
1 Explain the difference between data and information.
Functio
22
2 Why is data a vital ingredient of an information system? 3 What are four characteristics of appropriate data? 4 Describe the five data types. 5 What type of information do organisations require for their current and future success? 6 What are five characteristics of valuable information? 7 Why must information be appropriately presented?
Function
8 The following questions relate to the Big V Video case study. a What information is stored in the database? b List the items of data used in the member table, and their data types. c List the items of data used in the video table, and their data types. d Describe the procedures associated with borrowing a video. e What information can Big V Video produce from its electronic database? f The information system at Big V Video is very efficient. Explain how the system is efficient in terms of effort, time and cost. LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 An information system for a fitness club crashed and some membership data was lost. Who or what do you think is responsible for the error? What could be done to ensure the error does not happen again? 2 Data such as customer records, financial details and management plans are targets for computer criminals. Why would they steal this type of data? How could they get access to the data? List any security measures that would stop the theft of data. 3 Choose a recent event that has been widely reported in newspapers and on TV, radio and the Internet. Find three different data sources on this event and compare the data in terms of accuracy, security, timeliness and relevance. Determine whether the data from each source was complete and free from bias. 4 Managers can be daunted by the amount of information available from information systems. This information overload can increase managerial stress and force managers to spend more time organising information rather than making important decisions. How could information overload affect decisionmaking? What could be done to reduce it? 5 Observe a large retail business and record the different types of data that is collected. Which type of data would be used for decision-making? Why? Does this retail business have a Web site? If so, does the business collect data from the Web site? How is the Web site helping the business?
1.5 Digital representation of data

People have always communicated with each other and exchanged information. In prehistoric times, data was represented on cave walls in the form of rock carvings and paintings. Information could be communicated only over small distances. The representation of data has undergone many changes since prehistoric times. Today, information technology is changing our methods of representing data. For any kind of data to be stored and processed on a computer, it must be stored digitally. The recorded music industry shifted to digital format in the late 1980s when compact discs (CDs) replaced vinyl records.
Traditional methods of representing data

To appreciate the benefits of digital data, it helps to be aware of some of the traditional methods used to represent and store data. Filing systems: Data is filed into a filing cabinet or storage area. Individual pieces of paper are manually sorted so that information is readily obtainable.
23
Catalogue systems: Data is stored in lists, often in alphabetical order. Records of books and other resources in a library are indicated on cards stored in a catalogue system. Journals and ledgers: Amounts are recorded in columns in a special book to keep a record of a firms financial transactions. Microfiche: Data is photographically transferred to a transparent sheet of film about 10 15 centimetres. One sheet stores up to 200 pages of print. Printed media: Data is stored on paper in the form of newspapers, magazines and books (see Figure 1.16).
Figure 1.16 Some examples of printed media.
Digitising trends
Data is represented digitally so that it can be used by information technology. This allows data to be processed faster and more easily than ever before. People and organisations have an increasing appetite for information. Information technology has allowed more information to be collected, stored and processed. The use of information technology and digital data offers many advantages over other methods of representing data. Ease of editing: Data in the form of images, audio, video, text and numbers, can be easily updated and modified as required. Ease of storage: Large amounts of data can be stored on a disk or CD. It can be retrieved, revised and rearranged as appropriate. Quick search: Large amounts of data can be searched and sorted quickly and accurately. Performing calculations: Precise and complex calculations can be performed on the data very quickly. Recalculations of the data assist with predictions and decision-making. Ease of transmission: Data can be easily exchanged. The Internet provides a convenient way of accessing information throughout the world.
Functio
24
Function
Balanced against these advantages, there are disadvantages in the use of information technology and digital data. The cost of hardware, software and installation may be prohibitive. Compatibility with existing technology must be investigated. The participants in the information system need to be trained. People are often reluctant to adopt new methods. Social and ethical issues such as privacy, security, copyright and the changing nature of work need to be addressed. (These issues are examined in Chapter 2.) Despite these disadvantages, people and organisations are adopting information technology and digital data at an extraordinary rate. Some of the more recent trends include electronic newspapers, Internet banking, electronic commerce and Internet shopping. Electronic newspapers allow people to access information on stories of special interest. They provide the latest news, as the stories are being constantly updated. Subscribers are emailed a page of news headlines on the areas they nominate. Each item of text is linked to a full story on a Web site. Internet banking allows customers to view their account balances and transaction histories, transfer money between accounts, and pay bills over the Internet. It provides banking services 24 hours a day but cannot cater for cash withdrawals. Electronic commerce allows commercial transactions to be carried out electronically using a credit or debit card instead of cash. It provides an efficient service to customers and has been quickly adopted by many Australians. Internet shopping allows organisations to sell their goods and services on a global scale (see Figure 1.17). It is gaining acceptance even though some people are concerned about the Figure 1.17 Internet shopping is gaining acceptance despite security of their credit card details.
security concerns.
Digital data
Digital data is data that is represented using digits (numbers). The computer is a two-state device that uses only two digits: 0 and 1. Two digits are easily represented electronically by circuits in the computer being either on or off. The digit 1 is used to represent the electronic state of on and the digit 0 is used to represent the electronic state of off. Each on or off digit is called a bit (binary digit). A bit is the smallest unit of data stored in a computer. A group of eight bits is called a byte. A byte is the basic unit of measurement for digital data. Using eight bits means that there are 256 possible values for a byte (00000000, 00000001, etc.). When used to represent text, a byte stands for a single character, such as a letter, a number, a punctuation mark or a space. Because a byte is such a small unit, the prefixes kilo, mega, giga and tera are added to create more useful units for measuring data storage (see Table 1.2).
25
Unit
byte kilobyte megabyte gigabyte terabyte
Symbol
b Kb Mb Gb Tb
Meaning
thousand bytes million bytes billion bytes trillion bytes
Approximate value (bytes) Exact value (bytes)

1 1 000 1 000 000 1 000 000 000 1 000 000 000 000 1 (20) 1024 (210) 1 048 576 (220) 1 073 741 824 (230) 1 099 511 627 776 (240)
Table 1.2 Units of measurement of digital data
The binary system

The normal system we use for counting is called the decimal system. It is an arithmetic system using a base of 10 (the digits 0 to 9). The system of counting used by computers is called the binary system (or binary code). It is an arithmetic system using a base of two (the digits 0 and 1). Like the decimal system, the binary system uses place value to determine the worth of a digit. However, whereas the decimal system uses powers of ten (10, 100, 1000, etc.), the binary system uses powers of two (2, 4, 8, etc.) for its place values. A subscript is used to distinguish between numbers with different bases. For example, 102 is the number one zero in the base two (binary) system. To change a binary number into a decimal number, we add the appropriate place values, as shown in the example below. Example Convert the binary number 1001110 into a decimal number.
Powers of 2 Value Binary number 26 64 1 25 32 0 24 16 0 23 8 1 22 4 1 21 2 1 20 1 0
10011102 = (1 64) + (0 32) + (0 16) + (1 8) + (1 4) + (1 2) + (0 1) = 64 + 8 + 4 + 2 = 7810 So, binary number 100110 equals decimal number 78. To change a decimal number into a binary number, we divide the binary place values into the decimal number. The result of the division is the binary digit, and the remainder is divided by the next place value. This process is repeated for all place values. Example Convert 10910 into binary.
Powers of 2 Value 26 64 25 32 24 16 23 8 22 4 21 2 20 1
Functio
26
10910 = 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 1 = (1 64) + (1 32) + (0 16) + (1 8) + (1 4) + (0 2) + (1 1) = 11011012 So, decimal number 109 equals the binary number 1101101.
Function
The hexadecimal system

Binary numbers are ideal for computers but very difficult for people. Because they use only two digits, they result in very long strings of 1s and 0s. For this reason, many computers represent binary numbers in hexadecimal. The hexadecimal number system, or hex, is to the base 16, and uses the sixteen digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E and F. The numbers are often preceded by the $ (dollar) sign to indicate that they are in hexadecimal code. So $A = 1010, $B = 1110, and so on. Because 16 is 24, it is very easy to convert binary numbers to hexadecimal and vice versa.
ITTFact t I Fac
The term hexadecimal was made up in the early 1960s to replace the earlier sexadecimal, which was too racy and amusing for IBM. It has since been adopted by the computer industry.
To change a hexadecimal number into a decimal number, we add the appropriate place values, as shown in the example below. Example Convert 1B0516 into a decimal number.
Powers of 16 Value Binary number 163 4096 1 162 256 B 161 16 0 160 1 5
1B0516 = (1 4096) + (11 256) + (0 16) + (5 1) = 4096 + 2816 + 5 = 691710 So, hexadecimal 1B05 equals the decimal number 6917. To change a decimal number into a hexadecimal number, we divide the hexadecimal place values into the decimal number. The result of the division is the hexadecimal digit, and the remainder is divided by the next place value. This process is repeated for all place values, as shown in the next example. Example Convert 42310 into hexadecimal.
Powers of 16 Value 163 4096 162 256 161 16 160 1
42310 = 256 + 160 + 7 = (1 256) + (10 16) + (7 1) = 1A716 So, decimal 423 equals the hexadecimal number 1A7.
ASCII and EBCDIC

To be used in a computer, all data needs to be converted into a binary number. To ensure data from one computer can be used on another, there needs to be a standard method of converting letters, numbers, characters and instructions into binary code. Two commonly used coding methods are ASCII and EBCDIC.
27
The standard coding method used on personal computers is called ASCII (pronounced ass-kee), which stands for the American Standard Code for Information Interchange. ASCII is a system for changing letters, numbers and symbols into a 7-bit code. For example, the letter K is converted to the decimal number 75 using the ASCII code, and this number is then converted to the binary number 1001011, which can be stored by the computer. Seven-bit ASCII allows for 128 different characters (2 7), including 96 standard keyboard characters and 32 control characters. The keyboard characters include 26 upper case letters, 26 lower case letters, 10 digits and 34 symbols (the complete code is given in the Appendix). The control characters are used for computer functions such as carriage return and form feed. The standard seven-bit ASCII was designed when computers were not extensively used outside the US and UK. However, it is a problem with many languages other than English. Many European languages include accent marks and special characters that cannot be represented by standard ASCII. Several larger character sets such as extended ASCII use eight bits, which gives 128 additional characters. The extra characters are used to represent non-English characters, graphic symbols and mathematical symbols. Because there are a number of different extended character sets, they are not always interchangeable between different computer systems. A coding method used on large IBM computers is called EBCDIC (pronounced ebb-see-dick). It stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code and was adapted by IBM from punched card code in the 1960s. There exist at least six different versions, with one version of EBCDIC containing all the characters of ASCII. This allows data to be translated between the two codes. EBCDIC is a system that changes letters, numbers and symbols into an 8-bit code. This allows for 256 (28) different characters (the complete code is given in the Appendix). For example, the letter A is converted to the decimal number 193 using the EBCDIC code, and this number is then converted to the binary number 11000001, which can be stored by the computer.
Exercise 1.5
1 Describe some of the traditional methods used to represent and store data. 2 What are the advantages and disadvantages of digital data? 3 Describe four digitising trends. 4 What is a byte? 5 Why do computers represent data using only two digits?
Functio
28
6 Convert these measurements to the units indicated (approximate value only). a 2 Mb = b b 160 Kb = b c 3 000 000 b = Mb d 4 Gb = b e 560 Mb = Kb f 8000 Kb = Mb 7 List two commonly used coding methods for digital data. 8 How many different characters can be represented using a 7-bit ASCII? 9 Why was extended ASCII developed? Answer questions 10 to 13 using the Appendix.
Function
10 What is the ASCII code in binary for the following characters? a B b m 11 What is the ASCII code in hexadecimal for the following characters? a $ b DEL 12 What is the EBCDIC code in binary for the following characters? a g b ? 13 What is the EBCDIC code in hexadecimal for the following characters? a @ b 7 LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Copy and complete the following table.
Binary code 1000011 0000010 0010011 1000001 1110101 0010011 1010101 1110011 1101010 1111011 64 1 32 0 16 0 8 0 4 0 2 1 1 1 Decimal number 67
2 Copy and complete the following table.

Decimal code 55 18 42 49 105 75 118 65 94 123 64 0 32 1 16 1 8 0 4 1 2 1 1 1 Binary code 0110111

Hexadecimal 1C 15 17 120 264 152 24A 1A21 FE 20DF 4096 0 256 0 16 1 1 12 Decimal number 28
29

Decimal number 500 23 43 52 259 347 621 4096 4156 2000 4096 0 256 1 16 F 1 4 Hexadecimal 01F4
5 Count the number of characters used on a page of typed text and then calculate the number of bytes necessary to store this data. How many pages of typed text can the school computer store in RAM? (Assume your computer uses eight-bit ASCII and all the RAM is available to store text.)
1.6 Social and ethical issues

Social and ethical issues arise from the processing of data into information. There are many issues that affect people as participants and as indirect users. In this section, we will examine the security of data and information, the accuracy of data and information, and copyright.
Data security
The security of data and information is a major issue in any organisation. The cost of replacing data that is deliberately or accidentally damaged or lost can be enormous. People who gain illegal access to information systems are referred to as hackers. Hackers are often involved in information theft or financial theft. Information theft involves stealing data from one organisation and selling it to another organisation. Financial theft involves illegally transferring money from one account to another. Computer crime provides our society with a difficult issue. First, even though hundreds of cases of computer crimes are reported each year, many crimes go unreported. There are several reasons for this: organisations are reluctant to face adverse publicity; publicising the event could give others ideas; and in some cases, the crime is not discovered. Are organisations encouraging computer crime by not reporting it? Are organisations that do not report a computer crime guilty of a crime themselves? Another issue is the fact that computer crime is not viewed in the same light by the community as other crimes, such as burglary or armed robbery. Whereas the community holds a burglar in fear or contempt, a hacker is often regarded as clever and the crime is not regarded as dangerous or threatening. If a burglar and a hacker each stole $200 000 from a business, does it make any difference how the money was taken? Should the penalties for both crimes be the same? Data security involves a series of safeguards to protect the data from deliberate or accidental damage. Some of these are listed on the following page.
Functio
30
Function
Passwords are secret words or numbers that are typed on the keyboard to gain access to a computer system. Good data protection systems require users to change their passwords often, so that only authorised people can have access to certain data. Objects such as a key, plastic card or badge can be required to gain access to the information system. They are often used together with a personal identification number (PIN). Biometric devices are used to verify personal characteristics such as fingerprints, hand size, signature, eye and voice. Data encryption is used to prevent data from being intercepted and read during transmission. The data is scrambled so that it is meaningless to anyone other than the recipient, who uses the same encryption software to convert it back. Firewalls are used on computer networks to check all data coming from outside sources (such as the Internet) for the purpose of verification and authentication. Waste is secured, since discarded printouts are potential sources of confidential information. This kind of waste can be secured by shredding. Backup procedures need to be secure and reliable. A regular plan of copying and storing data will guard against data loss. It is good practice to keep at least one backup copy in a fireproof safe or off-site. The weakest link in the security of any information system is the people in it. Employees need to be carefully screened. This can be difficult, as even wellrespected and otherwise honest employees can commit computer crimes.
ITTFact t I Fac
Jails are used on computer networks to lure hackers and allow system administrators to obtain some clues as to the hackers identity. Jails are best housed on special servers that simulate a real and confidential environment.
Data accuracy
In the past, publishing information was costly and there was less of it. Today, there is a huge amount of information and it is relatively easy to publish on the Internet. As a result, there is no guarantee that all information is accurate or reliable, and it is difficult to check it in a reasonable amount of time. Organisations can provide access to information they have not created, for example by including a link on their Web site. This raises a difficult question. Who is responsible for the accuracy of information? Is the creator the only person responsible for the accuracy of data? Do organisations that provide access to information also have a responsibility to verify its accuracy? Clearly, it is necessary to compare data from a number of sources and determine which data is accurate and relevant. In addition to the issue of responsibility, there are also concerns about the ethics of altering data. For example, photographs can be edited by adding, changing or removing parts of the images. A person can be taken out of the photograph and another person added. Is it acceptable to improve a photograph by slightly altering the data? Would it be wrong for a newspaper to alter a
31
persons photograph by making their teeth whiter or changing the colour of their eyes? What about changing the background of a photo, so the person appears to be in a different location? What limits or restrictions should be placed on altering photographs that are published?
Data validation
Data is collected to solve problems, meet needs or help in decision-making. The accuracy of the data must be checked before it is processed into information. This is called data validation. It involves ensuring that the data is up-to-date, current, complete and correctly entered. Data validation can be built into a software application. Some examples are listed below. Range checks are used if the data is restricted to a small range of particular values. For example, when a date is entered in the format 21/2/2001, the software can check whether the first two digits are in the range of 1 to 31 and the second two digits are in the range of 1 to 12. List checks are used when the data can be compared to a set of accepted data. For example, when the data entered is an Australian state, NSW would be accepted but NSX would not. Type checks are used to determine whether the data type is correct. For example, when the data entered is a persons family name, the software can check if the data is text. It would not accept other data types, such as numbers. A check digit is a number calculated from the digits of a code number and then added to that number as an extra digit. The ISBNs (International Standard Book Numbers) given to books include a check digit. For example, in the ISBN 0 85859 921 4, the final 4 is a check digit. It is calculated by applying a formula to the other numbers (085859921).
Copyright
Copyright is the right to use, copy or control the work of authors and artists, including software developers. It is often indicated by the symbol. Copyright is protected by law. In Australia, the Copyright Act regards any original work as the intellectual property of the person who created the work. Copyright ownership is automatic and applies whether or not the work is accompanied by the copyright symbol. Most other countries have similar laws and have signed international copyright agreements. It is against the law to use or copy the work of another person without their permission. There are some exceptions. For example, you are allowed to reproduce a small amount of someones work for the purposes of study, criticism or review. However, it is always necessary to acknowledge the creator of the work. Information published on the Internet is protected by copyright, just as it would be if it was in a book. Text and images obtained from a Web site should not be reproduced without acknowledgment (see Figure 1.18). Images should not be downloaded and used for other purposes without permission.
Functio
32
ITTFact t I Fac
Salami shaving is a computer crime usually committed by a bank officer. It involves the unauthorised transfer of small amounts of money from the accounts of many individuals. These small amounts are often unnoticed but over time add up to very large amounts.
Function
Figure 1.18 Web sites must be correctly cited.
When citing an Internet source it is important to include the following information: authors surname and initial or organisations name title of the completed work or Web page URL of the page date the document or Web page was created or updated (if known) download date. Online sources often appear and disappear frequently. For this reason, the date of download and the URL become very important. A hard copy or a soft copy is also useful for later reference. An example of citation is given below. Walker, Matt, Jurassic spark, New Scientist, 27 November 1999 http://www.newscientist.com/ns/19991127/newsstory5.html (accessed 14 March 2000) Software developers are protected by copyright so that they receive money for the time, effort and investment spent in developing a program. When software is bought, it contains a licence agreement or registration card, which gives the user permission to make one backup copy. The user is not allowed to make other copies of the software without the permission of the copyright holder. Illegal copying of software is called software piracy (or pirating). Software piracy costs software developers billions of dollars each year and results in higher prices for software. Copyright protection is not the same for every piece of software. Site licences permit an organisation to make a limited number of copies of the software for use on the same site. A site can refer to a number of buildings, such as a school. Purchasing a site licence is cheaper than buying individual copies of a program. Similarly, a network licence allows people to use a program on a network. Shareware is software that is provided free and can be copied and distributed, but the licence agreement requires users to pay for the shareware they use. It is much cheaper than commercial software packages as there are fewer costs associated with marketing and it is not as rigorously tested. Public domain software, or freeware, can be freely distributed and used. Shareware and public domain software are often distributed using the Internet.
33
Copyright is an ethical issue as well as a legal issue. Is it right to copy the original work of an author or artist without their permission? Authors and artists often spend hundreds of hours developing a product and deserve some returns for their efforts. The fact that it is relatively easy for anyone with a computer to make copies of data and programs is irrelevant. If people infringe copyright, authors and artists do not receive royalties and they will be reluctant to spend time developing good products.
Exercise 1.6
1 Who are hackers? 2 What safeguards can be taken to protect data? 3 Why is it difficult to check the accuracy of data? 4 What is data validation? 5 List four different ways that data validation can be built into software. 6 What is copyright? 7 List the information needed to cite an Internet site. 8 Explain the difference between shareware and public domain software. 9 Why are software copyright laws difficult to enforce? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Which of the following data entry errors would be picked up by data validation? a date of birth entered as 10/23/1990 instead of 23/10/1990 b date of birth entered as 02/04/1991 instead of 04/02/1991 c date of birth entered as 12/01/89 instead of 12/01/1989 d date of birth entered as 08/06/1992 instead of 08/06/1993 e state of Australia entered as NEW instead of NSW f state of Australia entered as vic instead of VIC 2 A friend of yours has obtained access to a banks financial records. Do you think this is clever? Has your friend committed a crime? What would you do if the friend increased your account balance? What penalties are appropriate for this sort of action? How can organisations reduce computer crime? 3 Web sites are available that offer essays for school students. Students can download the essay and print it out as their own work. How can teachers prevent students claiming the work of others as their own? Explain the difference between using the Internet for research and copying an essay. What penalties are appropriate for students caught plagiarising? Outline any reasons students would have for obtaining copies of essays this way. 4 Use the Internet to find information about software copyright. Compare Australian and overseas information. 5 Information technology is changing at an extraordinary rate. The only people keeping pace with information technology are system specialists. Do you agree with these statements? Why? What changes do you expect to occur in the immediate future?
Functio
34
Chapter review
PART A Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best answers the question or completes the statement. 1 Which of the following is not an element of an information system? A participants B social and ethical issues C data and information D information technology 2 The five functions of a computer are: input, process, , control and output. What is the missing function? A data B software C information D storage 3 A computer designed for a single user is called a: A personal computer B midrange computer C mainframe computer D supercomputer 4 Which two-step information process involves the retaining of data? A storing and retrieving B maintaining and receiving C maintaining and retrieving D storing and receiving 5 Which information process involves arranging, representing and formatting data for use by other information processes? A analysing B displaying C processing D organising 6 Data is the same as: A raw material B processed material C information D processed information 7 One gigabyte is equal to: A 1 000 000 000 bytes B 1 073 741 824 Kb C 1024 Kb D 1024 Mb 8 The smallest unit for storing data is a: A byte B bit C ASCII D RAM 9 Which of the following is not a coding method used to represent digital data? A ASCII B hexadecimal C EBCDIC D extended ASCII 10 A data security safeguard that prevents data from being intercepted and read during transmission is known as: A data encryption B a firewall C a password D a biometric device
35
Chapter review
PART B For each of the following statements, select from the list of terms the one that most closely fits the statement. Write the letter corresponding to your choice. Statements 1 The fastest, most powerful and expensive type of computer. 2 A central computer that performs the processing for a number of users working at a terminal. 3 Letters, numbers and other characters whose meaning and format is not specified. 4 Data that has been ordered and given some meaning by people. 5 The process that involves arranging, representing and formatting data for use by other information processes. 6 The process that involves transferring data and information within and between information systems. 7 The process that involves interpreting data, transforming it into information. 8 The smallest unit of data stored in a computer. 9 The basic unit of measurement for digital data. It represents a single character. 10 A number system using base two. 11 The electronic hardware and software used to process information. 12 The detailed instructions used to direct the hardware to perform a particular task. 13 A copy of data or software kept for security purposes. 14 A standard coding method used on personal computers. 15 A person who gains illegal access to information systems. 16 Illegal copying of software. List of terms a analysing b supercomputer c binary d bit e midrange computer f information g text h byte i organising j transmitting and receiving k software l ASCII m information technology n hacker o pirating p backup PART C Write at least one paragraph on each of the following questions. 1 Outline the positive and negative impact of information technology on our society. 2 Identify and explain the seven information processes. 3 Briefly explain the following terms: a environment b ASCII c participants. 4 Briefly describe how data is represented digitally. 5 Why is data accuracy an important issue?
36
chapter
TOOLS FOR INFORMATION PROCESSES
Outcomes
After completing this chapter you should be able to: describe the hardware tools used in each of the seven information processes identify and use the most appropriate input device to collect data describe and use hardware devices for storage and retrieval describe the concepts and tools used to transmit and receive data describe and use a range of hardware to display data outline the software tools used in each of the seven information processes describe some of the non-computer tools used in each of the seven information processes identify the social and ethical issues involved in the information processes.
Overview
This chapter outlines the tools used for information processing in an information system. The tools are categorised into the information processes of collecting, organising, analysing, storing and retrieving, processing, transmitting and receiving, and displaying data. However, in reality one tool may overlap several information processes. For each information process you will investigate the relevant hardware, software and noncomputer tools, and a range of social issues.
2.1 Collecting
Collecting is the information process that involves deciding what to collect, locating it and collecting it. A range of hardware devices are used to collect different types of data. Software is used to direct the hardware collection device. Non-computer tools are used to collect data from particular sources.
Hardware
There are many types of hardware collection devices used for different types of data. The devices that are used specifically to enter data into a computer system are referred to as input devices. An input device should be convenient to use, reliable and allow data to be entered accurately. The data may be in a number of forms, including text, numbers, images, audio and video. Common input devices include pointing devices, scanners, digital cameras, video cameras, microphones, keyboards and optical recognition devices.
Pointing devices
A pointing device is an input device that controls an on-screen symbol called a pointer or cursor. They are useful for choosing commands from menus, managing files and creating certain types of images. However, pointing devices are not effective for entering large amounts of text. There are many different types of pointing devices. A mouse is a small hand-held input device that is moved over a flat surface to control the movement of a pointer. The bottom of the mouse is usually a ball that senses the movement of the mouse. If a button on the mouse is pressed or clicked, it allows an object or command on the screen to be selected. There are a large variety of mice using different types of technology to improve their tracking, resolution and ease of use. A mouse may have one, two or three buttons and a scrolling wheel. A trackball is a pointing device that is similar to a mouse except that the ball is on top of the device instead of the bottom (see Figure 2.1). It allows the cursor to be moved by rotating the ball in the desired direction. Trackballs do not require a flat surface and are commonly used on portable computers. A pointing stick or trackpoint is a small device shaped like a pencil eraser. It moves the pointer by sensing the direction and amount of pressure applied to the device. A pointing stick is often located in the middle of the keyboard on portable computers. They require very little space and no cleaning. A touchpad or trackpad is a flat rectangular surface that senses the movement of a finger. When you move your finger on the touchpad it causes a corresponding movement of the pointer. Some touchpads have buttons to click; on others, tapping the touchpad surface Figure 2.1 A trackball incorporated into a threeindicates a click. Touchpads are often built button mouse. into portable computers.
Functio
38
Function
A graphics tablet is an input device that consists of a special electronic pad and a pen called a stylus. A hand-held device called a puck is often used with the tablet. A puck looks like a mouse, with one or more buttons, but has a window in the centre or at one end with fine cross-hairs. A joystick is a pointing device consisting of a small base unit with a rod that can be tilted in all directions to move the pointer on the screen. Joysticks are frequently used to provide fast and direct input for moving characters and objects in computer games. A light pen is a pointing device consisting of a small rod that looks like a pen. The tip of the pen has a light detector that senses the intensity of light on a screen and emit signals so that the computer can calculate its position. A light pen is used to select information or draw directly on the screen. A touch screen enters data by detecting the touch of your finger (see Figure 2.2). The users finger interrupts a matrix of infrared light beams shining horizontally and vertically across the screen. Touch screens do not allow fine precision of input and use big buttons or areas of the screen. Pen input devices are becoming increasingly popular. They use special hardware and software to interpret the movement of a special pen or stylus. When the pen touches the screen, the computer determines the coordinates of the contact point and darkens that area. In addition to pointing, pen input devices allow handwritten characters to be converted to digital text. Pen input devices are used in most personal digital assistants (PDAs).
Figure 2.2 Touch screens are often used in information kiosks.
ITTFact t I Fac
The mouse was developed in 1963 by Douglas Engelbart. The name originated because it looked like a mouse with the connecting cable the mouses tail. The first mouse was made of wood.
Scanners
Scanners are input devices that can electronically capture text or images such as photographs and drawings. The scanner converts the image into digital data that can be processed by the computer. The digital data can be printed, edited or merged into another document. Scanners offer a range of resolutions such as 2400 dpi, 4800 dpi and 9600 dpi. The higher the resolution, the better the quality of the final output. Single-pass scanners scan the image in only one pass; multiple-pass scanners scan for each colour separately. Scanners use a software standard called TWAIN (technology without an interesting name) that allows
Tools for information processes
39
Figure 2.3 A flatbed scanner and a special type of hand-held scanner.
the digital image to be used in a range of different applications. There are three common types of scanners. Hand-held scanners are used for entering text and images that are less than a page wide. The scanner is held in the hand and passed over the document. Hand-held scanners are adequate for small pictures and photos but are difficult for entire pages. Software is used to join scanned items to make a full page. Flatbed scanners look similar to a small photocopier with the document remaining flat and stationary during the scanning (see Figure 2.3). Overhead scanners look like an overhead projector. Documents are placed face up on the scanning bed and a small overhead tower moves across the page.
Digital cameras
Digital cameras are input devices that capture and store images in digital form rather than on film. They contain a viewfinder, a lens to focus the image and a storage medium such as a memory card, hard disk or floppy disk to retain the images. After a picture is taken, it is transferred to a computer and manipulated using a graphics program. Digital photos are limited by the amount of memory in the camera, the quality of the lens and the output device. The main advantage of digital cameras is that making the photos is both inexpensive and quick because there is no film processing. Most digital cameras compress and save their images in standard JPEG or FlashPix format. Digitally captured photos are extensively used in personal and business publishing applications such as Web pages, magazines, business letters, ID cards and product catalogues.
Video cameras
A video camera is used to create a video clip in either analog or digital form. Conventional (analog) video cameras capture images and sound on videotape. This is converted into digital form using a video capture card. Each frame of the video is interpreted as a bit-mapped image. Video capture cards compress the video clip using a compression algorithm that analyses the changes from one frame to the next. They encode the starting frame and a sequence of differences between the frames. Digital video cameras are input devices that capture video in a compressed digital format such as MPEG (see Figure 2.4). These video files are transferred directly to a computer. Digital video production software is used to edit the video. There is an increasing range of video effects that can be achieved using this software on a personal computer.
Functio
40
Function
Figure 2.4 A digital camera (left) and a digital video camera (right).
Microphones
Microphones are input devices that capture sound. Sound travels through the air in wavesit is analog data. Digital audio is sound that has been digitised. A sound card transforms the sounds from a microphone into digital audio. Standard sound cards on personal computers are capable of recording and playing digital audio at 44.1 kHz stereo or CD-quality sound. Sound cards also support MIDI (musical instrument digital interface) sequences. This allows a musician to use a MIDI instrument to play music which can be stored and edited on a computer (see Figure 2.5). Microphones are also used to enter voice data into a computer. A technique called voice recognition converts voice signals into digital data. Basic voice recognition systems are restricted to narrow vocabularies because of the difficulty of understanding the grammatical meaning of many words and phrases. Natural language voice recognition interprets the data and makes an appropriate response. For example, you could ask the computer to open an appropriate file, edit the contents and send it to a friend. Voice recognition is predicted to be the most common way of Figure 2.5 Music is entered using a MIDI devices such as this. entering data in the future.
Keyboards
A keyboard is an input device consisting of series of keys in a standard layout. It allows the entry of text, numbers, instructions and commands. There are many different types of keyboards each designed to meet a particular need. For example, the keyboard on an automatic teller machine (ATM) contains special keys that allow the withdrawal of money. Each type of keyboard has a different arrangement of letters, numbers and symbols, which is called its layout.
41
The most common keyboard layout for personal computers is the Qwerty keyboard (see Figure 2.6). The Qwerty keyboard is named after the first six letters of the second row. The order of the keys was designed from the layout of keys on typewriters. The keyboard is divided into four major areas: alphanumeric keys, cursor control keys, special keys and function keys. Alphanumeric keys are the letters and numbers on the keyboard. The numeric keypad is located on the right-hand side of the keyboard. It is used for quick entry of numbers. Cursor control keys allow the cursor to be moved. They include the arrow keys, Page down, Page up, Home and End. Special keys include Enter, Return, Tab, Space, Caps Lock, Backspace, Delete and Escape. Modifier keys (such as Shift, Control, Alt(ernate), Option and Command) are used in combination with other keys. Function keys (F1, F2, F12) allow instructions to be given to the computer. Their specific function depends on the software.
Figure 2.6 A Qwerty keyboard.
ITTFact t I Fac
The Qwerty keyboard was developed and patented in 1867 by Christopher Sholes. He originally arranged the keys in alphabetical order but found that the primitive wooden type bars were too slow to fall into place and jammed. In other words, the typists were typing faster than the typewriter could operate. To slow the typist down, Sholes moved the most commonly typed letters (A, O, E, T, N and S) away from the typists index fingers. This inefficient layout has not been replaced as it would require retraining, and many people would be reluctant to change, despite the benefits.
Functio
42
Optical recognition devices

Optical recognition devices use a light source to read characters and barcodes. They convert these characters into digital data. Optical character recognition (OCR) devices are scanners that read typed text (and in some cases, handwritten text). First, a scanner produces a digital image of the text. Then the character recognition software matches this image to the shapes of individual characters. Characters are stored using ASCII codes and can be used in word processing programs. Characters that
Function
cannot be read are usually indicated with a tilde (~) as this symbol does not appear in normal English. Using the spelling checker of a word processing program helps to find any errors made in character recognition. Barcode readers are used extensively in retail industries to input product identification at point of sale (see Figure 2.7). Supermarkets use a laser to read barcodes and many firms use hand-held barcode readers. Product information (description, price and code) is held on a central computer linked to the point of sale computer. Items passing the barcode reader are entered quickly and accurately. The description and price of the item is displayed on the cash register and printed on the receipt. Libraries and many industries use barcode readers to keep track of stock movement. Portable barcode readers are used in the field and the data can be downFigure 2.7 A barcode reader. loaded on return to the office.
Software
Software used for collecting includes the software that interfaces with hardware collection devices. This software is usually classified as part of the operating system.
Operating systems
The operating system is the software that supervises and controls the hardware. It is responsible for controlling all the peripheral devices (input and output devices). The operating system contains specific software for each type of peripheral device. It is responsible for scheduling all the operations of hardware in an efficient manner. The operating system also controls how the computer relates to memory and the management of files. On a personal computer, the operating system is usually stored on a hard disk and starts automatically when the computer is turned on. Loading the operating system into the computers memory is referred to as booting the system. Diagnostic checks on memory and peripheral devices are performed when booting the system. A small program that initiates the loading of the operating system is contained in memory. The operating system provides a convenient interface between the hardware and its user. This is referred to as the user interface. The first widely used operating system was the OS/360 system. It was developed in 1964 for all computers in the IBM System/360 family. UNIX (pronounced you-nicks) is a popular operating system that can be used on everything from personal computers to mainframes. Like many mainframe operating systems, UNIX timeshares the host central processing unit (CPU) to be able to run multiple tasks and support multiple users. MS-DOS is an operating system developed by Microsoft in 1981 for IBMs 16-bit personal computer. It became an industry standard and is still used to run some applications today. It is a character user interface (CUI, also known as a command-line interface) that displays only
43
characters on the screen. The user types commands using a keyboard. The graphical user interface was developed by the Xerox Corporation in the 1970s and was popularised by Apple Macintosh computers in the 1980s. A graphical user interface (GUI, pronounced gooey) allows the user to give instructions using a mouse, by clicking on icons and menus (see Figure 2.8). GUIs are also referred to as WIMP environments. This name comes from their four main characteristics: windows, icons, a mouse and pull-down menus. GUIs provide an easy-to-use and consistent interface for a range of applications. Microsoft Windows and Apples Macintosh OS are two popular GUI operating systems.
Figure 2.8 Microsoft Windows is an example of a WIMP environment.
Data entry
The collection of data involves entering images, audio, video, numbers and text. The chapters in Part 2: Application software contain detailed information on the collection of each of these types of data. The following is brief summary. Images are created using graphics programs or are captured using a scanner, digital camera, video camera or the Internet. Clip art refers to prepared pictures that are grouped into topics such as technology, animals and education. There are millions of clip art drawings and photos available to suit most purposes. Video and audio are used in multimedia productions. Data collection should be carefully planned before any data is entered. The user should clarify a purpose, identify the audience and gather ideas. Text and numbers are entered into most software applications. The collection of data for a database often requires a great deal of research and the use of non-computer tools such as surveys and interviews. Spreadsheets should be carefully planned before data is collected. It is important to understand the relationships between the data, and how a spreadsheet will solve the problem.
Functio
44
The Internet as a collection source

The Internet is a source of data. It allows someone at one computer to collect data stored on another. Web sites present information on a particular topic. Each
Function
single document is called a Web page. In addition to the Web, data is collected from newsgroups. A newsgroup is a discussion group on a specific topic. People read newsgroups each day and they provide a large diversity of opinion and knowledge. The Internet also allows data to be downloaded. It is possible to download files containing text, graphics, animation, video, sound and software. The Internet is discussed in detail in Chapter 11.
ITTFact t I Fac
Marc Andreessen developed a Web browser called Mosaic in 1993 while working at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications in the USA. Mosaic was the first browser to offer a graphical user interface and display hypertext documents. He left the NCSA and founded Netscape, producing the Netscape Navigator browser.
Non-computer tools
Information technology is not always a suitable tool for collecting data. A wide range of non-computer tools are also used in many situations. Literature (printed text) has been the main medium for spreading knowledge since the beginning of the seventeenth century. It can take many different forms, such as books, reports, newspapers, magazines, newsletters and journals. The sheer quantity of printed information available today means that an individual can absorb only a very small proportion. Searching literature for particular information involves using tables of contents, summaries and indexes. Reviews and abstracts also provide an indicator to the contents of publications. Literature may be accurate at the time of printing but it can quickly become out-of-date as society changes. Surveys and interviews involve collecting sample characteristics, attitudes, behaviours and opinions. A survey questionnaire is delivered by mail, faceto-face or online. An interview is a meeting of people face-to-face. Specific questions are asked to determine the interviewees opinions and feelings. There are advantages and disadvantages in using surveys and interviews to collect data. These are outlined in Chapter 3. Data can be collected manually by recording an event on paper or a predesigned table or form. Forms for data collection need to be carefully designed. It is necessary to try to anticipate the range of possible responses. For example, if a person is asked to state their occupation, the form must be able to accommodate people who have two jobs, change jobs frequently or classify Figure 2.9 Forms are used by many government agencies their work differently (see Figure 2.9).
to collect data.
45
Social and ethical issues

The widespread use of information technology has raised a number of ethical issues for people. The following are some of the issues that relate specifically to the collection of data. Data needs to be free from bias. Bias means that the data is unfairly skewed or gives too much weight to a particular result. For example, if a survey about television habits was only completed by teenagers and the results were generalised to the entire population, it would have a bias. Several checks should be made to limit the impact of bias. The accuracy of the collected data is a vital ingredient of an information system. It depends on the source of the data and whether the data is entered correctly. The accuracy of data is often difficult to check in a reasonable time. It is often necessary to compare data from a number of different sources and determine which data is accurate. Data validation techniques used to check the entry of data include range checks, list checks, type checks and check digits. (Data validation is discussed in more detail in Chapter 1.) Copyright is the right to use, copy or control the work of authors and artists. It is against the law to infringe copyright. You are not allowed to use or copy the work of another person without their permission. If data is collected from the Internet, it is protected by copyright. Text and images obtained from a Web site should not be used without acknowledgment or permission from the owner. (Copyright is discussed in more detail in Chapter 1.) Privacy is the ability of an individual to control personal data. Data collected on individuals is not always accurate. Inaccuracies can be caused by mistakes in gathering or entering the data, by a mismatch of the data and the person, or by information being out-of-date. For example, a car is recorded as stolen, but is later recovered and returned to the owner. If the data has not been quickly updated, the legal owner runs the risk of being arrested as a car thief. What opportunities exist to check and change data if it is wrong? Physical privacy is the ability of an individual to avoid invasion of their personal time, space and property. Information technology increases the opportunities to invade physical privacy by such means as computer-generated phone calls, junk mail and electronic junk mail (spamming). Ergonomics refers to the relationship between people and their work environment. It is the process of designing or arranging workplaces, products and systems so that they fit the people who use them. The way a computer is used and the work environment can affect the body. Participants who enter large volumes of data into information systems need to be aware of ergonomic issues. (Ergonomics is discussed in more detail in Chapter 3.)
Functio
46
Exercise 2.1
1 What is a pointing device? 2 Explain the difference between a mouse and a trackball. 3 How does a touch screen work? 4 What is the difference between a hand-held scanner and a flatbed scanner? 5 Describe some of the features of a digital camera. 6 What is a digital video camera?
Function
7 What function is performed by a sound card? 8 Explain the difference between basic voice recognition and natural language voice recognition. 9 What is a keyboard? 10 Describe the four major keyboard areas. 11 Why did Christopher Sholes move the most commonly typed letters to positions away from the typists index finger? 12 How do OCR devices read text? 13 Where are barcode readers used extensively? 14 What is an operating system? 15 Describe some characteristics of the UNIX operating system. 16 What is a GUI? 17 How are images entered into an information system? 18 Describe some tools used in a literature search. 19 Describe the issue of privacy. LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Some people feel uncomfortable using certain input devices. Which input devices are easier for beginners to use? Why? Which require the most training? Do you think current input devices will be used in the next 20 years? Explain. 2 Why do the majority of personal computers include a mouse and not a trackball, even though trackballs are more precise and dont require a flat surface? 3 The keyboard is an inefficient input device and will be replaced by voice recognition devices. Do you agree with this statement? Why? How might this technology affect you in the future? 4 The Qwerty keyboard was purposely designed to slow typists down. It is an inefficient layout. Why does it remain the most popular keyboard layout? Do you think the Qwerty keyboard will ever be replaced? Why? Research another type of layout and explain why it is not so popular. 5 Describe the properties and features of three input devices. Outline any specific applications for which these input devices would be used, such as a touch screen in a shopping centre. Find the approximate cost of each input device. 6 The latest version of an operating system is often superior to its predecessors. Why are people reluctant to adopt new versions of their operating systems? What features would encourage you to upgrade to the latest version of an operating system? 7 An organisation uses different types of personal computers with different operating systems. You are asked to rationalise their computer resources by choosing one operating system. What operating system would you choose? Why? Would you have made a different choice five years ago? Will the choice be the same in five years time? Why? 8 The issue of privacy was a concern long before information technology. Discuss this statement. What is your view on privacy? Use the Internet to find information about privacy. Compare Australian and overseas data.
47
2.2 Organising
Organising is the process that arranges, represents and formats data for use by other information processes. It is carried out after the data is collected. Data is digitised using a hardware collection device. There is a range of application software for organising data in a variety of formats. Non-computer tools for organising include hard copy systems and pen and paper methods.
Hardware
Hardware collection devices organise data by digitising it. Digitising is the process of translating data into the binary digits (bits) that can be stored and processed by a computer. The fact that all data is represented as a series of bits means that a computer can organise and transmit data of any type. It deals with the data as a string of zeros and ones, regardless of the original format of the data. Every type of data must be represented digitally in the form of bits to be used by a computer. Text: All characters such as letters, numerals, punctuation keys, spaces and special symbols are converted into binary using a standard method of conversion such as ASCII or EBCDIC. These work by assigning each character with a decimal number and converting this number into binary code (see Chapter 1). Images: Images are divided into tiny dots called pixels. One or more bits are assigned to each pixel. The relationship between the image and the bits in memory is called bit-mapping. The number of bits assigned to each pixel depends on the number of tones and colours used. The quality of a digitised image is improved by increasing the number of pixels or increasing the tones and colour (see Chapter 8). Audio: Sound is digitised using a method called sampling. This involves taking a number of samples or slices of the sound wave. This is called the sampling rate. Each sample is assigned a number of bits. This is called the sample size. Better quality sound is achieved by increasing the sampling rate and/or the sampling size (see Chapter 10). The different methods of organising data affect how it is processed. For example, if the letters of the alphabet are captured using a scanner, they will be represented as an image. This data could not be processed using word processing software. To use the text in a word processor, it would be necessary to reorganise it using character recognition software which converted the image to ASCII text. A similar processing problem occurs if a software application interprets numbers as text. For example, if a spreadsheet interprets a number as a label (text) instead of a value, it will not be able to use that number in any calculations.
Functio
48
Software
Application software organises data. The chapters in Part 2: Application software contain detailed information on how different applications organise data. The following is brief summary. Paint and draw software is used to create graphics. A paint program creates a bit-mapped graphic. It organises data by treating each pixel (dot) on the screen individually and representing this by bits in memory. A drawing program creates a vector graphic. It organises data by defining the graphic
Function
into objects such as a straight line, a curve or shape. Each object is defined by its characteristics such as position, line width and pattern. These characteristics are stored as mathematical expressions and displayed on the screen as pixels. Multimedia is the presentation of information using text, graphics, animation, audio and video. It uses at least three of these media types. Data is organised by combining data in different formats. Audio software is used to organise audio and animation software for video. Word processing is the most widely used application software. It allows characters to be entered and documents to be created. Word processing is used to write letters, reports, assignments, articles and books. Data is organised when creating and saving a document. Desktop publishing is the use of specialised software to combine text and graphics to create a document. It is used to create many different types of publications such as magazines, newspapers and books. Data is organised by combining data in different formats. Publications are built by arranging different design elements such as headings, columns of text and graphics. A spreadsheet uses a rectangular grid made up of rows and columns to organise and store data that requires some type of calculation. A cell is the intersection of a row and column. The organisation of data involves entering data into a cell as a label, value or formula. Spreadsheets perform calculations on values (numbers) and not labels (text). A database is an organised collection of data. Data is organised into data structures called files, records, fields and characters. The data structure is defined in a data dictionary. This includes information about the characteristics of each item entered in the database, such as the field name, field size, data type and field description. A table or list arranges data into columns (fields) and rows (records).
Figure 2.10 A range of modern application software used to organise data in a variety of formats. Tools for information processes
49
File converters are used to convert a file from one format to another so the file can be used in another application. They are often available within a software application. For example, some word processors allow the user to save a document as an HTML file that can be viewed on the World Wide Web.
Non-computer tools
Information technology is not always a suitable tool for organising data. Common non-computer tools used for organising include hard copy systems and pen and paper methods. Hard copy systems involve organising data on paper. Examples include telephone directories and card catalogues. A telephone directory organises data alphabetically according to a persons family name. Large amounts of data are organised using catalogue systems. Each item is classified according to a number of categories. For example, in the library each book is classified by authors name, title, publisher and date of publication. They are also organised in subject categories. There are numerous pen and paper methods for organising data. It is common for data to be organised into tables, represented diagrammatically, summarised and put into lists. When designing a publication, people often use pen and paper to outline the basic structure of the document. This is often easier, faster and more flexible than using a computer.

The widespread use of information technology has raised a number of ethical issues for people. The following are some of the issues that relate specifically to organising data. Current trends in organising data include the increasing use of the Internet and hypermedia. The Internet is growing at a very fast rate and has become an everyday tool for many people. Data is organised and stored using Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). In addition to the growth of the Internet, software applications are providing better ways of accessing different types of data. For example, in early versions of word processing programs it was impossible to import an image into a document. Today this process is simple. Poorly organised data results in irrelevant information. If a database is poorly defined, it will contain additional data that is not necessary to solve the problem. For example, if a nursery in Parramatta stored information on its customers in a database, there would be no need to include a field for Country in the address information. It is important that data types be clearly defined for the information to be relevant and accurate. Data must be appropriate and complete. This issue was raised by the threat of the millennium bug or Y2K problem in the late 1990s. Not considering the end of the millennium, programmers used a two-digit field instead of a four-digit field to record the year. They used two digits to minimise computer memory and processing. With the change from 1999 to 2000, computer programs would be in danger of malfunctioning because they would identify 00 as being 99 years before 99 instead of one year after. It has cost billions of dollars to fix the incompleteness of this data.
Functio
50
Function
Exercise 2.2
1 What is digitising? 2 How is text converted into binary data? 3 What is the sampling rate? 4 List six main categories of application software used to solve most problems. 5 How is data organised in a spreadsheet? 6 How is data organised in a database? 7 Describe a hard copy system used to organise data. 8 Outline the issue raised by the threat of the millennium bug. LEARNING ACTIVITIES Some of these activities involve the use of application software. If necessary, refer to chapters 5 to 11 for detailed descriptions of each application. 1 Application software is so expensive you should be allowed to copy the software from your friends. Discuss this statement. What is your view? Why? 2 Jenny Nguyen has bought her first car and has decided to monitor its fuel consumption. a Design a data collection sheet that can be carried in the car and used to organise data over a three-month period. Each time she buys petrol, Jenny records the odometer reading in kilometres, the number of litres purchased and the current cost of petrol in cents per litre. The data collection sheet should allow for calculations such as distance travelled since last fill, the cost of filling up each time, the total cost per month and the number of kilometres per litre the car achieved. Construct a spreadsheet to calculate the fuel consumption. Save it with the filename FUEL. b Using the Save As command, save a copy of the file as formatted text (space delimited). Open this file in a word processor. 3 a Create a table containing at least 10 different functions of your word processor that you find useful. The table is to contain two columns, with the headings: Command/Feature and Purpose. Use the Help menu as a guide to the functions of your word processor. Save it with the filename COMMANDS. b Save a copy of the file as HTML. Open this file in a Web browser. 4 a Create an electronic database of your CD collection. Design appropriate tables, forms, queries and reports to organise and analyse this data. Save it with the filename CD. b Save a copy of the file as HTML. Open this file in a Web browser. 5 a Create a graphic or select a piece of clip art of your favourite animal. Save it with the filename ANIMAL. b Save copies of the file in different file formats (TIFF, PICT, EPS, GIF, JPEG). See which of these file formats can be opened in a graphics program, a desktop publishing program and a Web browser. 6 Write a report on a piece of software that you like using. Describe what the software does. Why do you like this software? What key areas of the software do you use? What do you dislike about the software? How much does the software cost? Outline the hardware requirements to use the software.
51
2.3 Analysing
Analysing is the interpretation of the data. It involves examining the data and giving meaning to it. When data has been ordered and given meaning by people it is called information. The hardware requirements for analysing data depend on the type of analysis and amount of data. There is a range of software applications to analyse image, audio, video, text and numeric data. Non-computer tools for analysing include searching manual filing systems and creating simulations using models.
Hardware
Hardware requirements for analysing depend on the type of analysis. When analysis involves large amounts of data or complex simulations, the hardware must perform a large number of computations very quickly and with a high degree of precision. If the simulations are complex, such as in scientific applications, then a supercomputer or mainframe may be required. Analysis depends on the storage and processing capabilities of the information system. Large amounts of storage are needed to receive and retain data over a period of time. If the primary storage (memory) and secondary storage (storage) resources are abundant, then fast processing is possible. Fast processing is needed to complete the many calculations often required for analysis. This is performed by the central processing unit (CPU). Applications requiring complex analysis use parallel processing. This is the simultaneous processing of instructions using multiple processors or CPUs. Parallel processing is much faster than using one CPU. This type of processing is examined later in this chapter.
Software
Participants use a range of software applications to analyse image, audio, video, text and numeric data. The chapters in Part 2: Application software contain detailed information on how different applications analyse data. The following is brief summary. Searching is the process of locating data and information. Most software applications have a Find or Search command. The user types in a string of text or numbers and the software examines the data to find a match. A query is a search of a database for records that meet a certain condition. There are three methods of entering a simple query: selecting a menu option, using query by example and using a query language. Sorting is the process of arranging data in a particular order. Sorts are performed in either ascending order (A to Z and 0 to 9) or descending order (Z to A and 9 to 0). In a database, sorting can be done on more than one field, so that records are arranged in precise order. Modelling and simulations are used to make predictions and examine decisions concerning real situations. A model is a representation of some aspect of the real world and a simulation is the use of that model. Computer simulations use a computer to model a real system. They have been developed for many different fields of business, industry and science (see Figure 2.11). Simple business simulations can be performed on a personal computer using spreadsheet, financial or statistical software. They enable businesses to plan and analyse all the factors affecting their business. For
Functio
52
Function
example, a spreadsheet models any activity that requires calculations, such as a budget. Advanced simulations are performed on large computers such as mainframes. For example, proposed car designs undergo simulated wind tunnel tests using a computer. This analysis saves time and money. What-if predictions are a powerful feature of spreadsheet software. The software allows the user to make changes to one item of data and observing the effects on other items. For example, if you had a spreadsheet that calculated loan repayments you could change the interest rate and observe the effect on the repayments. Charts are a graphical representation of numerical data. They convert data in rows and columns into a picture that can be read at a glance. Charts make data easy to understand. Trends are revealed and comparisons can be made quickly. There are many different types of charts including bar, column, line and pie charts. Figure 2.11 Simulators are used by airlines to train pilots.
Non-computer tools
Information technology is not always a suitable tool for analysing data. It is often necessary to compare and contrast computer and non-computer tools for analysis on the basis of speed, volume of data and cost. The following are some of the non-computer tools used for analysis. Searching manual filing systems to retrieve documents depends on how accurately the data has been organised and sorted. If the filing system has not been regularly updated and irrelevant material removed, searching may be time-consuming and frustrating. An appropriate organisation of files is needed if data is to be easily retrieved and analysed. Simulations often involve using complex mathematical processes. A set of rules, relationships and procedures are specified. During the simulation these mathematical processes are analysed. In addition to gaining an understanding of the system, the simulation may result in new rules or even a new situation. Simulations range from using simple pen and paper models to complex interactive computer systems. For example, researchers may use simulation techniques to carry out experiments instead of using rare materials or expensive equipment.

The widespread use of information technology has raised a number of ethical issues. The following are some issues that relate specifically to analysing data. Unauthorised analysis of data occurs when people gain illegal access to an information system. The theft of information and its subsequent analysis is a major concern for any organisation (see Chapter 1).
53
The incorrect analysis of data results in inaccurate information. If data has been poorly organised or an inappropriate model used to represent a situation, the analysis will be wrong. It is very costly for organisations to make decisions based on inaccurate information. Privacy is eroded by linking databases for analysis. Most people in pursuit of societys benefits readily give information about themselves to selected organisations. They may also leave a trail of electronic data when they use a credit card, visit the doctor, use the library, access the Internet or subscribe to a magazine. If data from these sources is combined it can create an accurate picture of a persons habits, expenditure patterns and tastes. Those people can then be targeted very precisely by advertisers. Using information technology to combine and analyse personal data in this way is known as data warehousing or data mining. On the other hand, organisations need to have information to allow them to operate efficiently. Governments need information to provide services to the community, such as schools, hospitals and other social support organisations. Doctors must have access to patients medical histories to treat them, and banks need proof of customers credit records to provide loans. The personal data stored by information technology enables us to maintain our high standard of living. Invasion of privacy is not a new problem. It has always been possible for information to fall into the wrong hands.
Figure 2.12 As more and more transactions are carried out online, privacy of data is becoming an important issue for suppliers and consumers.
Functio
54
Exercise 2.3
1 Describe two hardware requirements for analysis. 2 What type of processing is needed for complex analysis? 3 What are modelling and simulations? 4 What type of computers are used for advanced simulations? 5 Describe the process of using what-if questions to analyse spreadsheet data. 6 List two non-computer tools used for analysis. 7 How can your privacy be eroded if databases are linked for analysis?
Function
LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 We use models to help us understand ourselves and our world. They can be used to demonstrate and predict behaviour based on our assumptions and beliefs, the information we use and how we interpret it. Outline a model for: a deciding what to eat for lunch b choosing a person to marry. 2 The Data-Matching Act permits certain agencies to check records held by different government departments, such as the tax office and the departments responsible for social security, employment and education. It aims to catch people who are cheating the welfare system. Do you think this is an invasion of privacy? Why? 3 Modelling and simulation have been used in the genetic manipulation of animals. The models are used by scientists to breed animals with desirable characteristics. Do you think this information technology should be applied to humans? Why? 4 The use of modelling and simulators makes life too predictable for everyone. Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons for your answer. 5 Open the database file called CD, which you created in Exercise 2.2. Sort the data in ascending order by CD title. Search for all the titles with the letter e in their name. 6 Open the spreadsheet file called FUEL, which you created in Exercise 2.2. What would be the effect on the cost per kilometre if the price of petrol increased by 10 cents per litre? What would be the effect if the number of kilometres travelled was halved?
2.4 Storing and retrieving

Storing and retrieving data is a two-step process for retaining data. Storing saves data and information for later use; retrieving obtains the data and information that has been previously saved. The process of storing data is called writing and retrieving data is called reading. There is a range of different hardware devices used for storing and retrieving. Software is used to direct and control these devices. Non-computer tools include paper-based storage systems, microfiche and libraries.
Hardware
The hardware used for storing and retrieving data is called secondary storage, or simply storage. Data stored on a storage medium must be read into memory before the CPU can access it. A backup is a copy of data held on a separate storage medium for security purposes. Backups should be performed regularly. Information systems need to store data because memory is limited in size and volatile. Volatile means that when the computer is switched off, or the power supply is interrupted, the contents of memory are lost. Secondary storage provides a non-volatile and more permanent storage area than memory. The hardware involved in storing and retrieving includes devices such as magnetic disks, magnetic tape, optical disks and flash memory.
Magnetic disks
Magnetic disks are the most widely used storage medium for personal computers. A magnetic disk consists of a circular piece of metal or plastic whose
55
surface has been coated with a thin layer of magnetic material. Magnetic disks use random access (or direct access) to retrieve data. This form of access allows an item of data to be found directly without having to access all the data that comes before it. Random access allows data to be retrieved much faster than sequential access, which is used on magnetic tapes. A disk drive is a device on which a magnetic disk is mounted. The disk drive spins the disk and uses one or more heads to read and write data. If the disk is permanently attached to the drive, it is called a fixed disk (hard disk). A disk needs to be formatted to store data. Formatting organises the disk into sectors and tracks, removes any data on the disk, analyses the disk for faults and creates a directory to record information about files. This directory is called the file allocation table (FAT) on personal computers. It stores the filename, file size, time and date the file was last modified, and the address of the file. The address of the file is its track and sector number. If a sector has a flaw, it is called a bad sector and cannot be used to store data.
ITTFact t I Fac
Head crash occurs when the head in a magnetic disk drive touches the rapidly spinning disk and causes permanent damage and loss of data. It is caused by excess heat, moisture or a drop in pressure.
A floppy disk, or diskette, is a magnetic disk made of flexible plastic and covered with magnetic material. Even though floppy disks do not have a large storage capacity and are slower than a hard drive for accessing data, they are a portable and cheap storage medium. The most common size of floppy disk is the 31/2 inch (9 cm). It is fully enclosed in a rigid plastic casing and is used for storing small files. To be used, a floppy disk must be inserted into the disk drive that is usually built into the system unit. A hard disk is a magnetic disk made of metal or glass and covered with magnetic material. It is rigid and not flexible like a floppy disk. This rigid construction allows it to be rotated 10100 times faster than a floppy disk, giving it faster access to data. Hard disks store more data than floppy disks because the data is stored more densely. Their storage capacity is usually measured in gigabytes, with larger capacities coming onto the market regularly. Hard disks are partitioned before they are formatted. A partition is an area that functions as a separate disk. Each partition is assigned a letter as though it were a separate disk drive. The size of each partition is variable and must be specified. On IBMcompatible computers, hard disk partitions usually start with the letter C. A disk controller is responsible for the transfer of data between the computer and the disk drive. It consists of electrical circuits built into the disk drive or contained on an expansion card. There are numerous standards for disk controllers, such as EIDE, Ultra DMA and SCSI. EIDE (enhanced integrated drive electronics) supports a storage capacity up to 8.4 Gb and data transfer rates up to 66 megabytes per second. Ultra DMA (direct memory access) has increased data transfer rates up to 66 megabytes per second and improved data integrity by using cyclical redundancy check (CRC). It is also referred to as Ultra ATA. SCSI (small computer system interface) controllers are usually contained on an expansion card. They provide data transfer rates of up to 80 megabytes per second and support multiple disk drives.
Functio
56
Function
Removable cartridges are disks encased in a metal or plastic cartridge that are removed like a floppy disk. Removable cartridges are fast, though usually not as fast as fixed hard disks. They combine the best aspects of hard and floppy disks. There are a number of types of removable cartridges designed for use with personal computers, with different capacities. Each type of cartridge must be used with its own type of disk drive. Two formats that have become popular are Zip disks and Jaz disks (see Figure 2.13). Zip disks (or cartridges) are slightly larger than a 31/2 inch floppy disk and about twice as thick. They can store 100 or 250 Mb of data and have a transfer rate of 1.4 megabytes per second. Zip disks are popular for backing up hard disks and transporting files because they are relatively inexpensive for their capacity. Figure 2.13 Zip and Jaz disks are two popular types Zip drives can be internal or external and of removable cartridges. require special software for file management. Jaz disks (or cartridges) can store up to 2 Gb of data and have a transfer rate of 5.5 megabytes per second. Jaz disks are suited to storing large files for multimedia, graphics and sound. Virtual memory is a technique used by the operating system to increase the amount of memory. It works by setting aside part of a hard disk and treating it as though it were memory. A common method used by operating systems to perform virtual memory is called paging. Paging involves allocating a fixed number of bytes every time data is transferred from memory to a disk. It requires fast access to a disk so that pages of data can be switched rapidly to memory.
Magnetic tape
Magnetic tape is a long, thin strip of plastic coated with a thin layer of magnetic material. The tape is wound onto reels, sometimes inside a cartridge. Tape is read and written on a tape drive that winds the tape from one reel to the other, causing it to pass a read/write head. Tape can store large quantities of data inexpensively and is often used as a backup medium (see Figure 2.14). The main disadvantage with magnetic tape is that it uses sequential access to retrieve data. This form of access starts at the beginning of the tape and reads all of the data until the required item is found. Sequential access is slow, making magnetic tapes unsuitable for data that is updated often. Magnetic tapes come in a variety of sizes and formats.
Figure 2.14 Tape racks holding tape cartridges. Tools for information processes
57
QIC tapes (quarter-inch cartridges) look like audio tape cassettes and are inexpensive. There are many different formats of QIC tapes with capacities ranging from 80 Mb to 5 Gb. DAT cartridges (digital audio tape) are a 4 mm tape that can store between 2 Gb and 24 Gb. They require relatively expensive tape drives and have slow data transfer rates of 2 Mb per second. 8 mm cartridges use the same helical-scan technology as VCR tapes to write data at very high densities. They have capacities ranging between 5 Gb and 50 Gb and have a transfer rate of 6 Mb per second. These cartridges require an expensive tape drive.
ITTFact t I Fac
Magnetic tape was first used to record data and programs in 1951 as part of the UNIVAC computer system.
Optical disks
An optical disk is a storage medium on which data is read and written using laser technology. They are polycarbonate plastic disks whose surface is coated with a reflective layer of metal. The data is written to the disk by a highpowered laser that burns millions of tiny holes called pits on the surface. Optical disks are portable and use random access to retrieve data. There are several different kinds of optical disks. CD-ROM (compact disc read only memory) disks are 12 centimetres wide and capable of storing 650 Mb. However, once the data has been stored on the CD, is it read onlyit cannot be changed or added to (see Figure 2.15). A CD-ROM drive is needed to read data from a CD. They are slower than a hard disk drive but are becoming progressively faster and cheaper. The higher the drive speed, the faster the data access. CD-ROMs are convenient for storing data that remains constant, such as encyclopedias, reference material, educational titles, games and multimedia applications. CD-R (compact disc recordable) disks allow data to be written once but read many times. They are also called WORM disks (write once, read many). A CD-R drive, or CD burner, is required to write the data. CD-R has become a popular storage medium as the price of CD-R drives has dropped. A CD-R drive allows users to create CD-ROMs and audio CDs, and to archive large amounts of data. Their disadvantage is that the writing process is permanent. CD-RW (compact disc rewritable) disks allows the user to write, erase and rewrite data. Erasing the disk is achieved by heating the surface and quickly cooling it. A CD-RW is slower than a hard disk and after frequent use areas of the disk tend to become inaccessible. Figure 2.15 A CD-ROM drive.
Functio
58
Function
DVD (digital versatile disk) is a disk format that can store large amounts of data. A DVD-ROM is the same size as a CD-ROM but provides storage of between 4.7Gb and 17 Gb. DVD drives are compatible with CD-ROMs and audio CDs. One of the major advantages of a DVD is that data, video and audio have the same file structure. This file structure is called UDF (universal disc format). This overcomes problems of incompatibility with multimedia applications. DVDs can store full-length movies.
Flash memory
Flash memory is a non-volatile memory chip that retains its data when the power is removed. Flash memory is erased and written in fixed blocks ranging from 512 bytes to 256 Kb. Flash memory cards look similar to a credit card and come in a variety of formats such as PC cards, CompactFlash and SmartMedia. They are widely used in digital cameras, modems, mobile phones and portable computers.
Software
Software directs and controls the hardware storage sector devices. To store data to a magnetic disk it needs to be formatted. Formatting a disk prepares a disk to accept data by organising it into tracks and sectors (see Figure 2.16). A track is a band formed by concentric circles, and a sector is a section of a track that can store data. The number of tracks and sectors is determined by the operating system and the storage medium. A 31/2 inch floppy disk is capable of storing 1.44 megabytes consisting of 80 tracks on each side and 18 sectors per track. Each sector has an address, track so that the computer can go directly to a specific area (direct access). Formatting a floppy disk usually Figure 2.16 A disk showing tracks and sectors. takes a couple of minutes. When a disk is formatted, you can read and write data as files to that disk. Application software stores data to a storage medium using the Save command. The first time data is saved, it must be given a filename. The Save As command allows the user to change the filename, location and file format of the data. To retrieve the data, the user selects the Open command and chooses the required filename. Storing data should be performed frequently so that the data is not lost. Software used for storage and retrieval includes the following types. Hardware interface software controls the hardware devices used for storage. It is usually classified as part of the operating system. Each storage device has particular specifications that are controlled by the hardware interface software. File management software organises files on a storage medium such as a hard disk. It is usually part of the operating system. In general, a file is recognised by a filename and contains either a program or data. Depending on the operating system, the filename can be between 8 and 255 characters long. There may be thousands of files on a hard disk and to work effectively the user will need quick access to these files. The files are stored and organised in folders or directories. There can be many levels of folders. The folder at the top level contains other folders for specific purposes. Each of these folders contains other folders or files at the next level. File management software performs allows the user to create, delete, open, close, rename, copy and move files and folders (see Figure 2.17).
59
Figure 2.17 Different levels of folders on a hard disk (C: drive) and floppy disk (A: drive).
File formats are used for different data types. On many types of computer systems, a filename extension is used to identify a file format. Some of the common extensions are BMP, JPG, GIF and PCT for graphics; WAV, MID and MP3 for audio; MPG and QT for video; and DOC, TXT and RTF for text files. Image, video and audio files require significantly more storage than text and numbers. A database management system (DBMS) is the software used to access a database. A DBMS itself has no data in it. It allows a user to enter, store and retrieve data. The data in a database is organised and stored in files, records, fields and characters. The user can choose which data is required and how to display that information in a meaningful way. Information is retrieved by searching the database or constructing a query (see Chapter 6). An Internet browser is a software program that allows users to access documents stored on other computers connected to the World Wide Web. If the address (URL) of a Web page is entered into the browser, the browser retrieves the Web page from that location and displays it. A search engine is a database of indexed Web sites that can be searched using keywords. The search engine scans the index for keywords and retrieves a list of the Web sites that contain those keywords (see Chapter 11). Passwords are secret words or numbers that the user types on the keyboard to gain access to an information system. Good data protection systems require users to change their passwords often, so that only authorised people have access to certain data.
Non-computer tools
Information technology is not always a suitable tool for storing and retrieving data. The following are some of the non-computer tools used for storing and retrieving. Paper-based storage systems include folders, boxes, bookcases and filing systems. They are often a convenient method of data storage. However, paper storage systems require a large amount of space and specific data is often difficult to retrieve. Microfiche are transparent sheets of film about 10 15 centimetres that store around 200 pages of print. They were a popular method of storing documents for several decades, particularly in libraries. Back issues of newspapers and magazines were stored and retrieved using microfiche. People could retrieve data directly without having to start at the beginning of the document. Microfiche has largely been replaced by optical disks. A library is a storage and retrieval area for information in a variety of forms, such as books, newspapers, magazines and CDs. Many countries have established national libraries to ensure an orderly collection and storage of data. Libraries store data using the Dewey classification system. It classifies books into 10 main subject areas using decimal numbers. Data is retrieved using the attributes of the book, such as the authors name, title, publisher, subject and date of publication.
Functio
60
Function

The widespread use of information technology has raised a number of ethical issues for people. The following are some of the issues that relate specifically to storing and retrieving data. Security of data and information is a major issue. The cost of replacing stored data that is deliberately or accidentally damaged is enormous. Data security involves a series of safeguards to protect data, such as passwords, personal objects, biometric devices, firewalls, data encryption, securing waste, carefully screening employees and having appropriate backup procedures (see Chapter 1). Unauthorised retrieval of data refers to people gaining illegal access to information systems. These people are called hackers. Hackers are often involved in information theft or financial theft. Their crimes are often not reported due to adverse publicity and are not regarded in the same light as conventional robbery (see Chapter 1).
Exercise 2.4
1 What is storage and retrieval? 2 How is data retrieved from a magnetic disk? 3 Describe some of the information stored by the file allocation table. 4 Outline the advantages and disadvantages of floppy disks. 5 What is a hard disk? 6 Describe a Zip disk. 7 What is the purpose of virtual memory? 8 What is magnetic tape? 9 What is the main disadvantage of magnetic tapes? 10 List three different types of magnetic tapes. 11 How is data written to a CD? 12 Describe a CD-ROM disk. 13 Outline one of the major advantages of DVD. 14 Describe flash memory. 15 What does formatting a disk involve? 16 Describe some of the functions performed by file management software. 17 How is information retrieved from the Web? 18 How is microfiche used in libraries? 19 List two issues related to the storing and retrieving of data.
61
LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 IBM invented the first floppy disk in 1967. The 3 1/2 inch floppy disk is still packaged with many computer systems but other manufacturers have phased them out. Will the floppy disk continue to be an important storage medium? Explain. What storage medium will be used in the next 10 years? 2 A CD-ROM cookbook allows users to search for recipes that meet certain criteria and provides video demonstrations. Outline some of the advantages and disadvantages of a CD-ROM cookbook over a traditional cookbook. 3 Optical disks are being used to store images of famous paintings. The images are very clear, portions are magnified and works can be displayed instantly based on particular criteria. Do you think national galleries will take advantage of this technology? Explain. Who would use the optical disk? What are the advantages of a real art gallery compared to an optical disk? 4 A large amount of memory enables a computer to retrieve and store data quickly and thus operate at a high speed. However, memory is more expensive than storage. When purchasing a computer, what factors need to be considered to decide on the amount of storage required? 5 David deleted a file by reformatting his disk. Is this an appropriate method of deleting a file? Why? Outline a reason for formatting a disk that contains data. 6 The manager of a local furniture store wants to target people who have recently applied for an extension to their house. By sending these people a personalised letter outlining the latest deals he will increase sales. He has offered a councillor $2000 for a disk containing the names and addresses of all people who have proposed building extensions. The manager has stressed that no one will ever know where he obtained the information. Outline the ethical issues involved in this situation. 7 In the future, people will carry around a single disk or card that contains all the data about their life. This would include medical records, finances, test results and lifestyle choices. Do you agree with this statement? Why? Outline the possible impact of this technology on your life.
2.5 Processing
Processing is the manipulation of data by editing and updating it. It is necessary to select appropriate hardware for specific types of processing. The hardware allows the application software to edit and manipulate different data types. Non-computer tools include documenting the procedures for processing.
Functio
62
Hardware
Processing is performed by a computers central processing unit and is measured by the clock speed. Processing is dependent on the memory capabilities of the system. The system unit is the collection of hardware components that includes the central processing unit, memory and associated electronics.
Central processing unit

The central processing unit (CPU) is a set of electrical circuits responsible for controlling and processing data within the computer. It is the brain of the
Function
computer. The CPU accepts the data from any input device, changes this data according to the instructions given by the user, and then sends the results to an output device. The CPU consists of tens of millions of electrical components located on a thin silicon wafer called an integrated circuit or silicon chip. There are several different types of chips including those from Intel (Pentium) and Motorola (PowerPC). In a personal computer, the CPU is contained on a single integrated circuit and is called a microprocessor. In more powerful computers, the CPU may consist of more than one integrated circuit. These integrated circuits are located on a flat printed circuit board inside the computer called the motherboard or main board (see Figure 2.18). The motherboard also contains other integrated circuits for special functions such as storage, video, arithmetic and sound.
floppy disk drive
power supply
hard disk drive
motherboard CPU Figure 2.18 Inside a personal computer.
The CPU is constantly undergoing development to make it more powerful. Initially, there were many hardware manufacturers who competed against each other, and their CPUs were incompatible. This meant that software designed for one chip would not run on a computer with a different chip. Today, there are several industry standards for CPUs. In addition, software and hardware developers undertake joint research and development to develop better CPUs. This allows the same programs to run on different platforms. The CPU is made up of two components: the control unit and the arithmetic logic unit. The control unit directs and coordinates the entire computer system. It is the organiser that directs the flow of data in the computer in the same way as traffic lights control the flow of cars at an intersection. The control unit selects and retrieves instructions from storage in sequence, interprets them and starts the required operation.
63
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is part of the CPU that carries out all the arithmetical and logical calculations. Arithmetical calculations include addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Logical calculations have a true or false answer and include relational operators (>, <, =, >=, <=, and <>) and logical operators (AND, OR and NOT). The ALU contains several types of registers. A register is a temporary storage area for small amounts of data or instructions needed for processing. It provides fast access to data. The fetch-execute cycle, or machine cycle, is a cycle of events on a single instruction carried out by the CPU to process data. Before an instruction is processed, the instructions and data are placed in memory. The CPU performs the following steps for each instruction. 1 The control unit fetches the instructions from memory. 2 The control unit decodes the instructions (works out what to do) and makes the data available to the arithmetic logic unit. The first two steps are called the instruction time or i-time. 3 The arithmetic logic unit performs the operation on the data. 4 The control unit places the result of the operation into memory or a register. Steps 3 and 4 are called the execution time or e-time.
2 Decode
3 Execute
i-time
e-time
1 Fetch
4 Store
Figure 2.19 The fetch-execute cycle.
Functio
64
In the past, the CPU waited until an instruction completed all four stages of the fetch-execute cycle before beginning work on the next instruction. However, most processors today use pipelining. In pipelining the CPU fetches a new instruction as soon as the preceding instruction moves onto the next stage. Pipelining speeds up the fetch-execute cycle as several instructions are being processed at the same time. For example, as one instruction is being fetched, a second is being decoded, a third is being executed and a fourth is storing the result.
Processing speed
All computers have an electronic clock to regulate the fetch-execute cycle. The clock generates a sequence of regular electrical pulses that the control unit synchronises with the fetch-execute cycle. The clock speed is the number of electrical pulses per second and is often measured in megahertz (mHz). The higher the clock speed, the faster the CPU can execute a particular instruction. A speed of 500 mHz means the clock is generating 500 million electrical pulses per second.
Function
In addition to the clock speed, the systems performance is measured using the word size, response time and CPU utilisation. Word size is the number of bits processed by the CPU at one time. Most computers use a word size of 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits. The bigger the word size, the faster the computer. Response time is the amount of time taken for the computer to respond to a command. The response time varies according to the data entered or the command issued. It is often less than one second. CPU utilisation refers to the amount of time the CPU is working (see Figure 2.20). It is presented as a report and often compared with the disk input and output rate (called disk I/O). Systems lacking memory or power often spend more time moving data to and from a disk than actually processing the data. This is referred to as thrashing.
Figure 2.20 CPU utilisation.
Memory
Memory is the part of the computer that holds data and programs before and after they have been processed by the CPU. Memory is internal storage as it uses integrated circuits (silicon chips) located on the computers motherboard. Secondary storage is external storage as the data is kept away from the motherboard and the CPU. Memory is also known as main memory, primary memory, main storage or primary storage. Memory consists of RAM, cache and ROM. RAM (random access memory) is where data and instructions are held temporarily. It depends on a supply of electricity to maintain data storage. When the power to the computer is shut off, everything in RAM is lost. In other words, RAM is volatile memory. The data in RAM can be accessed randomly. That is, a byte of memory is accessed without touching any of the other bytes. There are two main types of RAM. Dynamic RAM (DRAM, pronounced dee-ram) is memory that must be constantly refreshed. The contents of DRAM must be updated a thousand times a second as the capacitors used to store the data quickly lose their electrical charge. Most memory uses DRAM chips as they are small, inexpensive and relatively simple. Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM, pronounced ess-dee-ram) is a type of DRAM that is synchronised with the CPU. It is faster than ordinary DRAM.
65
Static RAM (SRAM, pronounced ess-ram) is memory that does not have to be updated or refreshed. SRAM chips have a faster access time (10 nanoseconds) compared to DRAM chips (60 nanoseconds). However, SRAM chips are much more expensive than DRAM as they contain more electrical components. SRAM chips are often found in portable computers and the cache. A computers performance is dependent on its RAM. For this reason RAM manufacturers are continually inventing new designs to provide the fastest possible access times at the lowest possible cost. This has resulted in different types of DRAM and SRAM chips. A computers memory can be upgraded by inserting additional DRAM chips into special slots on the motherboard (see Figure 2.21). These slots are limited and require specific types of DRAM chips. For example, a memory slot with a 72-pin socket needs a DRAM chip with the same number of pins. It is also necessary to make sure the DRAM chips are the appropriate speed. If DRAM chips with different speeds are installed they will slow down the computer.
Figure 2.21 A memory module which provides 128 Mb of RAM.
Cache (pronounced cash) is a temporary storage area used to store frequently requested data and instructions. It makes the computer operate at a much faster speed. The larger the cache, the faster the computer will operate. There are two types of caching. Cache memory is high-speed memory located between the CPU and RAM. It improves performance by using SRAM and reducing the need for the CPU to access the slower DRAM chips. A disk cache works in a similar way to cache memory. It stores the most recent data from the hard disk in RAM. When the CPU needs access to data from the disk it first checks the disk cache. Disk caching improves the computers performance because accessing data from RAM is a thousand times faster than accessing a disk. The effectiveness of the cache is dependent on the number of times the CPU finds the data in the cache. This is called the hit rate. Programmers are improving the hit rate by developing strategies to anticipate data a user might request based on their current use. ROM (read only memory) holds data and instructions that are fixed at the time of production and cannot be changed by the user or the computer. It is permanent memory that only allows data to be retrieved (read) and not entered into storage (written). The instructions stored in ROM are called firmware because they are somewhere between software and hardware. Storage of data within the ROM protects it from being damaged or changed. Most personal computers contain a small amount of ROM that stores important programs such as booting the computer and checking for input and output devices. The instructions that allow the computer to communicate with input and output
Functio
66
Function
devices are called the ROM BIOS (basic input/output system). The computer manufacturer sets the actual contents of ROM and it is non-volatile. Nonvolatile memory does not lose its contents when the power to the computer is turned off. There are a number of different variations of ROM. Programmable ROM (PROM, pronounced prom) chips allow data and instructions to be entered only once and cannot be reprogrammed. The difference between PROM and ROM is that PROM is manufactured as blank memory while with ROM the firmware is entered during the manufacturing process. Erasable programmable ROM (EPROM, pronounced ee-prom) chips can be erased and reprogrammed by the manufacturer. Exposing the chip to ultraviolet light clears the memory in the EPROM. EPROM chips are used in personal computers and many games devices such as arcade machines and poker machines. They enable the manufacturer to change the contents of ROM to cater for new versions of the firmware and remove any errors.
Types of processing
An information system should reflect the methods used to process information. If people are working individually and rarely share work they use a non-networked information system. However, if people work in a group and need to share data and resources, they require a networked information system. There are three types of processing used with networks to increase a computers performance. Centralised processing is controlled by a central computer. The central computer is a mainframe or midrange computer that performs all the processing (see Figure 2.22). It allows data and resources to be shared. Centralised processing is used by organisations that require online access to a central database but are geographically spread, such as an airline. Centralised processing is totally dependent on the central computer. If this computer malfunctions, the entire system goes down. Figure 2.22 Centralised processing controlled by a mainframe. Distributed processing consists of workstations connected to shared data and resources at a local site. People do their own work on a PC or workstation but have the ability to share work and resources. Distributed processing will continue to operate even if some of the workstations are not functioning. However, security can be a problem as the data is spread out. Parallel processing is the simultaneous processing of instructions using multiple processors or CPUs. It is much faster than using one CPU. Parallel processing divides the processing task between a series of processors. This requires special software that can recognise how to divide up problems and bring the results back together again. Parallel processing is used by Internet search engines to convert a single query into several separate queries that can be performed simultaneously. It also has significant applications in artificial intelligence. Parallel processing performs many processes simultaneously like the human brain.
67
Software
Each piece of application software processes data. It involves editing and manipulating data. The chapters in Part 2: Application software contain detailed information on how data is processed in different applications. The following is brief summary. Text and numbers are edited in many different ways such as deleting, inserting, moving and copying. In a spreadsheet, calculations are performed using formulas. Errors in text are corrected using a spell checker and a grammar checker. The structure of a database can be modified to take into account new requirements. Images are edited using graphics tools. Graphics can be positioned, cropped, resized and distorted. When you enlarge a bit-mapped graphic, you also enlarge each pixel and create a jagged staircase pattern called aliasing. Vector graphics are easily edited using a drawing program. Video and audio are edited using digital video production software and audio software. Editing video involves adding text, audio and graphics to the video clip. Sounds are edited in many different ways such as deleting sounds, changing the speed, adding effects such as echo, overlaying (mixing) sound files and altering the quality of the sound file.
Non-computer tools
Non-computer tools are used to assist understanding of how the processing in an information system transforms data into information. The following noncomputer tools are used for processing. Documentation is written to explain the procedures for processing. It may be a detailed description of the processes or a set of steps to be followed. Documentation in the form of user manuals is provided by software companies to explain their products. Data flow diagrams (DFDs) are a graphical method of representing a system using a number of processes together with inputs, outputs and storage. DFDs focus on the flow of data between information processes in a system. A system flow chart is a graphical method of representing both the flow of data and the logic of a system. It documents the essential details of the system such as the sequence, processes and precise rules for selecting particular actions (see Chapter 3).

The widespread use of information technology has raised a number of ethical issues for people. The following are some of the issues that relate specifically to processing data. The type of processing raises issues of security and flexibility. It is easier to secure data on one computer rather than on numerous workstations. Therefore centralised processing is more secure than distributed processing. On the other hand, distributed processing is much more flexible and is not totally dependent on one central computer. Ownership of processed data is causing increasing concern in society. Organisations can use our preferences, weaknesses and habits to their commercial advantage. Data on what we buy, how we pay for it, what we read, what we watch on television and how much we earn is valuable to those who want to
Functio
68
Function
sell us things. Who owns this data? How is data about us being combined, sold and exchanged? For example, if you apply to a building inspector for a permit to extend your house, who owns this data? Does the building inspector have the right to sell this processed data to a bricklayer? Would it be a benefit or an intrusion of privacy if you were contacted by a bricklayer offering to quote for laying bricks? Bias in processing can be caused by biased data being collected, or incorrect manipulation of that data.
Exercise 2.5
1 Describe the system unit. 2 What is the central processing unit? 3 Decribe the two components of the CPU. 4 Describe the four steps of the machine cycle performed by the CPU. 5 Why do most processors use pipelining? 6 What is the clock speed? 7 What is RAM? 8 What are the advantages of SRAM over DRAM? 9 What is the purpose of a cache? 10 List two types of caching. 11 What is the firmware of a computer? 12 Explain the difference between PROM and EPROM. 13 Describe the types of organisations that use centralised processing. 14 What is parallel processing? 15 Describe some of the ways of editing text and numbers. 16 List two non-computer tools for processing. 17 Why is centralised processing more secure than distributed programming? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 A computer is more intelligent than any person since the CPU can carry out arithmetic operations many times faster than the human brain. Comment on this statement. 2 The CPU has been described as the brain of a computer. Reverse this analogy and apply it to the fetch-execute cycle. Select a simple task and divide it into the actions of the fetch-execute cycle. Are there any actions that dont fit the fetchexecute cycle? Why is this? 3 ROM is described as permanent memory but does this really exist? Explain. 4 In 1994 Intels Pentium processor contained a rounding error. It would take 25 000 years for the average user to be affected by this mistake. Intel was forced to replace every processor at a cost of a billion dollars. Do you think people should have demanded replacement processors? Why? Should perfection be expected in a computer? Are you prepared to pay the price for perfection?
69
5 Research the increases in the processor speed of personal computers over the past five years. What do you predict will be the processor speed of a personal computer in three years time?
2.6 Transmitting and receiving

Transmitting and receiving is the transfer of data and information within and between information systems. The hardware includes modems and networks as well as the internal components of the computer. Software is used to direct the use of the hardware. There is a range of non-computer tools for transmitting and receiving data, such as mail, phone, fax, radio and television.
Communication concepts
There are two main types of digital data tranmission: serial and parallel. Serial transfer transmits data one bit at a time through a single line. Parallel transfer transmits more than one bit of data simultaneously using separate lines (see Figure 2.23). Obviously parallel transfer is much quicker than serial transfer because it can send more than one bit at a time. However, parallel transfer is used only for distances less than a few metres, otherwise errors occur in transmitting the data and the cabling is too expensive. It is used both inside the system unit and for connecting peripheral devices such as printers and disk drives. Serial transfer is used to connect peripheral devices such as modems and Serial transfer 1 bit at a time printers, and is used over longer distances 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 through telephone lines, coaxial cables, fibre optic cables or microwave devices. Serial transmission can be either asyn1 character chronous or synchronous. In asynchronous transmission, each byte is identified with special start and stop bits. This has Parallel transfer 8 bits at a time become the standard for personal com0 0 1 1 1 puters. A parity bit is used to check for errors in transmission. A parity bit is an 1 1 0 1 0 additional bit attached to the binary code 1 0 0 0 0 for each transmitted character. If an odd 1 1 1 1 1 parity is chosen, the number of ones in the eight bits must be odd. If an error has 0 0 0 0 1 occurred in a single bit, then the parity 0 0 0 1 1 will be different and an error in trans0 0 0 1 0 mission has occurred. Synchronous transmission requires all the data to be sent at 1 0 1 1 1 the same rate. It is faster and more effiFigure 2.23 Serial and parallel data transfer. cient than asynchronous transmission, and is used on larger computer systems. The direction of data flow is either simplex, half duplex or full duplex. Simplex mode allows transmission in one direction only, from the sender to the receiver. It is limited and is not widely used in telecommunications. Half duplex mode allows transmission in both directions but not at the same time. This means the sender and the receiver take turns. Full duplex mode allows transmission in both directions at the same time (see Figure 2.24).
Functio
70
Function
simplex mode one way
half duplex mode both ways one at a time
full duplex mode both ways simultaneously
Figure 2.24 Different transmission modes.
The speed of data transfer is measured either by its baud rate or by the number of bits per second (bps). Baud rate is a measure of the maximum number of data symbols or electrical signals that can be sent per second over the communication link. The number of bits per second is another way of measuring the transmission rate. It can be different to the baud rate because a data symbol may contain more than one bit of data. For example, a 2400 bps device might operate at 600 baud.
Hardware
Hardware for transmitting and receiving includes modems and networks as well as the internal components of the computer.
Communication within the computer

Communication within a computer involves transferring data between peripheral devices, the hard disk and the CPU. Every part of the computer is linked to the CPU either directly or indirectly by a bus. A bus is a pathway of wires and connectors that provides the link between input, storage, process and output devices. A bus can be thought of as a highway on which data travels within the computer. The size of the bus is called its width. The greater the width, the more data that can be transmitted at the one time. For example, a 64-bit bus has 64 lanes and can transmit data 64 bits at a time. A 32-bit bus moves 32 bits at a time. The speed of the bus is also an important factor in the performance of the computer. A faster bus will make the applications run faster. There are two different types of buses. An internal bus is located on the motherboard and links the CPU and memory. These buses are photochemically etched layers of metal that create electrical channels. An expansion bus connects peripheral devices to the CPU and memory. If the expansion bus connects directly to the CPU and bypasses RAM it is called a local bus. There are different types of expansion buses, such as ISA, EISA, VESA and PCI. Peripheral devices are linked to the CPU using expansion slots and ports. An expansion slot is an opening where a circuit board can be inserted into the motherboard to extend the capabilities of the computer. The circuit board that is inserted is called an expansion card or expansion board. There are many different types of expansion cards for different purposes, such as to connect a monitor, hard disk, scanner or other peripheral device. Expansion cards are also used to extend memory.
71
ITTFact t I Fac
The Gang of Nine is a group of nine companies (AST Research, Compaq, Epson, Hewlett-Packard, NEC, Olivetti, Tandy, Wyse Technology and Zenith Data Systems) who joined forces in 1989 to maintain the industry standard architecture and develop Extended ISA (EISA).
A port is a socket used to connect peripheral devices. It is usually located at the rear of the system unit (see Figure 2.25). Ports have different connectors that are used to attach cables to the peripheral devices. Most connectors are available in two types: male and female. Male connectors have one or more exposed pins like the end of a power cord. Female connectors have matching holes like a power point. Ports are either parallel or serial. Parallel ports transmit eight bits (one byte) at a time along eight parallel lines. They are used to connect devices that send and receive large amounts of data such as printers and disk drives. There are different types of parallel ports, such as Centronics and SCSI (small computer system interface, pronounced skuzzy). Serial ports transmit data one bit at a time using only one communication line. Serial ports are often called COM or communications ports and are assigned a number such as COM1 and COM2. Serial ports are used to connect almost any peripheral device, such as a mouse, keyboard, modem or plotter. The most common type of serial port is the RS-232 (recommended standard). It supports the use of a 25-pin connector (DB-25) or a 9-pin connector (DB-9). Higher speed standards have been developed such as the RS-423 and RS-422.
mouse power
USB ports
speaker, microphone and line in MIDI
Functio
parallel port serial ports monitor keyboard Figure 2.25 The standard ports for connecting peripheral devices. network
72
Function
Modems
A modem is a device that enables data to be transmitted from one computer to another. The word modem stands for modulator/demodulator. A modem converts (modulates) digital signals sent from a computer into analog signals suitable for transmission on a telephone line. Analog signals are pulses in the form of waves. Depending on the medium used, they can be electrical pulses or light pulses. When the signal is received by another modem, it reverses the process by converting (demodulating) the analog signal into a digital signal suitable for the receiving computer (see Figure 2.26). A direct connect modem is the most common type of modem as it is connected directly to a telephone line. Most modems use a command set developed by Hayes and are described as Hayes compatible.
Computer Digital signal 1 1 1 1 1 Modem Analog signal
0 0 0 0 0
0 Phone line Modem
1 1
1 1
0 0 0 0 0 Digital signal Figure 2.26 Modems modulate and demodulate signals.
Computer
Modems may be internal or external. Internal modems are a type of expansion card fitted into an expansion slot inside the system unit. Internal modems have become popular because they do not occupy desk space (see Figure 2.27). External modems are usually connected to a serial port (COM1 or COM2), require a power supply and take up some desk space. They have a set of status lights to indicate what the modem is doing, and are generally more expensive than internal modems.
Figure 2.27 An internal modem being fitted into an expansion slot.
73
The speed of a modem is measured by the number of bits transmitted per second or the baud rate. A common transmission speed is 56 000 bps, often abbreviated to 56K. Modems operate with different standards. The CCITT (Consultative Committee on International Telegraphy and Telephony) V series is a set of standards that define modem operations, speed, data compression and error correction. These standards, which are being continually updated, include V.21, V.32bis, V.34 and V.90. Modems that have a facsimile (fax) capability are called fax modems. They can send a computer-generated document to a fax machine and receive a document from a fax machine. Some fax modems use optical character recognition software to convert incoming fax messages to word processing files. This allows fax messages to be edited.
Networks
When a number of computers (or terminals) and their peripheral devices are connected, it is called a network. The simplest form of a network is when one computer is connected directly to another computer using a cable. However, a network can also consist of hundreds of computers connected together. The devices used to send data to a computer system or receive data from a processor are called terminals. Terminals can be either dumb, smart or intelligent. Dumb terminals do not contain a processor and usually consist of a keyboard and monitor. Smart terminals can do some low-level processing such as text editing. Intelligent terminals have both memory and processing capabilities. Most personal computers are classified as intelligent terminals and are called workstations on a network. Networks are classified according to the distances they cover and include local area networks and wide area networks. Local area networks (LANs) connect computers (or terminals) within a building or group of buildings on one site. LANs operate in a small geographical area and the terminals are linked together by cables (coaxial or fibre optic). They are found in offices, hospitals, schools and tertiary institutions. LANs often contain a central computer called the network server. File servers are computers that perform a function for other computers on the network such as sharing hardware resources. There are three advantages in using a LAN: They allow limited hardware resources such as printers, hard disks and modems to be shared. They allow application software (word processing, databases, spreadsheets and graphics programs) to be shared. They improve communication among users on the network by allowing messages to be sent and received. Wide area networks (WANs) connect computers (or terminals) over hundreds or thousands of kilometres. WANs rely on links such as coaxial cables, fibre optic cables and microwave devices. WANs often consist of a main computer system called the host and a number of terminals (workstations or nodes). A WAN may use a private leased line, the normal telephone network or a combination of both. A private leased line is dedicated to the network and offers higher transmission speeds than those available through the Public
Functio
74
Function
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). PSTN links are relatively cheap if workstations do not require constant connection but the link is not guaranteed and can be interrupted. WANs are slower than LANs at transferring data because they are not directly connected.
Software
All application software transmits and receives data within an individual computer. Special communications software is used to send and receive data over networks and using modems. The following is brief summary. Communications software manages the transfer of data, files and commands between computers. It uses protocols to establish a connection. A protocol is a set of rules that governs the transfer of data between computers. It defines how the information is transmitted and how errors are detected. Two computers must use the same protocols, otherwise the data transfer may be unsuccessful. There are a number of different protocols for networks, the most popular being Ethernet and Token Ring. Compression reduces the number of bits required to represent data. It compacts the data so that it takes up less space on a disk and requires less time to download. Compressed data must be decompressed in order to extract the original information. The amount a file is compressed is measured by the compression ratio. Compression is either lossy or lossless (see Chapter 10). Electronic mail (email) allows communication with other users by sending and receiving electronic messages using a computer. Email messages are often short and are typed quickly. Messages are written offline and sent when the user logs onto the LAN or the Internet. Attachments are computer files sent with email messages, such as image, audio, video or text files (Chapter 11). Data encryption is used to prevent data from being intercepted and read during transmission. The data is scrambled so that it is meaningless to anyone other than the recipient, who uses the same encryption software to convert it back. One popular encryption method is Secure Socket Layer (SSL).
Non-computer tools
Non-computer tools used to transmit and receive include conventional mail, telephone, facsimile (fax), radio and television. It is important to compare and contrast computer- and non-computer-based communication systems. The mail system makes it possible to send a letter or package to the address of any person around the world. Delivery of mail is dependent on road, rail and air transportation systems. Mail systems have improved steadily, especially with the development of machines that can sort letters. Further advances in technology have given rise to faster methods of postal handling and delivery. The telephone system transmits sounds or speech between distant places along telephone lines. It is a convenient method of communicating with people around the world. The telephone depends on the receiver being available to accept a phone call. Fax machines transmit and reproduce documents by means of signals sent over telephone lines. The fax machine scans the document and converts it into a bit-mapped image. This image is compressed and transmitted along the
75
telephone network to a destination fax machine. This machine decompresses the image and reconstructs the bit-mapped image. A thermal printer usually prints the document. Fax machines have become very popular as people can quickly transfer a hard copy of a document or send a written message. Personal computers are capable of performing almost all the tasks of a fax machine. Radio is the transmission and detection of sound using electromagnetic waves that travel through the air. When a radio receiver is tuned to the frequency of a radio station, a signal is received. Radio remains a popular means of communication. It allows people to receive up-to-date information and entertainment. This form of radio is restricted to a one-way transmission of data. Radio can also be used as a two-way medium where telephones are not a feasible option (such as in emergency service vehicles). Television is the transmission and detection of images and sound using electromagnetic waves that travel through the air. A scene to be televised is translated into a sequence of electrical pulses that are transmitted via an antenna. The television translates the electrical pulses into a corresponding sequence of images and sounds that are displayed via the screen and speakers. To achieve rapid motion smoothly it is necessary to transmit from 25 to 30 complete pictures per second. At present, television is restricted to a one-way transmission of data. With the introduction of digital television it Figure 2.28 Satellites are used to transmit will become an interactive (two-way) medium. large amounts of data at great speeds.

The widespread use of information technology has raised a number of ethical issues for people. The following are some of the issues that relate specifically to transmitting and receiving data. Because it is so easy to publish information on the Internet, the accuracy of information received from the Internet is not guaranteed. It is necessary to compare data from a number of sources and determine which data is accurate. The security of data transferred over the Internet is a greater problem than for data stored on a single computer. One method to protect data from deliberate or accidental damage is the use of certificates. A certificate or digital signature is an encrypted code that identifies a particular person or Web site. It aims to ensure that unauthorised persons cannot access data. Netiquette refers to the way people communicate with each other on the Internet. It is about being considerate to other users of the Internet and thinking about the effect of your actions. There are some conventions regarding appropriate behaviour when sending electronic mail, chatting or using newsgroups. For example, send inoffensive messages, do not infringe copyright, respect the privacy of people in chat rooms and be friendly to newcomers (see Chapter 11).
Functio
76
Function
77
Acknowledgment of sources is necessary when downloading data. Data obtained from the Internet is protected by copyright. To cite an Internet source it is important to include the authors name, title of the completed work, URL of the page and download date (see Chapter 1). Privacy can be an issue when receiving information from the Internet. Some Web sites use cookies to record information about visitors to their site. A cookie is a file that is put on the users hard disk when they visit a Web site. The cookie stores information such as the date, the Web pages visited and the transactions completed. When the user visits the same site at a later date, the information in the cookie is available to the Web site hosts. Some people argue that cookies store personal information about the user, and that this is an invasion of privacy. In some areas of employment, information systems have improved the nature of workthe way people do their jobs. This may involve people retraining and learning new skills (multiskilling). However, in other areas information systems have had the opposite effect. Some peoples jobs now require fewer skills. This is called deskilling (see Chapter 3). The Internet is having an impact on traditional businesses. Some businesses are being established that trade entirely online (see Figure 2.29). Many other businesses are establishing Web sites as an additional way to promote and sell their goods and services. The Internet has four main advantages over traditional ways of doing business: it offers a global market; it allows 24-hour access; there are lower marketing costs; and there are lower storage costs. The amount of business being transacted on the Internet is increasing at a phenomenal rate. Most experts predict that Internet business and the number of customers on the Net will continue to rise over the next few years. Traditional businesses that provide an opportunity for human interaction are being challenged. Do you think Internet businesses will replace traditional businesses?
Figure 2.29 Amazon.com is an Internet book business that trades entirely online. Its lower prices are challenging traditional bookshops. Despite its huge turnover, it is yet to make a profit. Tools for information processes
Exercise 2.6
1 Why is parallel transfer much quicker than serial transfer? 2 Where is serial transfer used? 3 Explain the difference between asynchronous and synchronous transmission. 4 Describe the three modes of transmission. 5 What is the baud rate? 6 Describe a bus within a computer system. 7 What is the difference between an internal bus and an expansion bus? 8 How are peripheral devices linked to the CPU? 9 Describe the actions taken by a modem to transfer data between two computers. 10 Outline some of the functions performed by a fax modem. 11 What is a network? 12 List the advantages of a LAN. 13 What is a WAN? 14 What is the purpose of communication software? 15 What is data encryption? 16 List five non-computer tools for transmitting and receiving. 17 How does a fax machine work? 18 What is a cookie? 19 What is the impact of the Internet on traditional businesses? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Discuss the expression Two wrongs dont make a right with reference to parity checking. 2 Human communication can be classified in the same way as communication between computers. Make a list of the different ways people communicate and classify them as simplex, half duplex or full duplex. 3 A parity bit is used to check for errors in data transmission. Research other methods of error detection such as CRC and checksum. Compare and contrast each method.
Functio
78
4 Why is it often difficult to transfer files between computers with different operating systems? Outline some methods used to convert files into different formats. 5 Investigate different types of expansion buses such as ISA, EISA, VESA and PCI. Explain the differences between each type of bus. 6 Employees have been dismissed for making comments about their bosses using email. The courts have ruled that organisations have the right to access employees email on their computer networks. Is this an invasion of privacy? Who should have access to email at work? Why?
Function
2.7 Displaying
Displaying is presenting the output from an information system to meet a given purpose. It is the presentation of information in the form of text, numerals, images, audio and video. A range of hardware and software combinations are used to display different types of information.
Hardware
Hardware for displaying includes screens, printers, speakers and plotters. They are commonly referred to as output devices.
Screens
A screen is a display surface that provides immediate feedback about what a computer is doing. It can display text, numeric, image and video data. All images on the screen are made up of tiny dots called pixels. A pixel (picture element) is the smallest part of the screen that can be controlled by the computer. The total number of pixels on the screen is called its resolution. There are several standards for screen resolution and most screens are capable of displaying more than one resolution. For example, a screen could display 640 480 (VGA), 800 600 (SVGA) or 1024 768 (XGA) pixels. The space between the pixels is called the dot pitch. It is also important in determining the clarity of the image. In general, the greater the number of pixels and the smaller the dot pitch, the better the resolution. The monitor and flat screen are two common types of computer screens.
ITTFact t I Fac
Bodyware refers to any hardware device that is worn by the user for the purpose of improving data retrieval or communications. It includes glasses that function as small data screens (eyeware) and watches that function as remote control devices and television sets.
A monitor is a screen that uses cathode ray tube (CRT) technology similar to a television. Images are produced by firing a beam of electrons onto the inside of the screen, which contains a coating of phosphor. The electron beam usually starts in the upper left-hand corner and moves from left to right and top to bottom in a series of zigzag lines called a raster scan. Monochrome monitors use one beam and colour monitors use three beams to strike red, green and blue phosphor (see Figure 2.30). The raster scan is repeated to maintain the image as the phosphor only glows for a short time. This is called refreshing. Interlaced monitors speed up refreshing by first scanning the odd lines from top to bottom and then the even lines. However, this can cause the monitor to flicker. Noninterlaced monitors refresh the screen by scanning every line up to 72 times per second. Monitors come in a range of sizes. The most widely used monitors are 15 to 19 inches (38 to 48 cm) in size and have a swivel base that allows the angle of the screen to be adjusted. Colour monitors are essential for most modern software applications. Most are capable of displaying millions of colours. The number of colours depends on the amount of memory installed on the computers video card.
79
Three electron guns are located at the back of the monitors cathode ray tube (CRT). Each electronic gun shoots out a stream of electrons, one stream for each of the three primary colours: red, blue and green.
The beams pass through holes in a metal plate called a shadow mask, which aligns them with their targets on the inside of the CRTs screen. The electrons strike the phosphors coating the inside of the screen, causing them to glow.
The magnetic deflection yoke bends the path of the electron streams.
Figure 2.30 How a cathode ray tube works.
Figure 2.31 Portable computers use a flat screen.
A flat screen is a thin screen that does not use CRT technology. They are used in portable computers (see Figure 2.31). There are also flat screens that can be mounted on the wall. The most common type of technology used in flat screens is a liquid crystal display (LCD). It consists of a layer of liquid crystal material placed between two polarising sheets. Light is passed through the liquid crystal material and a current is applied at particular points. This causes a pixel to be activated. LCD technology provides displays that are very light, take up less room, produce no heat, have no glare and emit no radiation. Furthermore, LCDs require less power than CRTs, allowing them to run on batteries. The best LCD displays can now achieve the same picture quality as a CRT but are very expensive.
Functio
80
Printers
A printer is a device that represents data on paper. It can display text, numbers and image data. The paper containing the data is called a hard copy or printout. The cost of a printer can vary from less than two hundred dollars to many thousands of dollars for large colour laser printers. Printers are classified as impact and non-impact printers. Impact printers make an image on the paper by using some sort of physical contact. Non-impact printers make an image using some other method. Impact printers include dot matrix printers. Non-impact printers include laser and inkjet printers. The quality of output of a printer is
Function
81
called the resolution and is measured by the number of dots per inch (dpi) it is able to print. A dot matrix printer prints characters or images using dots. Each dot is formed by the impact between a pin, a printer ribbon and the paper. There can be between 9 and 24 pins located in the printer head. A 24-pin printer produces higher quality output than a 9-pin printer. Dot matrix printers are reliable and cheap, but they are noisy and do not produce the highest quality output. Dot matrix printers have resolutions from 60 dpi to 180 dpi. They were once widely used in the business and home computer markets but are now restricted to particular applications such as financial printouts. Inkjet printers produce characters by spraying very fine drops of ink onto the paper (see Figure 2.32). The print head of an inkjet contains a nozzle with anywhere from 50 to several hundred small holes. The ink is propelled through a combination of nozzle holes to form the characters. There are several methods of forcing the ink through the nozzle. The thermal method causes a bubble of ink to form and uses heat to force it out of the nozzle onto the paper. These printers are called bubble-jet printers. Inkjet printers produce high-quality output in either colour or black and white. They are quiet, light and relatively cheap although the ink cartridges are expensive. Inkjet printers are very popular and are an ideal solution for people who want highquality output without high volume. One disadvantage is that inkjet output is usually not waterproof. The quality of inkjet output is often 600 dpi or greater. Inkjet printers use standard weight paper for most tasks. High-quality images can be Figure 2.32 A Canon BJC 600 colour inkjet printer. printed on coated paper, photographic glossy paper and transparencies. Laser printers use data from the computer to direct a laser beam at a positively charged revolving drum. Where the drum is charged by the laser beam it attracts toner (powdered ink). The toner is transferred onto the paper and fused using heat and pressure to form the image. Laser printers print a complete page at a time. Laser printers used with personal computers print from 4 to 20 pages per minute while high-speed laser printers can print more than 100 pages per
minute. Most laser printers offer 6001200 dpi output and use standard size paper. The highest quality models produce output to rival commercial printing processes. Even though the initial cost of a laser printer is higher than an inkjet printer, the difference in cost per copy quickly makes up the difference for a highvolume user. Laser printers are fast, quiet and produce waterproof output. Colour laser printers are much more expensive than black and white ones and the copy cost is also much greater. High-speed laser printers are finding increasing use in the business field.
Speakers
Sounds are produced using a speaker. A small speaker is usually located in most personal computers inside the system unit. However, high-quality stereo speakers are often connected to the computer using a port and a sound card. The speakers are sometimes built into the sides of the monitor. In addition to sounds and music, speakers work with voice output. Voice output is achieved in two ways: A person talks into a voice input device such as a microphone (see Figure 2.33). The words are converted and stored as digital data. This digital data is changed back to voice so that the user can hear the words. Voice synthesis is the artificial production of human speech. The words in a text document are analysed and sounds are generated for the letter combinations. Rules are applied for intonation to make the voice sound realistic.
Functio
82
Figure 2.33 Microphones are used to input voice data.
Plotters
A plotter is an output device used to produce high-quality drawings such as maps, charts and building plans (see Figure 2.34). The drawings are often larger than the available paper sizes of a standard printer. Plotters are operated using commands from the computer and can be used to draw an amazing array of
Function
Figure 2.34 A range of plotters.
shapes and figures. There are two different types of plotters: pen plotters and electrostatic plotters. A pen plotter produces images using coloured ink pens on the surface of the paper. Depending on the output, pen plotters are either flatbed or drum. A flatbed plotter looks like a drafting table with pens suspended over it. The movement of the pens is controlled by the plotter software. Most flatbed plotters have different coloured pens of different widths. They are used in engineering and drafting applications. A drum plotter works in the same way except that the paper is rolled around a drum or cylinder. The pens only move to the left and right as the drum rotates. The drawings from a drum plotter are restricted to the width of the printer but are unlimited in length. An electrostatic plotter creates images by moving paper under a row of wires. When the wires are given an electrostatic charge they touch the paper and create the drawing. Electrostatic plotters produce high-quality output and are faster than pen plotters.
Software
Each piece of application software displays data. The chapters in Part 2: Application software contain detailed information on the display features of various applications. The following is brief summary. Reporting is used to organise and display data from a database for printing. Database management systems allow complete control in the design of a report in either a tabular or column layout. It is possible to insert headings, sort data, choose fields, switch fields, change column width and select records. The purpose of the report determines its content, format and style. Formatting changes the appearance of the data. Text is formatted by changing the font, alignment, tabs, indenting, bullets, numbering and style. Additional design elements include headers and footers, colour, drop caps, text effects, callouts and borders. Numbers in a spreadsheet are displayed
83
using built-in formats such as currency, percentage or fixed. Page layout is the arrangement of text and graphics on a page. A publication that is well designed will convey its message effectively and efficiently. Spacing between lines of text is altered to improve the appearance and readability of a document. Character spacing refers to the spacing between individual letters. It is changed in a number of ways such as scale, points, position and kerning. Mail merge combines a letter written on a word processor with data from another document such as a database. It saves time and makes final documents more personal. Tables are rows and columns of cells that are filled with text and graphics. Text can be displayed horizontally or vertically, and the width or height of the rows and columns can be altered. Tables can be sorted in alphabetic, numeric or date order. Charts are a graphical representation of numerical data. They convert data in rows and columns into a picture that can be read at a glance. Charts make data easy to understand.
Non-computer tools
Information technology is not used to display all types of data. Information has been displayed using non-computer methods for many years. Some of the noncomputer tools used for the displaying information are described below. A storyboard is a series of frames each representing a different action or screen image. It tells the story of a presentation. Storyboards are drawn on paper and are changed frequently. A storyboard includes sketches and captions like a cartoon strip but in greater detail. Storyboards can be used to outline a multimedia production. A full-length movie could require several hundred sketches. There are four types of storyboard layouts: linear, hierarchical, non-linear and combination (see Chapter 10). Traditional methods for displaying different types of data have changed as a result of developments in technology. Text and images are displayed using paper in many different forms such as reports, newsletters, books, newspapers and magazines. They are also displayed using devices such as the blackboard, whiteboard and overhead projector. We also see information in the form of text and images displayed on billboards, T-shirts, drawings, paintings and photographs. Audio information is displayed when we speak or use a variety of devices such as musical instruments, radios, tape recorders or CD players. Video and animation is displayed using a television, video recorder or at the movies.
Functio
84

The widespread use of information technology has raised a number of ethical issues for people. The following are some of the issues that relate specifically to displaying data. The communications skills of those presenting displays need to be effective. Presentations are effective if the information displayed is well organised, attractive and easy to understand.
Function
85
Current trends in display are changing the way people interact with computers. Fifteen years ago screens were small and unable to handle different font sizes and graphics. Today larger monitors can display text, graphics, photographs and video. Display technology using large flat screens is becoming more common. Visually impaired people need appropriate displays. This issue is a concern on the Internet. Web page designers should consider how people with disabilities will be able to access their information. For example, it may be necessary to provide text alternatives to audio information for the hearingimpaired. All people with a disability are entitled to access technology. Special devices have been developed to help people with vision, hearing, mobility and dexterity impairments. Offensive material available on the Internet such as pornographic, racist and violent material is a major concern. Children with Internet access can potentially view inappropriate material, either deliberately or unintentionally. There is a significant amount of offensive material on the Internet and it is easy to find. Some people believe that offensive material should be banned, while others argue that banning any materials compromises our free society. Clearly, parents and schools need to prevent children from accessing offensive material. Censoring software such as Net Nanny can also be used to screen out inappropriate material. Chatting on the Internet is also an issue. Some people can behave in ways that is offensive and threatening, and may even have criminal intentions. In order to be safe, it is advisable never to disclose any identifying personal information to anyone over the Internet.
Figure 2.35 Censoring software such as Net Nanny can be used to screen out inappropriate material.
Exercise 2.7
1 What is a screen? 2 List two factors that affect the clarity of the image. 3 How are images produced on a monitor? 4 Explain the difference between interlaced and non-interlaced monitors. 5 Describe the most common type of technology used in flat screens. 6 What is the difference between an impact printer and a non-impact printer? 7 Outline the advantages and disadvantages of dot matrix printers. 8 How does an inkjet printer produce an image? 9 Why advantages do laser printers have over inkjet printers? 10 Describe two ways of achieving voice output. 11 What is a pen plotter? 12 Explain the difference between a flatbed plotter and a drum plotter. 13 What are the advantages of electrostatic plotters over pen plotters? 14 Describe some of the ways of formatting text for display. 15 List some of the traditional ways of displaying different types of data. 16 Outline some of the current trends in display. 17 How can parents prevent children from accessing offensive material? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 People predicted a paperless office when computers were first used in business. However, todays offices use more paper than in the past. Why do businesses still use large amounts of paper? How can they reduce their paper consumption? 2 The resolution of computer screens has increased during the past few years. Compare the resolution of a screen to that of a printout obtained from a laser printer. 3 Young people today spend too much of their spare time staring at computer screens playing computer games. They should be out playing sports and getting more exercise. Comment on these statements. 4 Penny wants to buy a new laser printer for her home office. Investigate four different printers and make a recommendation based on value for money. Display this information in the form of a table listing the advantages and disadvantages of each printer. 5 Which type of printer will increase its market share in the next few years? Give a reason for your choice. 6 Offensive material should not be allowed on the Internet. Do you agree with this statement? Investigate what the federal government is doing about offensive material on the Internet.
Functio
86
Chapter review
PART A Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best answers the question or completes the statement. 1 Which of the following is not an example of an input device? A a scanner B a mouse C a plotter D a digital camera 2 Which of these keys is used in combination with other keys? A Function B Escape C Shift D Capslock 3 Which of the following terms is not related to digitising? A file conversion B sampling C bit-mapping D ASCII 4 The processing of instructions using multiple processors is called: A microprocessing B distributed processing C parallel processing D centralised processing 5 Which item in the list does not belong? A RAM B ROM C CPU D cache 6 Which of the following storage media offers the fastest access? A hard disk B DAT cartridge C floppy disk D CD-ROM 7 Which of the following is a non-volatile memory device similar to an EPROM memory chip? A cache memory B flash memory C SRAM D DVD 8 A transmission mode that allows communication in both directions but not at the same time is called: A half simplex B full simplex C half duplex D full duplex 9 A device that provides a hard copy is a: A hard drive B HDD C modem D printer 10 Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) are commonly used with: A monitors B printers C portable computers D personal computers PART B For each of the following statements, select from the list of terms the one that most closely fits the statement. Write the letter corresponding to your choice. Statements 1 A small hand-held input device that is moved over a flat surface to control the movement of a pointer. 2 An input device that captures and stores images in digital form rather than on film. 3 The most common keyboard layout for personal computers. 4 An input device that captures sound. 5 The process of generating digits or numbers from analog data. 6 Computer programs used for a specific purpose. 7 Computer programs that manage and control hardware. 8 A temporary storage area for small amounts of data or instructions needed for processing in the CPU. 9 The number of bits processed by the CPU at one time. 10 Memory that holds data and instructions that are fixed at the time of production and cannot be changed by the user.
87
Chapter review
11 A long, thin strip of plastic inside a cartridge used as a storage medium. 12 A storage medium on which data is read and written using laser technology. 13 A common type of removable cartridge. 14 A device that enables the transmission of data from one computer to another. 15 A socket used to connect peripheral devices. 16 A set of rules that governs the transfer of data between computers. 17 A circuit board inserted into the motherboard to extend the capabilities of the computer. 18 An output device that can display text and graphics using CRT technology. 19 A type of printer that is fast, quiet and produces waterproof output. 20 An output device that produces highquality drawings. List of terms a b c d e f g h i application software compact disc digital camera digitising expansion card laser magnetic tape microphone modem j k l m n o p q r s t monitor mouse plotter port protocol Qwerty register ROM system software word size Zip disk
PART C Write at least one paragraph on each of the following questions. 1 Describe the following pointing devices: a a mouse b a touch screen 2 Outline some of the key features of a graphical user interface. 3 Explain the difference between RAM and ROM. 4 Outline some of the methods used to measure a systems performance. 5 Describe the following types of storage by comparing their advantages and disadvantages: a hard disk b magnetic tape 6 Describe some of the uses of a serial port. 7 Compare and contrast three different types of printers.
88
chapter
PLANNING, DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION
Outcomes
After completing this chapter you should be able to: outline the stages of the traditional system development cycle understand the principles of planning, design and implementation create Gantt charts and complete a feasibility study represent systems using context diagrams, data flow diagrams and system flow charts compare and contrast conversion methods understand the importance of testing and evaluating a system identify the social and ethical issues related to system development.
Overview
This chapter describes the way a system is developed. It examines the five stages of the traditional system development cycle. You will gain an understanding of the techniques and issues involved in each of the stages in the development of a new system.
3.1 Introduction
The development of a new information system to solve a problem is similar for all types of organisations and individuals. It involves planning, design and implementation. There are many reasons why an information system may need to change, including the introduction of new management, new technology or new products. The creation of a new information system is based on the belief that it will result in some benefits to the organisation. However, in some cases the planning results in a modification of the existing information system. In a large organisation the development of a new information system is the responsibility of a systems analyst or a group of people called a project team. Project teams consist of systems analysts, programmers and participants. An organised approach to system development saves time and money. There are different models used in the development of new information systems. This course adopts the traditional method for developing systems. It is
Understanding the problem Statement of problem Making decisions Type of new system Designing solutions New system Implementing Change system Change type of system Change in purpose
Functio
Using new system Testing, evaluating and maintaining Problem with system
Figure 3.1 Stages of the system development cycle. Information processes and technology
Change use of system
90
Function
called the system development cycle or system life cycle and consists of five broad stages: understanding the problemidentifying the requirements of a system that would solve the problem making decisionsdetermining the feasibility of a new system to solve the problem designing solutionscreating the new system implementingusing the system to solve the problem testing, evaluating and maintainingthe ongoing operation of the system. The system development cycle is important as it results in an information system that is as efficient and error-free as possible. In each stage there are certain tasks to be completed and builds on the conclusions of the previous stages (see Figure 3.1). However, in the development of a new system there is often a good reason to return to the previous stage. For example, if there is a problem in implementing a solution it may require some modifications to the design.
3.2 Understanding the problem

A problem presents itself as part of the planning of an organisation or in response to a need such as inaccurate data. It must be understood in terms of the goals of the organisation. The exact nature of the problem must be determined and whether it can be solved by an information system. This may involve redefining the problem and identifying its important elements. A clear problem statement is essential at this stage.
Preliminary investigation
A preliminary investigation determines whether a quick fix of the existing system will solve the problem or a new system is necessary. The fundamental operations and problems of the existing system must be understood. Each of the information processes are examined and any deficiencies in the existing system are recorded. The preliminary investigation takes into account the needs and concerns of all the participants. Participants play an important part in developing a workable system. These views are gathered using different data collection methods.
Data collection
Data and information are gathered throughout the system development cycle. Data is used to understand the problem and develop an appropriate solution. It is also needed to assess the feasibility of a proposal, design a new system and evaluate the system. There
Planning, design and implementation
91
Functio
Questionnaires/Surveys
Mailed, face-to-face, online Gathers data about activities, messages, relationships and influences on site. Can include: time sampling (observing system for set periods of time randomly) event sampling (entire process is observed in action). Must be structured and systematic. Provides a record of what actually happens. Is structured and systematic. Physical factors that affect a system are identified. Observation Electronic or manual Used when quantitative measurements (i.e. information based on numbers) is required. Different types of statistics can be obtained: descriptive statistics (understanding of the nature of the data) inferential statistics (making inferences from sample to large population). Quick analysis of data is possible. Electronic measurements are usually accurate.
92
Interviews
Observation
Measurements
Delivery
Face-to-face
Information processes and technology Allow for greater sample size and targeted area. Cheap to deliver. Scales can be used for quick analysis. Anonymity is guaranteed. Provide a quick means of acquiring data. Mailed questionnaires have low response rates and must be followed up. The wording of questions must be carefully chosen. Probes cannot be asked. Time-consuming to produce. Australian census Telemarketers Guest books on Web sites Time-consuming. Important events may be missed due to a limited time frame. Production line activities Traffic flow monitoring Consumer choices Credit card purchases Hits on a Web site
Features
Specific questions asked to Used to study characteristics, determine opinions and attitudes, behaviours and feelings of interviewee. opinions. Questions carefully Open and closed questions planned ahead of time. can be asked. Three types of questions: open-ended: What do you think ...? closed: From this list, which ...? probe: Why do you ...?
Advantages
Probing (further questioning) is allowed. Data can be obtained from all sectors. Further explanations of answers are possible. Greater depth of questioning.
Disadvantages Costly and timeconsuming. Poor questions can be asked. Bias might be introduced. Interviewers must be trained.
Electronic measurement is usually expensive. Further questions cannot be asked.
Example
Consumer choices Telemarketers Research studies
Table 3.1 Methods of collecting data.
Function
are several methods used for data collection, such as interviews, surveys, observations and measurements (see Table 3.1). Data collection is very important. If the data is incorrect, the new system may not meet the needs of the participants. Data should be gathered in an organised way to ensure nothing is omitted. During an interview or survey, a person has the right not to answer a question. The interviewer must take care in writing questions that do not discriminate on the basis of gender, religion, age or political preferences. After the data is collected it must be carefully interpreted to ensure that the resulting information is valid. For example, can the results of a survey be generalised to a large group of people. The reliability of the data is also an issue. If a similar research were conducted at another time and place, would the results be the same? Data collected needs to be documented for it to be analysed. A diagrammatic method of documenting data is often used, such as a context diagram, data flow diagram or system flow chart. These methods are examined later in this chapter. The analysis of the existing system should determine how the system works, what it does and who uses it.
Requirement report
The requirement report is a statement about the needs of a new system. It outlines the aims and objectives of the new system and how it will help the organisation. The requirement report is based on data collected from the participants. It must match the goals of the organisation to ensure that management are satisfied with the solution. The requirement report also provides an overview of the new system in terms of the data/information to be used, the information processes and the information technology required. The requirement report is used to develop potential solutions to the problem.
ITTFact t I Fac
Web designers use a technique called click streaming to collect data. It records where individual users click on a Web page and how they navigate through a Web site.
Project plans
If the preliminary investigation recommends further examination of a new system, a project plan is developed for the system. A project plan organises the project by specifying who, what, how and when. It includes Gantt charts, scheduling of tasks, journal and diary entries, a funding management plan and a communication management plan. The project leader starts by breaking down the development of a new system into smaller tasks. They identify all the tasks, an estimate for the cost of each task and a schedule for each task. Project leaders use information management software and project management software to construct and manage a project plan.
Information management software

Information management software helps individuals to manage information and schedule tasks. It allows email messages to be exchanged and organised. For
93
example, all messages from the project leader could be put into a separate folder. Appointments, events and meetings are entered into an electronic calendar. These activities can be viewed by the day, week or month. Information management software allows users to store the names and addresses of individuals and organisations. All activities for each contact are recorded to form a journal. Journal entries are organised on a timeline to quickly locate information. Tasks in the project are assigned, sorted and organised so that the progress made on a task can be seen at a glance.
Project management software

Project management software contains most of the features of information management software. It is a tool to plan, manage and communicate information efficiently in a large project. Project management software allows projects to be joined, tasks to be split among team members, and for the project to be tracked over the Internet or via email. It provides analysis tools to assist with decisionmaking, such as what if questions. Project management software contains graphical tools such as Gantt charts. A Gantt chart is a popular way of managing a project. It provides a quick method of determining if the project is on schedule. Gantt charts are used in meetings to review progress and identify problems. A Gantt chart is a bar chart with each bar representing a task. The vertical axis lists the tasks and the horizontal axis shows the time frame (see Figure 3.2). The success of a new system depends on accurate time estimates for each task. If the schedule is unreasonable it will result in delays and additional costs. It may be necessary to extend the deadlines or reduce the scope of the system development. If the scope of the system development is reduced, a less comprehensive solution may result.
Understanding the problem Making decisions Designing solutions Implementing
Functio
Testing, evaluating and maintaining
4 5 6 Time (weeks)
Figure 3.2 A Gantt chart of the system development cycle.
94
Function
Exercise 3.2
1 List the five stages in the system development cycle. 2 How is the exact nature of a problem determined? 3 What is a preliminary investigation? 4 List three types of questions in an interview. 5 Outline the disadvantages of surveys as a method of data collection. 6 What types of statistics are obtained from measurements? 7 Describe a requirement report. 8 What is a project plan? 9 Why are Gantt charts a popular management tool? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Which stage in the system development cycle do you think would take the most time? Explain your answer. Is this stage more important than the other stages? Justify your answer. 2 The introduction of new information systems has resulted in many changes in society. Interview a number of older people. a What has been the effect of information technology on their lives? b List any jobs that have disappeared because of information systems. c Describe some of the changes that have occurred in the nature of work. d Is society better for information technology? 3 In a group, select a current topic that is interesting to each member of the group. Develop a survey to collect data on this topic. Ask other members of your class to complete the survey. Analyse the results and draw some conclusions. 4 Choose a large organisation and collect samples of data over a period of time. What does this data tell you about the organisation? Is your analysis of the data accurate? Why? What other methods could be used for data collection? 5 Terry is required to organise a birthday party. He has estimated the following time for these tasks: buying the food2 hours; preparing the food3 hours; serving the meal1 hour; cleaning up2 hours. Draw a Gantt chart for these tasks. 6 Allison needs to have a computer system operating in less than a day. She has estimated the following time for these tasks: buying the hardware1 hour; selecting software1 hour; setting up the hardware2 hours; installing the software3 hours; testing the software1 hour. Draw a Gantt chart for these tasks. 7 A systems analyst has developed a new point-of-sale system for a jeans store. The following times have been estimated for tasks in the system design: input design6 days; output design2 days; data structures4 days; internal specifications6 days. These tasks occur in the order given and do not overlap. Draw a Gantt chart for these tasks.
95
3.3 Making decisions

This stage involves making decisions using the data gathered in the preliminary investigation. The first task is to develop one or more potential solutions to the problem. A computer system should be seen only as a tool that may offer the best solution to the problem. It is not the solution to every problem. Each potential solution is developed using the requirement report and the scope of the problem. The scope of the problem places constraints on the new system. A constraint is factor that affects the system and may prevent it from achieving its objectives. There are different types of constraints such as financial, technical, environmental and personal. For example, a financial constraint would be the amount of money an organisation is prepared to spend on the system. After establishing several potential solutions, the systems analyst seeks approval from the management of the organisation. Management receives a brief written or verbal statement outlining the advantages and disadvantages of each solution. If the potential solutions are accepted, a feasibility study is carried out.
Feasibility study
A feasibility study is a short report that analyses potential solutions and makes a recommendation. It does not attempt to find a detailed solution. Feasibility studies are an extension of the preliminary investigation and are divided into different sections (see Table 3.2).
Section
1 Title page 2 Contents 3 Problem definition 4 Requirement report 5 Summary of investigation
Content
Project name, report title, authors, date A list of report sections and page numbers Exact nature of the problem Aims and objectives of the new system Overview of the existing system: benefits, costs and constraints Details of each proposed new system Recommended course of action, with justification Schedule (if the recommendation is to proceed) Supplementary material such as surveys, Gantt charts and diagrams
6 Alternative solutions 7 Recommendations 8 Project plan
Functio
96
9 Appendix
Table 3.2 The typical sections of a feasibility study.
The initial sections of the feasibility study state the nature of the problem and give an overview of the existing system. They identify problems or requirements that are not satisfied in the existing system. The feasibility study outlines any constraints on the development of a new system. It also restates the aims and objectives of the new system more precisely than the requirement report.
Function
The middle section of the feasibility study analyses the data collected in the preliminary investigation. It often requires more data to be gathered about each potential solution. After analysing the data, each solution is briefly described with its expected advantages and disadvantages. These descriptions are written in terms of the aims and objectives of the new system. The result of the feasibility study is the recommendation. The recommendation is based on a number of criteria, such as economic, technical, schedule and organisational. Economic feasibility compares the costs of developing the new system with the expected benefits. A financial analyst is often used to assess economic feasibility. Economic feasibility is also called cost/benefit analysis. Technical feasibility determines the information technology requirements of the new system and the technical demands that will be placed on the new system. Schedule feasibility determines whether time is available to implement the new system. Organisational feasibility determines whether the new system will fit into the organisation and meet its current goals. It determines if the new system will have enough support to be successfully implemented. A feasibility study can make one of three recommendations: no change, develop a new system, or investigate other solutions. The decision to proceed with a new system is made by the managers of the organisation.
Analysis
If the feasibility study recommends a new system, a more detailed analysis is required. The existing system is investigated in greater depth to ensure all current operations and problems are understood. The systems analyst must also further clarify the needs of the new system. This requires more data to be gathered using interviews, surveys, observations and measurements (see Figure 3.3). When the data is collected it must be organised and analysed. It is necessary to understand the flow of data through the system and how the data is processed within the system. A range of tools are used for this purpose, such as data flow diagrams, context diagrams and system flow charts. These tools are described in the next section. Organisational charts are a good way of understanding a system. They show the intended structure of a solution using different levels (see Figure 3.4). The main module is at the top level and it is refined into lower levels as more detail is required. Control passes from the top level down through to the lower levels. Each module contains a single entry and a single exit.
Figure 3.3 Data collection using an interview.
97
Figure 3.4 An organisational chart of a Web site.
When the detailed analysis is completed, an analysis report is written. It provides more detail than the feasibility study. The analysis report provides a basis for further development. The details of the new system are presented with recommendations for design, implementation and maintenance. The analysis report contains design specifications for the next stage. These specifications give the general hardware configuration of the new system and designs for both input and output. The analysis report also contains a more detailed costing and schedule for the new system.
Case study
A1 Designs
to determine the best way of solving the problem.
Functio
A1 Designs is a graphic design business that is five years old. Melissa Johns started the small business and originally employed one other designer. The designer was paid a salary with the accounts handled by Melissa. The business has grown in the past two years with more clients and staff. A1 Designs now employs four full-time designers and two part-time staff. Initially the payroll and accounts were not a problem for Melissa. However, with the growth in the business more of her time has been taken away from the projects and is being spent on payroll and accounts. Projects have been delayed and the quality of work is suffering. These problems are having a negative impact on the reputation of A1 Designs. Melissa believes an information system to manage accounts is needed. She has hired a systems analyst
1 Understanding the problem

The systems analyst called a meeting with Melissa to discuss the problem. He then had interviews with each employee and observed the existing system. This data was used to determine the nature and scope of the problem. The systems analyst discovered that the payroll was very time-consuming for the owner and her efforts would be better spent organising the projects. There were also errors in the employees pay and they were becoming very unhappy with the business. The part-time employees were also not completing their time sheets correctly. The systems analyst wrote a requirement report that outlined the needs of the new system. It specified that Melissa
98
Function
should be relieved of working on payroll and accounting. Melissa received the report and agreed for the systems analyst to proceed with the feasibility study to determine a possible solution.
2 Making decisions
The systems analyst started the feasibility study by organising another meeting with Melissa to determine the constraints on the system. Melissa specified a budget for developing a system and accepted the need to hire a new person to operate the system. The systems analyst investigated some of the information technology requirements and how the system would fit into the business. He determined a possible solution and completed an economic feasibility. There were five advantages of a new system: increased accuracy and reduction of time spent on payroll and accounts automatic generation of reports for taxation purposes efficient payment of bills accurate and timely payments to staff increased time for Melissa to spend on projects. The disadvantages of the new system included the cost of acquiring the information technology, wages for a new person to operate the system, new furniture, office space and the training of all staff.
The systems analyst compared the advantages and disadvantages of the new system. He recommended that the new system be developed. It would provide Melissa with more time and control over the projects. In addition, the accuracy of the payroll would increase staff morale and confidence in A1 Designs. Finally, the improved efficiency of the accounts would increase the credibility of the business and reduce the likelihood of error. Even though the initial cost of the technology and wages for the new employee was significant, the new system would increase revenue in the long term. The systems analyst presented the feasibility study to Melissa and she gave approval for a more detailed analysis. The systems analyst gathered more data about the existing system. He needed to know exactly how A1 Designs operated. Each member of the staff was interview again and the account documents were analysed more carefully. The systems analyst compared A1 Designs to other small businesses that used information systems. The security and privacy of data were issues of concern. A system of passwords to restrict access to files was suggested as a possible solution. He wrote an analysis report using this data. It contained some general design specifications for information technology and new business processes. Melissa approved the analysis report.
Exercise 3.3
1 What is a constraint? 2 List four different types of constraints. 3 What is contained in the initial sections of a feasibility study? 4 What is contained in the middle sections of a feasibility study? 5 Describe four different criteria used to make a recommendation in a feasibility study. 6 What is involved in a more detailed analysis of a new system?
99
7 Describe an analysis report. 8 Outline the problem for A1 Designs. 9 What was the recommendation in the feasibility study for A1 Designs? 10 How was a more detailed analysis completed for A1 Designs? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 What constraints exist in the development of a computer system for your personal use? Is it possible to overcome these constraints and establish a potential solution? Outline any potential solutions. 2 Analyse reports from different organisations (such as their annual report) in terms of purpose, content and style. Which report is the best? Why? 3 Analyse different types of bills such as electricity, water and phone in terms of completeness, accuracy, presentation and timeliness. Compare your analysis with other members of the class. 4 A systems analyst must often balance the needs of participants of a new system with the requirements of management. Outline some possible areas where conflicts may occur between these two groups. 5 A feasibility study is to be completed for a new reporting system at school. a List three groups of people who will be affected by the new system. b For each group, describe some of the possible effects on them. c Describe some of the factors that will affect the studys recommendations. 6 Write a requirement report using the information from the A1 Designs case study. 7 Write a feasibility study using the information from the A1 Designs case study. It should contain the following sections: title page, contents, problem definition, requirement report, summary of investigation, and recommendation.
3.4 Designing solutions
Functio
100
When the detailed analysis is completed, the new system is designed. Systems analysts often use a top-down approach to design a new system. This approach divides a large, complicated problem into a series of smaller problems that are easier to solve. The smaller problems are solved and brought together to solve the larger problem. There are various tools used for analysis and design.
Design tools
When developing a new system, it is essential to understand how the information processes will operate. It is often a lot easier to design a solution if a diagram can be drawn. There are a number of diagrammatic tools that describe the information processes within a system, including context diagrams, data flow diagrams and system flow charts.
Function
Symbol
Meaning
Single process: A circle is used to represent the entire system.
Process
Data flow: An arrow is used to represent the flow of data between the process and external entities.
External entity
External entity: A square or rectangle represents any person or organisation that sends data to or receives data from the system.
Table 3.3 The symbols used in a context diagram.
Borrower
book details
Search
call number
Borrower
Figure 3.5 A context diagram for finding a book in a library.
Context diagrams
A context diagram is a graphical method of representing a system using a single process together with inputs and outputs (external entities). There are only three symbols in a context diagram: the process, the data flow and the external entity (see Table 3.3). The external entities are linked to the process by data flow arrows. A context diagram is often the starting point of a data flow diagram. The context diagram in Figure 3.5 shows the method for finding a book in the library. It clearly shows the flow of data in the system.
Data flow diagrams

A data flow diagram (DFD) is a graphical method of representing a system using a number of processes together with inputs, outputs and storage. DFDs focus on the flow of data between information processes in a system. They show where data is collected, organised, analysed, stored, processed, transmitted and displayed. DFDs provide a simple technique for visualising the movement of data and describing what participants do, rather than what the computers do. There are four main symbols used in a DFD: the process, the data flow, the data store and the external entity (see Table 3.4). The data flow and data stores are given labels which describe the data. The processes contain a description of the change in data. They must contain at least one input and at least one output. The DFD in Figure 3.6 illustrates the movement of data for finding a book. The book details could be the title, author or subject or a keyword. To draw a DFD, you start with the processes and link them to data stores and external entities using data flows. It is often easy to start
101
Symbol
Meaning
Process: A circle is used to represent the processes or actions that transform inputs to outputs.
Process
Data flow: An arrow is used to represent the flow of data between the process, external entity and data store.
External entity
External entity: A square or a rectangle represents any person or organisation that sends data to or receives data from the system.
Data store
Data store: An open rectangle represents the location where data is stored. It could be a filing cabinet, hard disk or DVD.
Table 3.4 The symbols used in a data flow diagram.
Borrower
book details
Search
call number
Borrower
book details
call number
Library database
Figure 3.6 A DFD for finding a book in a library.
Functio
102
with a simple diagram and then add some more details. If the DFD becomes too complicated it should be broken down into a smaller DFDs to create different levels. The top-level DFD identifies the major processes while lower-level DFDs add more detail. DFDs and context diagrams are easy to understand as there are only three or four different symbols used. Participants can see the tasks that are completed by the information system. Context diagrams and DFDs often identify issues of responsibility before the system is designed. However, the simplicity of a DFD creates certain limitations. DFDs do not show the sequence of operations or decisions that are needed by a programmer. For this reason, they are often converted into system flow charts.
Function
System flow charts

A system flow chart is a graphical method of representing both the flow of data and the logic of a system. It documents the essential details of the system such as the sequence, processes and precise rules for selecting particular actions. A system flow chart also shows the hardware used to process data, such as the peripheral devices, storage media and processing units. System flow charts use standard flow charting symbols plus special symbols for peripheral devices (see Table 3.5). Some of these symbols have become out of date, such as the punch card symbol. Each symbol contains labels and is linked by lines called flowlines. Flowlines do not need an arrow if the flow of control is in the main directionstop to bottom or left to right. For example, in Figure 3.7 the flow of control is from top to bottom so there are no arrows on the flowlines.
Symbol
Meaning
Symbol
Meaning
Input/output
Manual operation
Paper document
Magnetic tape
Online display
Direct access storage device
Online input
Flowline
Punched card
Telecomunications link
Process
Predefined process
Terminal
Decision
Table 3.5 The symbols used in a system flow chart.
System design
The new system is designed in line with the feasibility study and analysis report. It is important to focus on the aims and objectives of the new system during the system design. This ensures that time and effort are not wasted. The system
103
Begin
Enter book details
Library software
Library database
Search results
False
Need printout?
True
Search report
False
Are you finished? True End
Figure 3.7 A system flow chart for finding a book in a library.
Functio
104
design may involve investigating similar systems in other organisations, which may provide ideas for the new system. The system design starts by creating the external and internal specifications. The external specifications outline the appearance of the new system. A design is created for all the input and output screens. The format and layout of each screen, menu and report must be created using good design principles. Data validation techniques must be considered to ensure accurate data. A sample with actual data is shown to all participants. The internal specifications provide the technical information to build the new system. They identify the processing required by the system. The systems analyst develops specifications for input, data, process and output for a programmer. If a database is required, a data dictionary is created to accurately represent the new system.
The external and internal specifications provide a basis for the information technology. The software requirements of the new system may be satisfied by application software that is readily available. Software packages can be bought to cover most requirements. They may be specific to a type of organisation, such
Function
as library software, or suitable for many different organisations, such as a word processor (see Figure 3.8). A software package may not meet the exact requirements of the problem, but it is easy and cheap to obtain and saves time. Custom software is written by programmers to meet the exact specifications for the new system. A programmer uses a programming language to write programs. Custom software is labour-intensive and more expensive than a software package. The internal specifications provide a basis for hardware acquisition and installation. Existing hardware may be sufficient in some cases. If new hardware is required, the technical specifications need to be identified. The systems analyst determines these specifications by researching magazines, the Internet, organisations and other experts in the field. The technical specifications are sent to information technology suppliers to obtain quotations. The quotations are evaluated and the best one is selected.
Figure 3.8 Microsoft Office is a popular integrated software package that contains a number of applications commonly used in business.
ITTFact t I Fac
A clone is a piece of software or hardware that is almost the same as the original. The term IBM clone refers to a PC that performs in the same way as an IBM personal computer. The word clone comes from a Greek word klou for propagation.
A new system must be thoroughly tested before implementation. This ensures that the hardware and software will work together. Test data is prepared to identify and eliminate any potential problems. It should cover a wide range of values to ensure that the solution can deal with unexpected data. If the solution works for the test data, a beta test is completed. A beta test is carried out by participants of the system using real data. It aims to find errors in the solution caused during the daily operation of the system. If problems are resolved in the design stage, the solution will be easier to implement. Documentation is a written description to explain the development and operation of an information system. It may explain the information processes, software packages or logic of a program. Even though documentation should be developed during the design stage, it is often neglected and left until last. This results in inadequate documentation, making the new system difficult to understand and modify. User documentation provides directions for any person using the solution. It may be a document, such as a user manual, or in electronic from, such as on-screen help. User documentation must be user-friendly. Screen dumps are useful to explain important procedures. Inexperienced users require simple instructions written without technical terms.
105
Exercise 3.4
1 List the symbols used in a context diagram. 2 What is a data flow diagram? 3 How are data flow diagrams drawn? 4 Describe a system flow chart. 5 Explain the difference between external and internal specifications. 6 What is the advantage of custom software compared to a software package? 7 How are technical specifications used? 8 Why is a new system tested before implementation? 9 Real data is used to test a system prior to implementation. What properties of the system are tested by this strategy? 10 What is user documentation? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 The development of different types of technology has created some problems for society. List some of the problems for society by the invention of the motor vehicle. How has society tried to overcome these problems? Now do a similar analysis of the introduction of information technology. 2 Many technical factors affect the design of a new system. Describe at least two technical factors. Identify how these factors affect the system. 3 A marking system is a process used to determine the result of an assessment task. Students complete the assessment task and receive a mark from the marking system. A teacher constructs a marking scale for the assessment task and receives each students mark. Construct a context diagram for the marking system. 4 The marking system in question 3 is extend to include a spreadsheet to store and moderate the marks. Construct a data flow diagram to show the marking system. 5 A teacher uses a spreadsheet in the marking system from question 4 by following the processes: enter student marks, store marks, calculate statistics, moderate marks, print moderated marks. Construct a system flow chart for the system.
3.5 Implementing
Functio
106
The implementation stage delivers the new information system to the participants. It involves using the solution to solve the problem. If a software package, such as database management system, is chosen, implementing a solution involves applying the software to the problem. The implementation phase may involve a major change in the way organisations operate. This requires conversion to the new system and training.
Conversion
Conversion involves changing from the old system to the new system. It must be carefully planned and executed to avoid errors. The actual method chosen for
Function
ITTFact t I Fac
In IT, downsizing refers to a reduction in a companys level of computer equipment. It usually refers to companies changing from mainframes to smaller computers such as personal computers.
conversion depends on the nature of the work and the characteristics of the new system. There are four methods of conversion: direct, parallel, phased and pilot. Direct conversion involves an immediate change to the new system. A date is chosen on which the old system ends and the new system begins. All data from the old system is transferred to the new system. Direct conversion is not popular even though there are minimal transition costs. It does not allow time to check whether the new system will operate correctly and that participants understand the system. If the new system fails or problems occur, the old system is not available as a backup. Parallel conversion involves the old and new systems working together for some time. Participants can compare the two systems and obtain a good understanding of the differences between them. If there are any problems with the new system they can be solved before the old system is discontinued. However, parallel conversion results in additional workloads for participants as they must operate both systems. It may also result in confusion about which system has the correct data. Phased conversion involves the gradual implementation of the new system. Certain operations of the new system are implemented while the remaining operations are completed by the old system. When one operation of the new system is successful, another operation is implemented until the new system is
Name
Direct conversion
Method of conversion over time
Old system
New system
Parallel conversion
Old system New system
Phased conversion
Old system New system

Pilot conversion
Old system Old system
New system New system
Figure 3.9 Methods of conversion. Planning, design and implementation
107
fully operational. Each operation is individually tested. If there is a problem with a certain operation it is possible to switch back to the old system. Unfortunately phased conversion is often confusing, with some participants working on the old system and some on the new system. Pilot conversion involves trialling the new system in a small part of the organisation. The old system is still available if the new fails or experiences problems. Pilot conversion is usually undertaken by a keen group of participants who appreciate the benefits of the new system. If pilot implementation works, it is usually easier to motivate the other participants of the organisation to adopt the new system.
Training
Training ensures that participants can use the new system and understand its benefits. The type of training depends on the knowledge of the participants and the features of the new system. The suppliers of the hardware and software may carry out some training. Training manuals and presentations are used to explain the new system and any changes in the information processes. Initial training is completed before the old system is converted to the new system. Management may decide to train one person who will then have responsibility for training others. Training is provided by a range of different people. Training specialists teach participants how to operate their system. Training is needed in the installation of a new system and to ensure that the computer is being used efficiently. Participants may also need regular training to keep pace with the latest developments in hardware and software. Technical support staff are people who assist participants of a system. This service is usually provided over the phone and is known as a help desk. Technical support staff need to be completely familiar with the system.
Figure 3.10 A training specialist.
Exercise 3.5
1 What is involved in the implementation stage?
Functio
108
2 List the factors that affect the methods of conversion. 3 What are the disadvantages of direct conversion? 4 Why is parallel conversion popular? 5 Describe phased conversion. 6 Who usually starts a pilot conversion? 7 How is the type of training determined? 8 Describe two types of people involved in training.
Function
LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 The implementation of a new information system can raise many problems, such as obtaining staff support for the changes. Imagine you are the manager of an organisation about to implement a new information system. How would you ensure staff support? One of the employees is reluctant to change to the new system. Outline a specific strategy that could be used to gain their acceptance. 2 An organisation has just decided to increase its use of information technology. This will result in staff redundancy and retraining. Describe some of the methods that could be used for retraining. What method would you choose? Why? 3 Write an outline of a training program to help computer users develop good ergonomic habits. 4 Most people find it stressful to use a computer at work. Work in groups and present your views for class discussion on this statement. 5 Discuss each of the four methods of conversion in terms of their implications for the participants of a new system. 6 Construct a table to compare and contrast the four methods of conversion: direct, parallel, phased and pilot. Give an example of a situation in which each method might be appropriate.
3.6 Testing, evaluating and maintaining

After the new system is fully implemented, participants expect the system to be working correctly. The successful operation of a system involves the information technology working correctly and the participants using it effectively. People responsible for operation of the system include computer operators and managers. Computer operators perform tasks on computer equipment, such as starting up, monitoring performance, running jobs and backing up. The operations manual is used to specify tasks to be completed on a regular basis. If there are problems and the system breaks down, it must be diagnosed and corrected immediately. The computer operator attempts to identify the problem and if necessary liaises with a technician to rectify the problem. The managers are responsible for the effective use of the system. They oversee the computer operation and ensure that participants and machines work efficiently (see Figure 3.11). There are many different types of managers with slightly different roles. An information systems manager plans and oversees all the information resources in the organisation. After the new system has been in operation for a number of months, it must Figure 3.11 Air traffic controllers are users of an information be tested and evaluated. system.
109
Testing and evaluating

Testing a solution ensures that it works. It is carried out throughout the system development cycle. In this stage the performance of the system is tested and then evaluated. The evaluation determines whether the system is working as expected or if changes are required. It occurs after the new system is established and minor problems have been fixed. The systems analyst often completes an evaluation in consultation with participants. It is based on interviews, surveys, observations and measurements. The results of the new system are compared to the initial aims and objectives outlined in the requirement report. Evaluation is ongoing. If the new system is not performing, changes need to be made. If a major upgrade is required, the system development cycle starts again. The results of the evaluation are the basis for understanding the problem in the next cycle. Systems are involved in a constant process of evaluation, analysis and development to improve their efficiency. The evaluation is also used to improve the processes involved in the system development cycle. In some situations the evaluation results in the system undergoing maintenance.
Maintenance
Maintenance is the modification of the system by making minor improvements. During the operation of the system, participants may discover deficiencies and suggest improvements. For example, a secretary may suggest a change in the format of an input screen. Maintenance may also involve installing new hardware and upgrading software packages. The longer the system has been operational, the more difficult it is to change. However, good documentation makes it easier to complete maintenance without causing problems elsewhere. Simple changes in a large information system are often complex and require retesting of other parts of the system. This often results in starting the system development cycle again. The tasks in this stage are ongoing and continue until the system is terminated or another system is developed.
Case study
A1 Designs
The information in the data flow diagram provided an outline of the general nature of the tasks required by the new system. Then the systems analyst detailed each distinct task, such as the method of calculating the pay for each staff member. The systems analyst used all the information to complete a system design. He chose a personal computer with a fast processor and large amounts of memory and storage. The hardware chosen allowed for future growth in the business. Payroll and accounting software packages were chosen as a costeffective solution that covered most requirements. The technical specifications
Functio
110
A systems analyst was given responsibility to develop a new system using the analysis report. It contained changes to the business procedures and specifications for outputs such as a payroll report, pay slips, journals, invoices and yearly tax reports. Input screens were required for employee data, payroll data, accounts and tax information.
Designing solutions
To design a solution the systems analyst created many different data flow diagrams to understand every part of the new system (see Figure 3.12). He also constructed system flow charts to specify the required hardware devices.
Function
Employee
time sheets
Owner checks sheets
time sheets
Calculate wage Pay pay employee
time worked
wage
personal data
Payroll database
Figure 3.12 One of the DFDs used for A1 Designs.
Employer database
and software requirements were given to five organisations to provide a quote. Melissa and the systems analyst decided on the best quote. Ergonomic furniture was purchased and Melissa, in consultation with her staff, found an appropriate site in the office. The systems analyst set up the new computer system. He installed the software and developed appropriate inputs and outputs using the templates in the software and the required specifications. Files were created for accounts, employees, payroll and tax. Backup procedures were developed using magnetic tape. Melissa expressed a concern about some of the forms used in the accounting software. There was a need to modify the proposed business procedures. Finally, the systems analyst designed some test data. There appeared to be no problems. Documentation was written to explain the new system. It contained information about the business processes in addition to the information technology. When the systems analyst was confident with the new system, he presented a report to Melissa. She approved the implementation.
person and Melissa on the specific details of the new system. The new person entered the current data. All the staff were shown the new system and how it would operate. They were given new procedures and forms to complete. After the training, conversion from the old system to the new system started. Even though Melissa felt confident with the new system, she decided on parallel conversion. The systems analyst suggested both systems operate together for three months. The old system was discontinued at the end of that period.

Testing and maintenance was started once the new system began. The new employee monitored the system and suggested some minor changes to the format of the input screens. The systems analysts job had finished. Melissa completed a formal evaluation of the new system after six months. All the staff and Melissa were happy with the systems performance. It had achieved the expected benefits. Eventually the systems analyst might be asked to initiate another system to replace this system. That might occur if A1 Designs grew beyond expectations or developments in technology demanded a change.
Implementation
Melissa hired a person to operate the system. The systems analyst trained this
111
ITTFact t I Fac
Diagnostic programs test components and report on problems in order to check that the computer system is operating correctly. POST (POwer SelfTest) executes automatically every time a PC is turned on and before any other action is taken.
Exercise 3.6
1 List the tasks performed by a computer operator. 2 Why should a new system be evaluated? 3 How is the requirement report used in an evaluation? 4 What happens if a major upgrade is required? 5 What is maintenance? 6 List two tasks that may be performed during maintenance? 7 Describe the new system designed for A1 Designs. 8 List some of the tasks completed by the systems analyst in setting up the new computer system for A1 Designs. 9 How was the new system for A1 Designs implemented? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Carry out some research to identify software packages that have recently been upgraded (released in a new version). Find out the technical requirements to run the new versions. Will this new software run on your schools computer system? Explain your answer. 2 The systems analyst in the case study chooses a computer with a fast processor and large amounts of memory and storage. What are the technical specifications required to meet those needs? Investigate the cost of purchasing a computer with these specifications. List the available prices and options. 3 An accounting software package is part of the solution in the case study. Investigate the latest accounting software. Suggest the most appropriate packages for the situation described in the case study. Justify your answer. 4 Peripheral devices are not specifically mentioned in the case study. What peripheral devices would be required by the system? Investigate the options and costs of each device. List these details.
Functio
112
5 A system that is correctly designed should not need any ongoing evaluation and maintenance. Outline your views on this statement.
ITTFact t I Fac
Outrage occurs when a system refuses service to at least one user for a period of time. The period of time depends on the applications requirements.
Function
3.7 Social and ethical issues

Information systems depend on people and affect people in many different ways. The impact is often not caused by the technology itself, but by the way people use the technology. Systems can be either machine-centred or humancentred. Machine-centred systems are designed to simplify what the computer must do at the expense of participants. They assume people will follow procedures that may be confusing in order to get the end result they want. If errors occur in a machine-centred system, they are usually blamed on the participant (operator error) rather than the technology. Machine-centred systems are not always the best systems for participants. People and machines have different strengths and weaknesses. People are good at understanding and coming up with new ideas, whereas machines are good at repetitive tasks. Human-centred systems are those that make participants work as effective and satisfying as possible. They allow people to do their work without wasting time and effort dealing with the information technology. Human-centred systems are user-friendly. In the past, information systems were difficult to use. People needed to understand a programming language to complete the simplest tasks. With developments in technology such as graphical user interfaces, computers are much more user-friendly. However, systems must be developed that pay attention to the work environment and the needs of the participants as well as the information technology.
Work environment
The implementation of a new system may result in major changes in the work environment. The Occupational Health and Safety Act requires employers to maintain a safe working environment and protect workers against foreseeable risks. It requires both employers and employees to establish and maintain a safe environment. Ergonomics refers to the relationship between people and their work environment. It is the process of designing or arranging workplaces, products and systems so that they fit the people who use them. The work environment, and in particular the way a computer is used, can have an affect on the body (see Figure 3.13). The work environment includes the desk, chair, hardware, software, keyboard, work routine and indoor climate. The participants relationship with all these factors affects health and efficiency. If computers are being used in the correct way, the working environment is safe and the participant will be able to work at maximum efficiency. Conversely, incorrect use of computers can cause health problems such as eyestrain, headaches, backaches, fatigue, muscle pain and repetitive strain injury (RSI). Carpal tunnel syndrome and tenosynovitis are two common forms of RSI. Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is a pinching of the nerve that passes through the wrist. It is produced by repeating the same small movements many times. Typical symptoms are numbness or burning in the fingers or wrist. CTS can cause permanent nerve damage.
Figure 3.13 The work environment. Planning, design and implementation
113
Tenosynovitis is a narrowing and inflammation of the tendon sheath. It occurs when a repetitive activity exceeds the tendon sheaths ability to lubricate the tendon. Tenosynovitis causes pain and swelling in the tendons and may cause fingers to lock in one position. To help reduce these health problems there have been numerous reports and standards produced that deal with ergonomics and information technology. The Australian Standard AS3590.2 and the Worksafe Australia checklist are standards adopted in Australia. These standards can contain slightly conflicting results as they are based on different anthropometric data (body size and shape). The general recommendations are outlined below.
Furniture
Furniture needs to be adjusted to suit each persons body, otherwise problems may develop in the back, neck, shoulders, arms and legs. The desk and chair need to be positioned so that these body parts are used effectively without strain and undue fatigue. Desk height should be between 660 mm and 680 mm for a fixed desk, and between 610 mm and 720 mm for an adjustable desk. The depth of the desk should be 900 mm with at least 50 mm for the wrists between the front edge of the desk and the keyboard. This reduces the strain on the forearms when typing. Chairs should have an adjustable seat height that ranges from 370 to 520 mm from the floor. This allows a clearance of 200 mm between the seat and the desk. An adjustable backrest should be between 170 to 250 mm above the seat and fit snugly into the small of the back. The seat should be flat, well padded and slanted slightly backwards. This forces the participant to lean against the backrest and maintain good posture.
Hardware and its placement are an important ergonomic factor. The system unit bought as a tower or mini-tower can be placed away from the screen, keyboard and mouse to provide increased desk space. The recommendations for the screen, keyboard and mouse are outlined below. The screen should be about an arms length away with the user looking down on the screen. It should also be between 15 and 30 degrees below eye level and adjusted so that it is at right angles to the line of sight. Adjustments of angle, brightness and contrast should be possible to cater for individual differences. The keyboard must be detachable and positioned so that the forearms are parallel to the floor. The angle of the keyboard relative to the desk should be between 5 and 18 degrees with the keys requiring a minimum of pressure. The mouse must fit the hand and be easily moved. The button should require a minimum of pressure. The sensitivity of the mouse should be easily adjusted to suit the operator. Software should be ergonomically designed to make the user feel relaxed and comfortable. A range of software has been developed to meet the needs of everybody, depending on their level of software understanding and their task
Functio
114
Function
1 The top edge of the monitor should be at eye level or slightly lower. 2 Keep your elbows level with the keyboard and ensure your wrists remain straight at all times. 3 Do not lean forward or slouch in your chair. Shift positions often and stand up to stretch at least once an hour. 4 Use a fully adjustable chair that provides support for your lower back. Contoured chair seats relieve pressure on the legs. 3
5 1
5 To reduce eye strain, focus on a distant object, then focus on a close object. Repeat this several times.
6 Make sure your feet are flat on the floor.
Figure 3.14 Some important ergonomic work practices.
requirements. It should be designed to minimise movement, improve speed and be easy to use. If the software is easy to understand and use, it is user-friendly. Most people find the GUI (graphical user interface) environment to be userfriendly.
Environmental factors
The work environment is affected by environmental factors such as lighting, indoor climate and noise. Incorrect lighting can cause eyestrain, double vision and headaches, and reduce visual powers. Lighting needs to be uniform and bright enough for all text to be read easily on the screen, keyboard and paper. All parts of the work environment should have non-reflective surfaces to minimise glare. Glare is reduced by using shades on windows, diffusers on overhead lighting and antiglare filters on screens. If the climate of a room is uncomfortable, it can cause weariness, sleepiness, loss of performance and increased errors. The comfortable temperature range varies depending on many factors. For a clothed and resting person, the temperature should range between 20 and 23C. If the relative humidity of the air is between 30 and 70 per cent it will not create any discomfort. Air movements such as draughts are unpleasant if they exceed 0.2 m/s. Excessive noise in the work environment can be a significant distraction. Noise levels should not exceed 55 decibels, as this makes communication with others difficult and can affect concentration. Protection from noise can be obtained by sound-insulating a room, enclosing the source of the noise with sound-absorbing materials, or by using headphones, ear plugs and soft music.
115
Impact of systems on work

The impact of information systems on a persons work can be positive or negative. Work that is satisfying is the result of a job design that involves a variety of tasks and a balance between work and rest. When appropriate rest pauses are taken, the effects of fatigue are reduced and efficiency improves. It is important that the workload is evenly spread throughout the day and year. Most people who use an information system do not find it stressful and enjoy the interaction. On the other hand, the impact of My screen is hard to read. Can I have a bigger monitor? the system may be negative. Work pressure can cause high levels of stress and adversely affect health and efficiency. There are a number of factors that influence work pressure, such as workload, job design, social relations and job security. Undue pressure may result in feelings of anxiety, tension, depression, anger, fatigue, lack of vigour and confusion. The introduction of a new information system often makes a persons work easier but they may be expected to do more. Some people believe that stress levels have increased due to information overloadbeing weighed down by the use of email, the Internet, faxes and personal computers.
Use of skills
The introduction of information systems has improved the skills of people in a number of jobs. It has also forced people to retrain or risk long-term unemployment. When people retrain and learn new skills it is called multiskilling. In Australia, employers have a legal responsibility to either retrain people or provide an appropriate termination package if they are made redundant by technology. There are many jobs that now require multiskilled people. For example, todays secretary may perform a range of tasks not required 10 years ago, such as using email, updating a Web page or maintaining a database. Unfortunately, information systems may have the opposite effect on some jobs, resulting in a job requiring fewer skills. This is called deskilling. For example, watches are now mass-produced using semi-skilled workers whereas in the past they were made by highly skilled watchmakers. Deskilled workers may suffer problems of low morale and low self-esteem.
Figure 3.15 When people retrain and learn new skills it is called multiskilling. Information processes and technology
Functio
116
Function
Meaningful work
For a job to be meaningful, people need to understand the importance of their work. The meaning of work done on a computer may be a problem. Computer work may not involve direct contact with the results of the system. It is abstract in nature and focused on symbols on the screen. People need to see the result of their work in order to achieve some satisfaction. Work also needs to consist of a variety of tasks. People become bored if their work is routine and repetitive. Information technology makes fundamental changes in peoples experience of their work. One example is telecommuting, in which people work on a personal computer at home and use electronic mail to communicate with people in the office. It provides participants with flexible hours and savings on transport, clothing, food and time. Many people enjoy the benefits of telecommuting, including those who are physically impaired or want to combine work with looking after small children. However, telecommuting can also have problems. There is a need for a separate work area in the home to minimise interruptions from family and friends. Telecommuters can also experience loneliness, isolation and a lack of support that is enjoyed by people who work with colleagues in an office environment.
Nature of the workplace

Organisations are increasing their use of information technology and this is contributing to many changes in the workplace. There are increases in part-time work, the proportion of women in the workforce and the use of contracted labour. Employees are required to be multiskilled and undertake ongoing training. It is also likely that people will change jobs many times throughout their career, which was not common practice 20 years ago. Technology is a major factor in changing career paths. A person can expect to have many different types of jobs throughout their career. The expectation that a person will remain in the same job from the time they leave school to when they retire no longer exists. In the next 10 years new jobs will be created and existing jobs will change as a result of developments in information technology.
Social relationships
People need to be able to communicate with others. Social interaction may change when a new system is implemented. For example, a new information system may mean that a process that was once done by face-to-face interaction is now done via a computer network. People who spend most of the day looking at a screen tend to have less time for social interaction. On the other hand information systems can improve social relationships. Electronic mail has provided opportunities for social relationships to develop between people who are separated geographically.
Figure 3.16 There is an increasing demand for IT skills.
117
Exercise 3.7
1 Explain the difference between a machine-centred system and a human-centred system. 2 List the ergonomic factors that affect health and efficiency. 3 What health problems are caused by the incorrect use of computers? 4 Describe the recommendations for desk and seat height. 5 How does the screen cater for individual differences? 6 Outline the ergonomic recommendations for a keyboard. 7 Why should software be ergonomically designed? 8 What are the effects of incorrect lighting? 9 List factors that affect the climate of a room. 10 What may be some of the negative results of work pressure? 11 What does it mean when a person becomes deskilled? Provide an example. 12 Why is computer work not always meaningful? 13 What are the advantages and disadvantages of telecommuting? 14 How has the nature of the workplace changed as a result of information technology? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 The manager of an organisation would like to replace many of its staff with computers. The manager argues that machines never stop work, go on holidays or waste work time discussing the football. Do you think machines should replace people? Give reasons to support your argument. List any jobs where people cannot be replaced. 2 You are offered a job in an office without ergonomic furniture. The manager believes that ergonomics is incorrectly blamed for many health problems. Outline your view on the importance of ergonomics. 3 People have been doing repetitive jobs for centuries without knowing about ergonomics. A persons attitude to work is more important than their work routine. Comment on these statements. 4 Telecommuting offers several advantages to both employees and employers. However, its success depends on the employees personality, the employers willingness to make changes and the nature of the work. What type of person is suitable for telecommuting? Would you be successful at telecommuting? Why?
Functio
118
5 Interview a person who telecommutes. a What changes did the person make to their home? b How is working at home different from going to a place of work? c What are the advantages and disadvantages of working from home? d Is the person a better worker at home? e Has the person made sure their work environment and work practices are ergonomic? 6 It is the workers responsibility to ensure a safe working environment. Do you agree with this statement? Why?
Chapter review
PART A Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best answers the question or completes the statement. 1 During the development of a new system, the details of the time frame for each task would appear in the: A requirement report B project plan C feasibility study D data flow diagram 2 The purpose of a feasibility study is to: A describe the information processes within a system B outline the aims and objectives of the new system C show intended structure of a solution D judge the appropriateness of a solution 3 In a context diagram, a person who receives data would be represented by: A a process B a data flow C an external entity D an online output 4 The second stage in the development of a system involves writing the: A requirement report B internal specifications C technical specifications D analysis report 5 In which stage in the development of a system is the staff trained? A making decisions B designing solutions C implementing D testing, evaluating and maintaining 6 The method that describes the gradual implementation of the new system is: A pilot C parallel B direct D phased 7 Determining whether a new system will be implemented by a deadline is: A economic feasibility B schedule feasibility C organisational feasibility D technical feasibility 8 Technical specifications should be done during the: A requirements report B feasibility study C design D implementation 9 In which stage in the development of a system do participants have the least involvement? A Making decisions B Designing the solution C Understanding the problem D Testing, evaluating and maintaining 10 The evaluation of a new system is performed to: A determine whether the system is working as expected B check the working of the system using test data C compare possible solutions to determine the best one D determine the economic feasibility of the system
119
Chapter review
PART B For each of the following statements, select from the list of terms the one that most closely fits the statement. Write the letter corresponding to your choice. Statements 1 The stages involved in the development of a new system to solve a problem. 2 A statement about the needs of a new system. 3 It provides a quick method of determining whether a project is on schedule. 4 A short report that analyses potential solutions and makes a recommendation. 5 The general hardware configuration of a new system and designs for both input and output. 6 It represents a system using a single process together with inputs and outputs. 7 It represents both the flow of data and the logic of a system. 8 It is carried out by participants of the system using real data. 9 It involves the old and new systems working together for some time. 10 It involves trialling a new system in a small part of an organisation. 11 It determines whether a system is working as expected or if changes are required. 12 The modification of a system by making minor improvements. List of terms a beta test b context diagram c design specifications d evaluation e feasibility study f Gantt chart g maintenance h pilot conversion i parallel conversion j requirement report k system development cycle l system flow chart PART C Write at least one paragraph on each of the following questions. 1 Describe the five stages in the system development cycle. 2 Name and describe the four elements of a data flow diagram. 3 Explain the use of the following tools in the design of a new system: a a context diagram b a data flow diagram c a system flow chart 4 Direct conversion is one method of implementing a new system. a Explain the process of direct conversion. b What are the advantages and disadvantages of direct conversion. 5 Documentation is required throughout the system development cycle. For each stage in the cycle, list and briefly describe some of the documentation that needs to be written. 6 A barcode system is to be installed in the school canteen. Outline the impact of this system on the participants.
120
chapter
PERSONAL AND GROUP SYSTEMS AND PROJECTS
Outcomes
After completing this chapter you should be able to: develop a personal and group information system to solve an information problem apply the stages in the system development cycle apply project management tools to develop a system recognise and apply management and communication techniques to project work generate ideas and alternative solutions to a problem.
Overview
Students are required to complete two projects worth 20 per cent of their assessment. This chapter includes guidelines for completing the projects. The projects are classified as either a personal information system or a group information system.
4.1 Guidelines to projects

In this course, project work involves the planning, design and implementation of an information system as outlined in Chapter 3. Project work provides a focus to develop each students technical, communication and management skills. It requires you to solve an information problem.
Developing a solution
Developing a solution to a problem requires an appreciation of the planning and design process. You must first understand the nature of the problem and determine where to get additional information. It is often useful to examine existing solutions. For example, if your project requires an advertising brochure, it would be useful to analyse professional brochures to get some ideas. Developing a solution may require data to be gathered. If you are conducting a survey or interviewing a person, it is appropriate to make prior arrangements with this person. Remember that their time is valuable. If you are conducting an interview, the questions should be carefully prepared before the interview. Project management is a critical aspect of the project. You need to plan the overall stages of the project and the tasks to be completed. Make sure you carefully check each stage before proceeding. The project must be completed within a time frame. You will not be able to complete the project in class time; you will be expected to do work outside the classroom. Tasks will need to be carefully organised and scheduled. Check off deadlines as they have been reached. File management is an important but often neglected procedure. The project will require you to create different files. If an efficient file structure and naming system is implemented, it will save time. The importance of backing up your project cannot be overstated. Students need to implement a process for backing up their project on a regular basis, such as after each session spent on the project. Developing a solution does not involve using the computer for every possible task. It is often easier to design a solution using pen and paper first before using a computer. Paper, pencils, eraser and ruler are useful tools for design. Most information technology professionals spend a significant amount of time using these tools. There are many tasks that can be done without the computer such as: outlining the structure and writing the questions for a survey deciding on the format of a newsletter designing a form to enter data into a database designing the layout of a budget with easily identifiable areas creating a storyboard for a multimedia presentation creating context diagrams, data flow diagrams and flow charts.
Functio
122
Function
After a solution has been designed, it can be changed. The development of most new systems requires changes to the initial solution. At each stage of the system development cycle there is often a good reason to return to the previous stage. For example, during implementation the layout of a form may be found to be inappropriate. It may need to be redesigned to allow data to be entered accurately.
Written report
In addition to an electronic copy of the information system, a written report should be submitted for each project. The written report is prepared using a word processor. It must be kept short and to the point. The quality of your work is more important than the quantity. Your written report could divided into the following sections: cover page, contents, stages in developing systems, social and ethical issues, journal and bibliography. These are only a guide; they can be changed with approval from your teacher. It is suggested that students maintain and submit a journal as part of the written report. The journal is to be completed in the last five minutes of every lesson. The journal concludes with a brief report on the success of the project. The written report should also contain a brief description of the social and ethical issues that result from the new system. You may have to describe possible issues and steps to address these issues. The main section of the written report is a description of the five stages in the system development cycle. A checklist for each stage is provided below as a guide to some of the documentation that is required. The type of information problem and your solution will determine the specific documentation submitted under each stage.
Understanding the problem

A project plan must be submitted that outlines the development of the new system. It should identify tasks, the time frame for each task and responsibilities for each group member. The differences between the projected and actual time for each task should be noted. Problem statement Project plan Data collection Gantt chart Requirement report
Making decisions
A feasibility study must be submitted to analyse potential solutions and make a recommendation. Constraints Detailed analysis Feasibility study Analysis report Recommendation
Designing solutions
The system must be represented using a context diagram, data flow chart or system flow chart. Specifications for the new system are to be stated. Context diagram Specifications Data flow diagram Information technology System flow chart Test data System design Documentation
Personal and group systems and projects
123
Implementing
Screen dumps, printouts and reports that illustrate important parts of the new system are to be submitted. Methods of conversion Demonstration (to the teacher) Training Documentation

A brief description of the testing methods and user documentation is to be submitted. Testing Maintenance Evaluation Documentation
Preparation of the written report

Each section of the written report will require editing. Firstly, the document is examined on screen to detect any errors. If the document contains text, it should be spell-checked. Secondly, a draft copy is checked and any errors corrected. It is often useful to have an independent person proofread each section They can often find problems that have been overlooked. When writing a report it is much easier to enter the data first and format it later. This applies to most software applications. It is more important to solve the information problem than spend a lot of time formatting the solution. Most software applications have templates and wizards that will save time formatting. Good design principles are stressed throughout the chapters on software tools (Chapters 5 to 11). These principles need to be adopted in your written report. The header and footer should be used to provide information about the author, project name, class, filename, date and page number. Refer to Chapter 5 for detailed information on word processing tools and techniques. A bibliography is the last section of the report. It is a list of source material used in the development of the project. The bibliography should include material obtained or referenced from the Internet.
4.2 Personal information systems

Personal information systems are those with only one participant. Their purpose is to meet the needs of the individual. Personal information systems often involve a personal computer with appropriate software. There are many examples of personal information systems, such as a scriptwriter using a word processor to produce an episode of a television program.
Functio
124
ITTFact t I Fac
Rafting refers to a person taking on new projects in the technology industry when they are finding it difficult to cope with the fast pace of change.
Function
Case study
Angus Trading
amount that each department can spend on calls. Katja also needs to be able to present her projections at the next accounting department meeting. Katja uses Microsoft Excel to produce the spreadsheet solution. She sets up a spreadsheet with the appropriate rows and columns and enters the data (see Figure 4.1). Katja uses Excels charting functions to produce the graph shown in Figure 4.2. The graph clearly shows both the number of calls and the cost to each department. Katja has chosen a bar graph as the most appropriate for her purpose, but other types of graphs such as pie charts or linear graphs are also available. Katja includes the charts in her report. She also inserts the spreadsheet and chart into Microsoft PowerPoint to develop a presentation for the next company meeting. She can email the spreadsheet to individual departments if necessary. Katja saves her spreadsheet solution and also saves a copy as a template, so that figures can be altered from year to year. She deletes all the specific values in the template but
Katja Olsen is an accountant in the accounting department of Angus Trading. In an effort to reduce the companys costs she has identified the seven departments that most often use the phone. Table 4.1 shows the number of calls made by the seven departments in one year. Phone costs will soon have to be paid by each department. Katja knows there will be a rise in the cost of calls. She wants to make some projections of the increases to the phone budget and calculate an average
Department
Hardware Jewellery Menswear Ladies wear Automotive Gardening Kitchen
. Units (number of calls) 4320 4300 3700 3420 3120 2700 2561
Table 4.1 Phone calls for Angus Trading
Value to be altered
= $B$5*B9 Formulas filled down Formatted for currency = SUM(C9:C15) = AVERAGE(C9:C15)
Figure 4.1 The spreadsheet created by Katja Olsen.
125
retains all the formulas. Finally, she backs up the file and stores the backups in an off-site location. If security of data had been an issue, she would have
password-protected the spreadsheet template so that no one could change the formulas in it. She could also have locked values that would never change.
Figure 4.2 A chart from the phone call spreadsheet.
Exercise 4.2
PERSONAL PROJECTS Solve one of the following information problems. It is a personal projectyou must complete it on your own. The project involves using more than one software tool and a combination of data types. 1 Students in Year 11 have decided to have a formal party at a local venue. You have been given the responsibility of choosing the venue. Investigate a number of different venues and gather data such as the name and address of the venue; the cost per head; the initial deposit required; details of meals; and available dates. Store this data in an information system and create reports that allow you to compare venues. Design a survey for Year 11 students that will decide on the venue. Students will vote on the venue if they are committed to attend. The survey should also decide on possible dates and meal arrangements. 2 Matthew Law works for the tourist bureau. He has been asked to collect and organise data on all Australian beaches. The data collected should include the location, physical characteristics, surf rating, surf club, amenities and usage patterns. Develop a solution for Matthew. It requires a questionnaire to be designed and sent to all councils that are responsible for a beach. Store real or fictitious data and produce various printed reports to highlight the beach with the best surf rating and amenities. Create a sign to promote this beach.
Functio
126
Function
3 Tony Costa is considering purchasing a nightclub in the local area. Each week the nightclub buys $5000 of stock for the bar and bistro. This stock is sold at a profit of 70%. The wages bill for the week is $6500 and he needs to repay a loan of $4000 per month. The nightclub attracts about 700 people each week. Tony needs to analyse this data to determine the cover charge for the patrons and its relationship to any profits he would receive. Tony wants to create and cost promotional material for the nightclub. Develop a solution for Tony. It should provide information about whether to buy the nightclub and the possible effects of the cover charge and increasing or decreasing the number of patrons. Create promotional material for Tonys nightclub. 4 The principal would like to promote the positive features of your school outside the local community. She is presenting these features at a conference centre. Develop a solution for the principal. It requires a presentation containing numerous slides describing the characteristics and best features of the school (see Figure 4.3). The presentation should contain different media types.
Figure 4.3 Information technology in the classroom.
5 Keith Senter is a local firefighter who needs information on the types and quantities of chemicals stored by organisations in the local community. This will enable him to deal more effectively with an emergency. Develop a solution for Keith. Create a survey to collect data for the system. Store fictitious data from the survey on the organisations name, contact person, address, phone number and operating hours, and the type and quantity of the chemicals. Create forms and reports to display the most dangerous sites. 6 Jane Cummins is a political analyst employed by a major political party. She needs to determine the impact of different issues on an election. For example, what will happen if there is an increase in unemployment? What if the Prime Minister supports an issue that is unpopular with one group of people but popular with another? There are many things that might make a difference to the way people vote. Develop a solution for Jane. A survey is to be created, conducted and analysed on current issues in the local community. For example, if the party supports legalising marijuana, 2 per cent of men and 3 per cent woman will switch to another party. However, the party gains 8 per cent of the people aged between 18 to 35 but loses 7 per cent of the people aged between 50 and 65. The results of the survey are to be displayed using charts.
127
7 The school computer coordinator needs to update the schools Web site. He wants to add Web pages about the latest information technology resources in the school. Develop the Web pages for the computer coordinator. Data needs to be collected regarding the schools hardware and resources. The Web page must outline how this information technology is used in administration and computing courses. 8 Dennis Spring is an author who won the best book award for Night Sea Crossing. It is a childrens book that deals with the journey to a mysterious island. Dennis needs to promote the book to the local community. Develop a solution for Dennis. Store fictitious data on residents in the local community, such as their name, address, postcode, and whether they have children. Mailing labels are to be created for those residents with children only. Create a flier containing graphical images to encourage the residents to buy the book. 9 Neil Woods is a landscape gardener who has operated a business for the past 10 years in your local community. He is willing to take on any job, large or small. Neil would like to work as a subcontractor for the local municipal council. He believes a more active promotional campaign is required to promote himself to a wider audience. Develop a solution for Neil. It must include advertising brochures, a business card, advertisements for newspapers and a monthly newsletter for clients. 10 The student council has decided to submit a proposal for a school dance to the executive at their weekly meeting. They have appointed you to do the presentation. The project requires you to create a multimedia presentation. It should outline the advantages and disadvantages of the dance, a budget that specifies the expenses (security guard, disc jockey and stationery), and the proposed date, time and dress regulations. The presentation should contain different media types. 11 Eleanor Rigby is a self-employed artist who works primarily in the clothing industry. She works in Sydney and has experience in designing garments, tags, logos, brochures and promotional plans. Eleanor is having difficulty organising and accessing data about her clients. She was recently asked to create a logo for Wave Clothing to appear on a series of T-shirts. Develop a solution for Eleanor. It must store fictitious data about her clients, such as their name, address, contact person, phone number, email address, invoice number and job details. Create a logo and invoice form for Wave Clothing. 12 David Lee wants to produce a personal Web site about himself. The Web pages are to be a multimedia product. Develop a solution for David. Create a fictitious family, friends, hobbies, likes and dislikes, sporting achievements and musical interests. The Web pages are based on this data and should contain a minimum amount of material sourced from the Web.
Functio
128
4.3 Group information systems

Group information systems are those in which participants work in groups to meet a need. There are many examples of group information systems, such as people working together to produce a Web site for the local community. Group information systems are often connected to form a network. Communication with other group members is carried out over the network. Interpersonal and communication skills are important for people working in groups.
Function
Case study
JANDZ Pty Ltd

mendations. It involves entering product orders received by fax into a database. This data is used to generate customer invoices and monthly accounts; monitor stock and supply levels; generate production reports; and produce other internal reports to assist in the overall management of the company. EP Consulting discovered that many customers needed a faster supply of products for their stores. The new system allows JANDZ Pty Ltd to produce internal reports that summarise and detail the monthly sales of each product. It generates exception reports
JANDZ Pty Ltd is a large Australian company. It produces a wide range of specialist products for the gardening, welding and automotive industries. The companys information system is 10 years old and is out of date. The manager needs a system that can produce more detailed information about product sales and stock levels. He has hired the services of a company called EP Consulting to solve the problem. Two consultants from EP Consulting completed a preliminary investigation and feasibility study. They developed a solution based on the studys recom-
DETAILED PRODUCT SALES (by customer) Product code

11005 11025 12005 12025 13003
Description
LeafLustre (5 litre) LeafLustre (25 litre) MealyRid (5 litre) MealyRid (25 litre) MiteRid (300 gram)
Greenfingers Nursery
24 3 21 3 36
Plants Hire
48 6 20 1 20
Bonsai Plants
76 7 34 5 16
Palms Plus
43 4 42 2 11
SUMMARY OF MONTHLY SALES (by product code) Product code

11005 11025 12005 12025 13003
Description
LeafLustre (5 litre) LeafLustre (25 litre) MealyRid (5 litre) MealyRid (25 litre) MiteRid (300 gram)
February sales
191 20 117 11 83 Total of product sales for the month of February
EXCEPTION REPORT (by product code) Product code

11005 11025 12005
Description
LeafLustre (5 litre) LeafLustre (25 litre) MealyRid (5 litre)
Projected min. monthly stock level

200 25 150
Stock balance
34 6 45
Stock balance at end of February is below the projected monthly requirement
Figure 4.4 Reports generated by JANDZ Pty Ltd.
129
to ensure that stocks are always maintained at adequate levels (see Figure 4.4). These reports are used to determine production levels and timelines for the next month. They assist the manager to implement appropriate processes to meet the demands of the customers.
Monthly sales 80 70 60 Sales 50 40 30 20 10 0 Greenfingers Nursery Plants Bonsai Hire Plants Customer Six-monthly sales 250 Palms Plus
The new system produces different types of graphs. This makes operational decisions at JANDZ Pty Ltd much easier. A bar graph is used to show sales to different customers; a pie chart is used to show the companys most popular products; and a line graph is used to show trends in sales (see Figure 4.5).
Most popular products
20% 3% 28% 5% 44%
Leaf Lustre (5 L) Leaf Lustre (25 L) Mealy Rid (5 L)
Mealy Rid (25 L) Mite Rid (300 g)
200
150 Sales 100 50 0 Nov Dec Jan Feb Month Mealy Rid Mar Apr Mite Rid
Functio
130
Leaf Lustre
Figure 4.5 Charts generated for JANDZ Pty Ltd.
ITTFact t I Fac
A honky tonk is a person who disguises the fact that they are a computer expert by not boasting about their competence.
Function
Rules for group work

A group should consist of three to five students. Your teacher will decide on the formation of these groups. All students must function as part of a group. The success of the project depends on group members working cooperatively together. Each group will have different characteristics and must follow these two rules: 1 Group members work together: Each student must contribute to all sections of the project. For example, it is not satisfactory for one student to design the system while another writes the written report. All students must be involved in journal writing. 2 Role of group members: Each student is given a role in the project. They contribute to all sections of the project but have specific responsibilities depending on their strengths and weaknesses. For example, one student might have good organisational skills and be responsible for the project management. Each student needs to negotiate and understand his or her role in the group. They need to complete their tasks according to a deadline, otherwise the project might be delayed.
Exercise 4.3
GROUP PROJECTS Solve one of the following information problems. It involves using more than one software tool and a combination of data types. 1 The local library consists of childrens and adult sections, fiction and non-fiction, magazines, encyclopedias, videos and audio CDs. It uses an information system but it is command driven and not user-friendly. Borrowers are demanding a faster and more efficient method to access materials (see Figure 4.6). Develop a solution for the library. It must store fictitious data for each item in the library, such as title, author, classification number, category (section), publisher, date of publication, subject and keywords entered into a database program. Create tables and reports that classify the data according to its type, subject and time of publication. The library needs to promote the benefits of the new system to its borrowers. Create a letter for borrowers that explains the new system.
Figure 4.6 The library.
2 Peter Tran has accepted a teaching position at a local primary school. He is moving away from home and is concerned about his finances. Develop a solution for Peters finances. Peter receives $35 583 per annum (before tax) and is paid fortnightly. He has $2500 invested in a major bank and interest is paid halfyearly. Peter wants to purchase a car and needs a personal loan of $20 000 from a bank. Payments will be paid monthly for five years. Peter needs to budget for the following expenses: rent, food, services, clothing, entertainment, car repayments and savings. The savings are needed for an overseas holiday at the
131
end of the year. Investigate the local community to obtain appropriate living expenses. The solution must provide Peter with an analysis of his finances. The analysis is to be written as a formal report. Printouts that illustrate what if questions are required. Create a number of charts to illustrate Peters finances. 3 A local club provides a hospitality service to its 854 members and their guests. It is open every day of the year for 14 hours, except Christmas Day. The club is currently undergoing the initial stages of building a new clubhouse at the cost of $3 million. It is planning to install a new information system to cope with the increase in business. Develop a solution for the club. It must store fictitious data on members and be able to produce letters (such as reminders for membership fees) and a newsletter. Mailing labels are to be created for the letters and the newsletter. Create promotional advertising for the new clubhouse. 4 A local supermarket is open seven days a week and employs 21 people on a fulltime or part-time basis. It has a POS system and EFTPOS facilities. The supermarket is having problems with stock records and needs a new information system. Develop a solution for the supermarket. It must store fictitious data for each item, such as name, product description, price, brand, quantity and universal product code. Create relevant queries, forms and reports. The supermarket maintains its prices are lower than the competitors. Investigate the prices of a range of goods in your local community. Create a flier for the local supermarket to promote its lowers prices. 5 Townbank needs the approval of the local council for a personal banking centre. It is to be staffed by two people with a team of branch managers located in head office. The personal banking centre has multimedia terminals with touch screens that provide information on the banks products, such as credit cards and interest rates. A laser printer provides a high-quality printout of requested information. Video-conferencing booths allows the customer and banker to see each other on the screen. The personal banking centre allows decisions such as an approval for a loan to be made immediately by the head office staff. The technology is taking some of the frustration out of banking. Develop a solution for Townbank. Create a multimedia presentation to seek approval of the local council. Also create advertisements for the local newspaper and a flier to be distributed to local residents advertising the service. 6 Your teacher would like to promote each student in your class to the wider community by producing a class Web site. The Web pages are to be a multimedia product. Develop a solution for your teacher. Investigate some of the characteristics (family, friends, hobbies, likes, dislikes, etc.) of each person in your class. Create the Web pages using this data. Do not include data about a student without their approval. Personal phone numbers and addresses should not be included. The Web pages should be stored on a hard disk, not uploaded to a Web server.
Functio
132
Part 2
Chapter 5 Word processing Chapter 6 Databases Chapter 7 Spreadsheets Chapter 8 Graphics Chapter 9 Desktop publishing Chapter 10 Multimedia Chapter 11 The Internet
chapter
W O R D P RO C E S S I N G
Outcomes
After completing this chapter you should be able to: describe the advantages of using a word processor create, save and print a document using a word processor make editing changes to an existing document move and copy blocks of text format the characters and paragraphs in a document use a range of tools to produce professional-looking documents.
Overview
This chapter will help you to become an accomplished user of a word processor. It examines the basic features of word processors and the major information processes involved in their use. It explains the different ways of editing text, such as moving text and using a spell checker. You will learn to use a variety of word processing tools to format characters and paragraphs.
Function
Information processes
Word processing is an application that can be used across most of the seven information processes. In creating and using a word processing document, the information processes are often not distinctthe user switches back and forth between different processes. Word processing emphasises four information processes: Collecting: Data can be gathered using hardware and software or using non-computer techniques (such as a survey or literature search). Text can be entered into the word processor using a scanner and optical character recognition software, or by typing using the keyboard. (See section 5.1.) Storing and retrieving: A word processing document can be saved to a storage device, such as a hard disk. Documents should be saved frequently and backed-up to a second storage device so that valuable work is not lost. (See section 5.1.) Processing: Text can be edited, sorted and modified. (See section 5.2.) Displaying: Text is displayed on the screen and can be formatted in various ways. Word processing documents are often displayed using a printer. (See sections 5.3 and 5.4.)
5.1 Basic features

Word processing is the most widely used computer application. A word processor is a software application that allows users to enter characters (text and numerals) and create documents. Word processors are used to write letters, reports, assignments, articles and books. They carry out these tasks quickly and efficiently. Word processors have the following advantages over other methods of writing: ease of editing textmistakes can be corrected and text moved formatting optionsa wide range of different typefaces is available, each with a particular size, style and weight ease of storagetext is stored and retrieved as required. Modern word processors offer many advanced features, but users only need to be familiar with some of the more basic features to gain the advantages listed above. A menu bar and/or toolbar at the top of the word processing screen is used to select commands or operations (see Figure 5.1).
menu bar toolbars
Figure 5.1 The menu bar and toolbars are used to select commands. Word processing
135
collecting
Creating a document
A new word processing document can be created from scratch using the New command from the File menu. The document window is empty, like a blank piece of paper, and the user simply starts typing. Most modern word processors display the document on the screen as it will be printed. This feature is called WYSIWYG (pronounced wizzy wig), which stands for what you see is what you get. Some other basic word processing features are wordwrap, scrolling, moving the cursor, and selecting different views. Wordwrap means that when a line is full, text is automatically moved to the next line. There is no need to press the Return key at the end of every line, as you need to do on a typewriter. This is very useful if the document is edited or reformatted. For example, if you change the margins in a document, wordwrap will automatically reflow the text to the new line length. The Enter or Return key should be used at the end of a paragraph. When the Enter key is pressed, a special non-printing symbol (generally or ) appears and the cursor moves to the start of the next line. The symbol character is called a paragraph marker. Scrolling is the method of moving within a document to view the writing. The word processing screen only allows a portion of the document to be seen. The document can be moved (scrolled) up, down, left and right using the scroll bars. Scroll bars are located at the bottom and side of the document window. Scroll tips that show the current page and section help the user to move through the document. In word processing, the cursor takes the form of an insertion point, which is indicated by a flashing vertical line. The insertion point is where new text will appear if the user types on the keyboard. The cursor is moved around the document using a mouse or the arrow keys on the keyboard. The arrow keys move the cursor one character or one line at a time in the chosen direction. Holding down the arrow key will repeat the movement. The space bar should not be used to move the cursor. The word processor regards a space as a character, so typing spaces is just like typing any other character. Some word processors allow you to view the document in several ways. In Microsoft Word, normal view is recommended for entering and editing text. In this view you cannot see multiple columns, drawing objects, headers and footers or page margins. Because of this, the word processor operates more quickly. Page layout view is recommended when you want to see the document as it would be printed.
storing retrieving
&
Saving and retrieving a document

One of the advantages of a word processor is that documents are stored on a device such as a hard disk and can be retrieved when required. This involves saving the document. To save a document for the first time, the user selects the Save command from the File menu, gives the document a filename and chooses a location for it. After that, choosing the Save command stores the active file with its given filename, location and file format. The Save As command creates a copy of the active file and allows the user to change the filename, location and file format. It is important to save a document regularly, so that if something unexpected happens, only a small portion of the work is lost. This is especially advisable when working on long documents. To retrieve a document, the user selects the Open command from the File menu and types in or selects the documents filename.
Functio
136
Function
Printing a document
displaying
A word processing document is displayed on the screen or on paper. Printing a document transfers it onto a piece of paper. This is called a hard copy or a printout. To print a document, you select the Print command from the File menu. The word processor must recognise the printer in use otherwise an error message will result. There are many options to choose when printing a document. These options may be selected in a number of ways, depending on the computer and word processor being used. Page range specifies which pages will be printed. This could be the entire document, a selected block of text, an individual page or a range of pages (e.g. pages 10 to 14). The number of copies can be specified. The type of paper can be specified. Many printers allow documents to be printed on glossy paper or transparent sheets. Different paper sizes can be selected. Standard sizes include A4 (210 mm 297 mm), letter (8.5 inches 11 inches), legal (8.5 inches 14 inches), A5 (148.5 mm 210 mm) and A2 envelope (4.12 inches 9.5 inches). The print quality can be changed from high quality (best) to draft quality (economy). Draft quality speeds up printing and is useful in the early stages of writing when the user is more concerned about the content than the formatting. Orientation is the way the page is turned. In portrait (vertical) orientation, the page is taller than it is wide. In landscape (horizontal) orientation, the page is wider than it is tall. Text is normally printed in portrait orientation. Tables with a large number of columns are often printed in landscape orientation (see Figure 5.2). Some word processors have a Print Preview function, which shows how a document will look when printed. It gives an overall view of the page in a reduced size on the screen. Even though the text may be too small to read, the user can review the documents overall appearance. In other word processors, the user simply zooms in and out to see the document at different sizes. Figure 5.2 Selecting page orientation and paper size and type.
Exercise 5.1
1 List the main information processes involved in word processing. 2 What is a word processor? 3 What are three advantages in using a word processor over other methods of writing? 4 Describe a WYSIWYG word processor. 5 What is wordwrap? 6 Explain the difference between the Save and Save As commands.
Word processing
137
7 Why is it important to regularly save a document to a disk? 8 List seven options users can specify before they print a document. 9 Explain the choices available with the page range option. LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Use a word processor to create the document shown in Figure 5.3 and save it with the filename EDIT.
Figure 5.3 The EDIT document.
2 Use a word processor to create the document shown in Figure 5.4 and save it with the filename FEATURES.
Figure 5.4 The FEATURES document.
Functio
138
3 The computers of tomorrow will become easier to use because they will reflect the way humans think and work. Use a word processing program to write an essay describing the computer of the future. Save your essay with the filename TOMORROW. 4 Open the file you created called EDIT. a Analyse the page setup of the document. What are the margins, paper size and orientation? b If your word processor has a Print Preview function, use it to view the document. If your word processor does not have a Print Preview function, view the document by zooming in and out. c Print the document.
Function
5.2 Editing text

In the process of writing and rewriting a document, text needs to be edited. Editing involves changing the text in some way. This could include: correcting typing mistakes, spelling errors or punctuation adding, deleting or moving sections of text searching and replacing text using a spelling checker. Editing is carried out on a character or a block of text. A character is a single letter, number, punctuation mark or special symbol. A block is a section of text, such as a word, phrase, sentence or paragraph, that is selected by the user. A block of text is selected using the mouse or a combination of keys. A block of text is usually displayed in a distinctive way (such as white text on a black background), as shown in Figure 5.5.
Figure 5.5 A block of text.
Correcting text
There are a number of ways to correct mistakes using a word processor. The undo or restore command reverses the users last action, such as typing or deleting a word or changing a font style. If the user decides that they wanted the change after all, they can select the redo or undelete command. Some word processors have multiple levels of undo or redo commands. The user can restore the document to a past state by undoing the required number of actions. Adding text to a document is called inserting. To insert text, the cursor is placed exactly where the new text is to be inserted. When the new text is typed, any existing characters to the right of the insertion point are moved further to the right or wrapped onto the next line. When inserting text, the new characters are simply added to the existing text. Some word processors have an overwrite feature. If overwriting is selected, the new text overwrites or replaces the existing text to the right of the cursor position. Removing text from a document is called deleting. To delete text on most keyboards you press the Delete key or Backspace key. The Delete key erases the character to the right of the cursor. The Backspace key erases the character to the left of the cursor and moves the text to the left to fill this gap. If a word or paragraph has to be deleted it is easier to block the text.
processing
Moving text
Cut and paste are commands used to move a block of text to another place in the same document or to another document. To cut a block of text, select the
processing
Word processing
139
Cut or Move command from the File menu. This command removes the block of text from the screen and brings back the remaining text to fill the gap. The text is not permanently removed, but is stored in the computers memory. This temporary storage area is often called the clipboard. After the selected text has been cut it is necessary to move the cursor to the new location where the text is to be inserted or pasted. To paste a block of text, select the Paste command from the File menu. The text in the clipboard is inserted at the cursor location and the remaining text moves down. Copy and paste are the actions required to copy a block of text to another place in the same document or to another document. To copy a block of text, select the Copy command from the File menu. This command copies the block of text into the clipboard but does not remove it from the document as the Cut command does. The text is then pasted into a new position using the Paste command. Drag and drop is an easy way to move or copy a block of text a short distance using the mouse. To move a block of text using drag and drop editing, point to the selected text and hold down the mouse button. Drag the text to the new location and release the mouse button. Copying text using drag and drop editing is similar to moving text except that the Ctrl key (Windows) or Option key (Macintosh) is pressed when pointing to the selected text. Most operating systems allow users to cut a block of text or an object from one application and paste it into another application. For example, a table or chart from a spreadsheet program can be copied into a word processing document using the Copy and Paste commands in the two applications. The user can usually choose one of two ways of copying the text or object. It can be copied in an active way, so that if the original object (the spreadsheet) is later modified, the copy of it (in the word processing document) is automatically updated. Or it can be copied in a static way, so that the pasted text or object is fixed and does not change. In Windows applications, these options are called object linking and embedding (OLE). Linked objects automatically change if the source object is changed. Embedded objects are fixed and do not change if the source is changed. In Macintosh applications, the Publish and Subscribe commands carry out a similar function.
processing
Find and replace

A word processor can search for text such as a character, word, or phrase. This is a useful feature if you have a long document. To find text, select the Find or Search command from the Edit menu. Type the text to be found. The word processor examines every character in the document and highlights the text that matches your request. Replacing text is another useful feature. For example, a document may contain an error that is repeated many times (such as a misspelt name). Using the replace or change function, the incorrect name can be replaced with the correct name throughout the document. To replace text, select the Replace or Change command from the Edit menu. In the appropriate boxes, type the text to be found (the incorrect text) and the replacement text. Replacement can be automatic (all instances of the incorrect text are automatically replaced) or require the user to confirm each replacement. The user can also specify whether the replacement includes parts of words (this is usually the default option) or affects whole words only. Care should be taken with this option, particularly if doing an automatic replacement. For example, a user may want to replace the
Functio
140
Function
Figure 5.6 Using the Find and Replace function.
word tall with the word high throughout a document. If he or she does not select the option of whole words only, the word processor will also change the word stall to shigh (see Figure 5.6).
Spelling and grammar

When a document is completed it should be checked for errors. This is called proofreading. Proofreading involves checking for spelling errors and grammatical mistakes. Word processors contain spell checkers and grammar checkers to assist the user with this process.
processing
Spell checker
A spell checker checks the spelling of words in the document and provides the user with correct spellings. It works by comparing every word in the document with an in-built dictionary. If a word cannot be found in the dictionary, it is highlighted in some way. The user is given the options of correcting it, ignoring it or adding the word to the dictionary. Some word processors will correct typing or spelling errors as you type, such as replacing bcak with back. This feature is called AutoCorrect (see Figure 5.7). The AutoCorrect feature also corrects errors in capitalisation by adding and removing capital letters to appropriate words such as the names of the days. When using a spelling checker it is important to remember the following points: Spelling checkers do not check meanings. If the word exists in the dictionary it will not be identified as wrong. For example, David is a buoy would not be identified as an error. Word processors are packaged with different dictionaries for different countries. An American dictionary will have different spellings to an Australian dictionary (such as computerized instead of computerised). You should make sure your word processor uses an Australian dictionary.
Word processing
141
Figure 5.7 The AutoCorrect feature fixes commonly misspelt words as you type.
Thesaurus
Most word processors also come with a thesaurus to improve the precision and variety of your writing. The thesaurus provides synonyms (words with the same meaning) and sometimes antonyms (words with opposite meaning) for the selected word. Using a thesaurus is similar to using a spell checker except that it displays a list of synonyms (or antonyms). A thesaurus is useful if a word is overused in a document and needs to be replaced with a more interesting word. It should be used with care because the actual meaning of a word can vary with its context.
Grammar checker
The English language is very complex, with many different rules for grammar. Modern word processors include grammar checkers to examine some basic aspects of grammar, such as word duplication, homophones, overuse of words, punctuation errors and long sentences. Homophones are words with the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings, such as there and their. Grammar checkers provide some indication of the readability of the text by analysing the average word length and the average number of words in a sentence. It is also possible to customise grammar checkers for a particular purpose, such as formal, business or casual writing.
Functio
142
Exercise 5.2
1 Describe some of the ways of editing text. 2 How are recent mistakes corrected? 3 How is text inserted? 4 Explain the difference between the Backspace key and the Delete key.
Function
5 Describe the actions required to move a block of text. 6 What is a linked object? 7 When is it appropriate to use the replace feature? 8 How does a spell checker work? 9 What is a thesaurus? 10 List the aspects of grammar checked by a grammar checker. LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Create the document shown in Figure 5.8 and save it with the filename SPORT. a Insert the word electronic before the word scoreboard each time it appears. b Delete the abbreviation SCG and insert the words Sydney Cricket Ground. c Insert the word head-high before the word bouncer. d Delete the word many and insert the words a whole range of. e Cut and paste the second paragraph so that it appears as the third paragraph.
Figure 5.8 The SPORT document.
2 Create the document shown in Figure 5.9 and save it with the filename SALES. The document should include the intentional typing mistakes. a Delete the upper case letter S in the word figuresS. b Delete the extra the in the sentence the the final sales figures. c Change the upper case N to lower case in the word FinaNcial. d Insert the word Super between the words Pear and microcomputer. e Insert the phrase for our new Pear Super microcomputer after the word quarter at the end of the second paragraph. f Remove one copy of the sentence Sales for the fourth quarter were up 21% for an overall years increase of 17%. g Replace the word recieved with received. h Replace the word steared with steered. i Replace the phrase overall years increase to overall annual increase. j Cut and paste the last paragraph so that it appears as the third paragraph.
Word processing
143
Figure 5.9 The SALES document.
3 List eight places you would like to go for a holiday. Enter this data into a word processing document. Press the Enter key after each place so that the next place starts on a new line. Save the document with the filename HOLIDAY. a Cut and paste these places so that they are in order of preference. b Write a reason next to each place explaining why you would like to go there for a holiday. c Delete the last four places. 4 Enter the following text into a word processor document: My favourite number is . a Copy and paste the sentence so that it appears 10 times in the document. b Add numbers to the end of each line as shown in Figure 5.10. c Cut and paste the lines so the numbers are in ascending order. d Save the document with the filename NUMBER.
Functio
Figure 5.10 The NUMBER document.
5 Read the following text: Their is a spell checker in most word processors. It cheques the spelling of words and suggests the correct spelling. It compares every word in the document with its dictionary. If a word cannot be found, it is highlighted with red wavy under lines so that it can be corrected, ignored or added to the dictionery. a List the mistakes that would be found by a spell checker and grammar checker.
144
Function
b What mistakes in this text would be missed by the spell checker and grammar checker? c Enter the text in a word processing document and run a spell checker and grammar checker. Compare the results with your answers to questions a and b. d Use a thesaurus to replace the words corrected, ignored and added. e Save the document with the filename SPELL. 6 Using a word processor, write a poem or short story about technology. It should be at least 10 lines of text. a Run a spell checker and grammar checker. b Correct any mistakes and save any other words that are not recognised by the spell checker into the user dictionary. c Use a thesaurus to replace at least three words. d Save the document with the filename POEM or STORY.
5.3 Formatting text

Formatting means changing the appearance of a document. A well-formatted document communicates information effectively by being easy to read. Word processors offer many features for formatting characters and paragraphs.
Formatting characters
A character is a single letter, number, punctuation mark or special symbol that can be displayed on the screen or printed. Formatting characters involves changing the font and character spacing.
displaying
Fonts
Modern word processors allow users to select different fonts for the text. A font is a set of characters in one typeface with a particular type size, type style and stroke weight. In word processing, the term font is commonly used to refer only to the typeface: this is technically incorrect. A typeface is a set of characters with a particular design, such as Times New Roman. Within the Times New Roman typeface there are many different fonts that can be chosen by changing the size and style. Typefaces can be divided into two main groups: serif and sans serif (sans is French for without). Serif typefaces are those that have little tails (serifs) at the ends of the characters; Times New Roman and Century Schoolbook are common examples. Sans serif typefaces have smooth characters without serifs; Arial and Helvetica are common examples (see Figure 5.11). The type size or font size is a measure of the physical size of a character. The height of characters is measured in points, where one point is equal to 0.351 mm or 1/72 of an inch. The type style describes the general shape of the typeface, such as italic or outline. The stroke weight is a measure of the thickness of the lines used to construct the characters. A typeface is usually available in light, medium, regular, bold or extra bold weights.
Word processing
145
Figure 5.11 Serif and sans serif typefaces in different sizes.
Some word processors use the term font style to refer to a combination of type style and stroke weight. Fonts can also be altered by a range of effects, such as underlining, changing the colour, strikethrough and embossing.
ITTFact t I Fac
The confusion between fonts and typefaces is a result of the electronic manipulation of fonts. In the past, typesetters needed to have separate sets of characters in every size and weight of a typeface. Each set was a font. The computer, however, is able to create characters in any size from a single typeface.
Working with fonts

There are some generally accepted principles about fonts that help to produce effective documents. A serif typeface is easier to read than a sans serif one in the body of the text. The body of the text should be in plain (regular) text, using lower case, with a type size of 10 to 12 points, depending on the typeface and printer used. Font variations, such as bold or italics, should be used sparingly in the body of the text for emphasis. Headings can be formatted in either serif or sans serif typefaces, as the difference in legibility is not as great. Only a small number of fonts should be used in a single document. Frequent changes of fonts distract the reader from the meaning of the words.
Functio
146
Character spacing
Character spacing refers to the spacing between individual letters. It can be changed in a number of ways, such as scale, points, position and kerning.
Function
Scale: The characters are condensed or expanded by a specified percentage. For example, a scale of 200% would expand the characters to twice their normal width. Points: The spacing between characters is changed by a specified number of points. Position: Characters are raised or lowered in relation to a base line. Kerning: The spacing between certain pairs of characters is reduced by a specified amount to improve the appearance of the text.
You need to retype this. On Casual Fridays, we use a sloppy handwriting font.
Formatting paragraphs
In word processing, a paragraph is a sequence of characters ending with paragraph marker (). A paragraph usually consists of a number of lines of text but it can also be a single line of text, a word or just a character. Formatting paragraphs can include changing the alignment, line spacing, tabs and indenting, and adding bullets, numbering, borders and shading.
displaying
Alignment
Alignment refers to the way the text lines up. It involves positioning text in relation to a fixed reference point, usually the right or left margin. There are four types of alignment (see Figure 5.12). Left-aligned text is perfectly aligned with the left margin. The left margin is straight and the right margin is uneven or ragged. Right-aligned text is perfectly aligned with the right margin. The right margin is straight and the left margin is ragged.
Figure 5.12 Types of paragraph alignment. Word processing
147
Justified text is aligned with both the left and right margins. Space is automatically added between words so that both margins are straight. Centred text is aligned with an imaginary line down the middle of the page. Both the left and right margins are ragged. Centred text is often used for headings. In general, it is easier to read documents that are aligned on the left-hand side, so left-aligned or justified should be used for body text.
ITTFact t I Fac
The word alignment comes from the French word aligner, meaning into line.
Line spacing
Line spacing or leading (pronounced ledding) refers to the spacing between lines of text. It improves the appearance and readability of a document. Word processors allow the line spacing to be specified for any paragraph. Users can specify a measurement (usually in points) or can choose from the predefined settings. Single spacing consists of the actual size of the font plus a small amount of extra space. It is usually set at 20 per cent leading, or 120 per cent of the font size. For example, a type size of 10 points would have an extra 2 points of space between the lines (20% of 10) giving a total line spacing of 12 points. Double spacing is twice single spacing and triple spacing is three times single spacing (see Figure 5.13).
Figure 5.13 Examples of line spacing.
Functio
148
Tabs
Tabs align the text to set horizontal positions called tab stops. When the Tab key is pressed the cursor moves to the next tab stop. A non-printing tab character () is inserted in the empty space on the screen. The next text that is entered will be aligned at this tab stop. It is important to use tabs and not the space bar to position text on a line. Positioning text using the space bar does not ensure the correct alignment in a printout. In most word processors, tab stops are shown on a ruler. The word processor usually has a default set of tabs stops that apply to all paragraphs. These are set every half inch (1.27 cm) from the left margin. The user can override these and set tab stops at particular locations.
Function
Tabs can also have different alignments, such as left tab, centre tab, right tab and decimal tab. These work in a similar way to paragraph alignment. For example, a left tab aligns the left-hand edge of the text at the tab stop; a right tab aligns the right-hand edge of the text at the tab stop. When starting a new document, it is useful to set the tabs for the first paragraph. Subsequent paragraphs will then have the same tab settings.
Indenting
Indenting moves text a certain distance from a margin. All the lines in a paragraph can be indented or only the first line. There are three main types of indents: Left indent and right indent move a paragraph from the left margin, right margin or both margins. They are used to draw attention to the paragraph or show that it is a subsection. First line indent moves the first line of each paragraph to the right so that readers can pick out the start of each new paragraph (see Figure 5.14). First line indents are created by pressing the Tab key or by moving the first-line indent marker. Hanging indent is the reverse of the first line indent. The first line is aligned with the left margin and the succeeding lines are all indented a specified amount from the left margin. Hanging indents are often used in glossaries, rsums and other types of lists. For any of these types of indents, specifying a negative indent moves a paragraph into the margin. Indents can generally be set using the ruler. The users selects the paragraph and drags the indent markers to the appropriate position. Some word processors also have increase and decrease indent buttons. These buttons move a paragraph to the next (or previous) tab stop.
left indent right indent left and right indent
first line indent hanging indent Figure 5.14 Examples of paragraph indenting.
Word processing
149
Bullets and numbering

Bullets and numbering are used to organise lists of related items. They can make a document more interesting and easier to read (see Figure 5.15). Bullets are symbols, such as a circle () or a check box (), that are used at the beginning of an item in a list. When the bullet command (or style) is selected, the bullet symbol is inserted on the left margin and a hanging indent is applied. Numbered lists are paragraphs that each start with a number or letter. The number command (or style) works in the same way as the bullet command except that numbers or letters are inserted automatically instead of bullets. Items in the list are automatically renumbered if an item is inserted, deleted or moved. Numbered lists generally have a preset format (1, 2, 3, etc.) but can also be customised to suit a particular need. For example, items in a list could be numbered: a), b), c), etc. or i, ii, iii, etc. Numbering is also commonly used for headings.
Figure 5.15 A bulleted list. The ruler indicates the hanging indent.
Exercise 5.3
1 What is the difference between a font and a typeface? 2 List the two main groups of typefaces. 3 What is the type size of a character? 4 List the accepted design principles for producing effective documents. 5 List four ways to change character spacing. 6 Describe right-aligned text. 7 What is line spacing?
Functio
150
8 Explain the difference between a first line indent and a hanging indent. 9 Why do people use bulleted and numbered lists? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Create a document similar to Figure 5.16 using eight different typefaces. Save the document with the filename FONTS. a Change Times New Roman in 10 point to bold. b Change Century Schoolbook in 12 point to italics. c Change Arial in 14 point to underlined text.
Function
Figure 5.16 The FONTS document.
d e f g h i j
Change Lucida in 16 point to outlined text. Change Broadway in 18 point to shadowed text. Change Garamond in 24 point to blue text. Expand Times New Roman in 10 point by 5 points. Condense Impact in 36 point by 3 points. Raise Westminster in 28 point by 20 points. Lower Broadway in 18 point by 30 points.
2 Enter the following paragraph into a word processor: Wordwrap automatically moves words to the next line when a line is full. It makes it easier to type and is used if the document requires a change in format. Copy and paste the paragraph so that it appears nine times in the document. Save the document with the filename WORDWRAP. a Centre the first paragraph. b Align the second paragraph right. c Align the third paragraph left. d Justify the fourth paragraph. e Indent the fifth paragraph 4 cm from the left margin. f Indent the sixth paragraph 4 cm from the right margin. g Indent the seventh paragraph 3 cm from both margins. h Format the eighth paragraph with a first line indent 2 cm from the left margin. i Format the ninth paragraph with a hanging indent 2 cm from the left margin. 3 Enter the names of the nine people you admire the most into a word processor document. Press the Enter key after each name so the next name starts on a new line. Copy and paste the nine names to obtain ten separate lists. Save the document with the filename PEOPLE. a Format the first list as a bulleted list using the symbol. b Format the second list as a bulleted list using the symbol. c Format the third list as a numbered list using 1, 2, 3, etc. d Format the fourth list as a numbered list using i, ii, iii, etc.
Word processing
151
e Format the fifth list using 1, 2, 3, etc. Delete the second and sixth names from the list. f Format the sixth list with double line spacing. g Format the seventh list with triple line spacing. h Format the eighth list with a multiple of 1.5 line spacing. i Format the ninth list with a multiple of 4 lines line spacing. j Delete all the paragraph markers from the tenth list. Set the first tab stop to 6 cm and the second tab stop to 12 cm. Display the nine people in three columns using these tab stops.
Figure 5.17 The INVITATION document.
4 Create the document shown in Figure 5.17 and save it with the filename INVITATION. a Format the text as Times New Roman 12 point, aligned left. b Format Invitation as Arial 16 point, bold and italic, centred. c Format From: Social Organisers as Bookman 14 point, blue, underlined. d Expand Dear: Friends by 5 points. e Left indent Dress informal to the first tab stop. f Left indent Venue Mounties to the second tab stop. g Align Date: 26th February to the right. h Centre Time: 7.00 p.m..
Functio
152
5.4 Additional tools

Modern word processors include an increasing number of tools that allow users to produce professional-looking documents. These tools include styles, hyphenation, page setup options, tables, columns, drawing tools and clip art.
displaying
Styles
A style, or style sheet, is a set of properties that can be applied to a paragraph (or in some cases a word). These properties can include the font, line spacing, indentation and justification. Styles are used to define the appearance of
Function
recurring text elements such as headings, body text and bulleted lists. A style is chosen using a style name from a drop-down list or a dialogue box (see Figure 5.18). There are three main reasons to use styles: Styles make a document easier to format. For example, you might set up a long document and individually format each heading to Arial 14 point bold. If you later decided to change the headings to 16 point, you would need to reformat each heading individually. If you had named and defined a style (such as Heading 1) and applied that style to each heading, you would simply redefine the style as 16 point. All text with the Heading 1 style would automatically change. Styles provide a document with a consistent look. All other documents created with this style will have the same appearance. This provides uniformity for large organisations. Styles can be imported into other applications, such as desktop publishing programs. This makes the layout and design of documents much easier. Word processors include a range of predefined styles for different types of text and headings. Users can Figure 5.18 The Style dialogue box shows the properties of the use these styles, modify them or selected style (in this case Heading 5). create their own.
ITTFact t I Fac
The term leading comes from the time when type was set by hand using individual letters cast in lead. Additional strips of lead were added between lines to increase the line spacing.
Hyphenation
As we have seen, word processors have a feature called wordwrap that automatically moves words to the next line when a line is full. However, in certain situations it is preferable to break a word and insert a hyphen (-) at the end of a line. This process of breaking words at certain points and inserting a hyphen is called hyphenation. Hyphenation can be used to improve the appearance of a document. When justified text is formatted in narrow columns, as in newspapers, there can often be large gaps between words which form rivers of white down the page. Hyphenation can be used to close up the gaps. Hyphenation must be used correctly otherwise it can affect the way text is read. For example, hyphenating the word therapist as the-rapist would cause confusion for readers. In most word processors, hyphenation can be done automatically or manually. With automatic hyphenation, the word processor decides the best places to break the words. Manual hyphenation allows the user to decide whether and where to hyphenate.
displaying
Word processing
153
displaying
Page setup
Page setup options are those that affect the entire page. They include the printer options described in section 5.1 and information about margins, page breaks, headers and footers. In some word processors these options are referred to as document formatting.
Top margin Margins Margins are the distances between the edge of the paper and the text. Word processors do not print text inside the margins, except for headers and footers. Margins usually have a default value, which can be changed by the user.
Margins
Margins are the distances between the edge of the paper and the text (see Figure 5.19). Each document has top, bottom, left and right margins. The wider the left and right margins, the narrower the page. The wider the top and bottom margins, the shorter the page. Word processors do not print text inside the margins, except for headers and footers. Margins are usually preset to default values, which can be changed by the user. If printing on both sides of a page, it is possible to have the margins on facing pages mirror each other. There may also be an option to specify the width of a gutter. A gutter is an amount of extra space added to the margin for binding. In addition to using the Page Setup menu item, margins can be set using a ruler by dragging the margin boundary to the required position. This enables the user to preview the effect of changes to the margin.
Left margin
Right margin
Bottom margin
Figure 5.19 Margins.
Page breaks
A word processor adds a soft page break automatically when text reaches the bottom of the page. It adjusts the soft page breaks as the text is edited and formatted. A hard page break, or manual page break, is one inserted by the user. It forces the text to break to a new page at a particular position, such as the beginning of a new section. In normal view, a soft page break appears as a dotted line. In page layout view, the pages are shown as they will print. When the word processor updates the page breaks it is called repagination. This occurs automatically during pauses in typing, when switching to page layout view, or when printing a document.
Functio
Headers and footers

Headers and footers help readers to identify a document and find their way through it. A header prints at the top of each page and a footer prints at the bottom. Headers and footers usually
Application software Figure 5.20 A document with a header and a footer.
154
Function
contain recurring information, such as the page number, date, title of the document or section, and author (see Figure 5.20). It is also possible to specify different headers and footers for odd and even pages. Initially, headers and footers are connected. If one header is changed, all other headers of the same type will also change. Headers and footers usually do not appear in normal view but are shown in page layout view.
Tables and columns

A table is made up of rows and columns of cells that are filled with characters or graphics. Tables are used to align numbers in columns or to arrange text and graphics in side-by-side paragraphs. Using a table to organise information makes it easy to change the information and move it as a single item. The borders and shading of a table can be changed to emphasise particular cells. Most word processors allow the user to choose from predefined table formats. Text can be displayed horizontally or vertically, and the width or height of the rows and columns can be altered easily. The content of tables can also be sorted in alphabetic, numeric or date order. A column is a vertical area reserved for text. Word processors enable the user to specify the number of columns in a document or section (see Figure 5.21). Most newspapers and magazines contain two or more columns per page. Text in columns flows from the bottom of one column to the top of the next. The space between the columns and the width of the columns can be altered. The user can see the document in columns by selecting page layout view or the print preview option. Most people prefer to create a document in a single column and put it into multiple columns once the text is finalised.
displaying
Figure 5.21 A survey created in two columns using check boxes as bullets.
Word processing
155
collecting
Drawing and clip art
Although word processors are a writing tool, they also include a range of tools to create graphics and make documents more interesting. In some word processors these tools are built-in. In others they are provided as separate but integrated drawing and painting modules. Drawing tools: These include basic tools for drawing lines, arrows, rectangles and ovals. Options are available to use different fill colours, line colours or shading effects. Objects can be grouped, cropped, resized or distorted. Word art: This feature allows the user to add attractive text effects, such as curving the text or aligning it along a diagonal line. Shapes: These are ready-made shapes used to create graphics or charts. In addition to lines there are basic shapes, block arrows, flow chart elements, stars and callouts. Symbols: These are characters and small graphics that are available in special fonts such as Wingdings Zapf Dingbats or Cairo. These symbols can be edited in the same way as other characters. Figure 5.22 Some of the text effects available in Microsoft In addition to graphic tools, word proWord. cessors are usually packaged with a range of pictures called clip art. Clip art refers to prepared pictures that are grouped into topics, such as technology, animals and education. They can be inserted into documents and changed to suit different purposes. Clip art pictures can be moved, resized, rotated, distorted and cropped and can have text wrapped around them.
collecting
Borders and shading

Borders and shading can be used to highlight a section of a document. A border is a line or box around selected text, paragraphs, tables or graphics. It is possible to choose different colours and decorative styles for borders (see Figure 5.23). Shading applies a colour or shade of black to the background area of a section of a document. In addition to different colours, the user can shade the area with different gradients, textures and patterns.
Figure 5.23 Examples of some border and shading options in Microsoft Word.
Functio
156
Function
Exercise 5.4
1 What are the reasons for using styles? 2 What is hyphenation? 3 How can hyphenation affect the way text is read? 4 Describe the effect of increasing the margins in a document. 5 When does repagination occur? 6 What are headers and footers? 7 Explain the difference between a table and a column. 8 List some of the drawing tools available in a word processor. 9 What are symbols? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Create the table shown in Figure 5.24 and save it with the filename TABLE. a Format the table by changing the shading and borders. b Use an autosum feature to find the totals. c Create a footer that contains a page number.
Figure 5.24 The TABLE document.
2 Enter the following items from a shopping list into a word processor. Insert a semicolon (;) after each item, as shown: eggs; $3.70; ice cream; $4.30; rice; $2.45; toothpaste; $2.10; tomatoes; $2.50; honey; $2.29; bananas; $1.90; sugar; $2.90; soft drink; $1.60. Save the document with the filename SHOPPING. a Convert the text to a table with two columns and nine rows. b Format the table using borders and shading. c Create a header containing the date and time. 3 Create an advertisement for a school disco using the following data: name of your school; time (7.00 p.m. to 11.00 p.m.); todays date; the schools address; cost ($3.00). Enter this data into a word processing document. Save the document with the filename DISCO. a Set all four margins to 3 centimetres. b Centre the text horizontally and vertically on the page. c Format the document to improve its appearance by changing the typeface, type size and type style. d Insert an appropriate clip art picture. e Edit the graphic by resizing or distorting it. 4 Enter the details from five different clothing labels into a word processor document. Press Enter at the end of each item so the next label starts on a new line. Save the document with the filename CLOTHING. a Format the text in a sans serif typeface at 18 points, aligned left and bold. b Insert hard page breaks so that each clothing label appears on a new page. c Insert a header that contains your name. d Format the header in a serif typeface at 14 points, aligned right and italic.
Word processing
157
e Insert a footer that contains the page number. f Format the footer in a serif typeface at 12 points, centred and bold. g View the pages using page layout view or print preview. 5 Create a document with three columns similar to Figure 5.25. Save the document with the filename SPACING.
Figure 5.25 The SPACING document.
a c e g h
Single-space the first column. b Double-space the second column. Triple-space the third column. d Change the column width to 4 cm. Change the column width to 2 cm. f Justify the three columns. Hyphenate the text using a hyphenation zone of 0.5 cm. Hyphenate the text using a hyphenation zone of 1.0 cm.
6 Enter an article from a magazine into a word processor document. Save the document with the filename MAGAZINE. a Format the heading as Arial 14 point, bold, centred. b Format the body text as Times New Roman, 12 point, aligned left. c Display the body text in two columns. d Justify the text. e Insert a clip art picture into one of the columns. f View the pages using page layout view or print preview. 7 Create a document similar to Figure 5.26 using approximately the same formats. Save the document with the filename DINNER.
Functio
Figure 5.26 The DINNER document. Application software
158
Chapter review
PART A Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best answers the question or completes the sentence. 1 Wordwrap is a basic feature of a word processor that: A changes the appearance of a document B displays the document on the screen as it would be printed C automatically moves words to the next line when a line is full D allows the user to move through a document to view the writing 2 When a page is taller than it is wide it is called: A portrait orientation B landscape orientation C full page view D page layout view 3 The easiest way to move or copy a block of text a short distance is using: A drag and drop B find and replace C copy and paste D cut and paste 4 Spell checkers: A check the meaning of words B provide synonyms (and antonyms) C check for word duplication D compare words to a dictionary 5 Italic and underline are examples of: A typefaces B fonts C type styles D stroke weights 6 Alignment refers to: A the exact placement of a graphic on a page B moving text a certain distance from a margin C the distance between the edge of the paper and the text D the way text lines up 7 When the first line is at the left margin and the following lines are all indented a small distance from the left margin, this is: A first line indent B hanging indent C aligned left D alignment 8 When the text reaches the bottom of the page, a word processor automatically adds: A a footer B a page number C a soft page break D a hard page break 9 Used to define the appearance of recurring text elements in a document: A styles B typefaces C page setup D fonts 10 Hyphenation is used to: A print recurring text at the top of a page B make a document easier to format C align numbers in columns or arrange text D close up gaps or rivers of white in justified text
Word processing
159
Chapter review
PART B For each of the following statements, select from the list of terms the one that most closely fits the statement. Write the letter corresponding to your choice. Statements 1 Store text to a disk. 2 Change the text of the document. 3 Delete the last action, such as typing a word. 4 Searches for text. 5 Removes text from a document. 6 A combination of type style and stroke weight. 7 The design of a set of characters. 8 Aligns text to set horizontal positions. 9 Rows and columns of cells that are filled with text. 10 Vertical area reserved for text. 11 Method of moving within a document. 12 A section of text, such as a word, phrase, sentence or paragraph, that is selected by the user. 13 A measure of the size of a character. 14 The spacing between lines of text. 15 A symbol used at the beginning of an item in a list. 16 The amount of extra space added to the margin for binding. List of terms a b c d e f g h column delete edit find font style save tab table i j k l m n o p typeface undo type size bullet gutter block leading scroll
PART C Write at least one paragraph on each of the following questions. 1 Describe the steps taken to create a word processing document. Your description should include the fundamental features of a word processor. 2 Describe some of the methods used to edit text. 3 Briefly explain the following terms: character spacing, line spacing, bullets and numbering. 4 Describe the purpose of a table and some of the formatting options for tables. 5 Computers are not intelligent and do not understand language. Explain how spell checkers and grammar checkers work. Are these tools always correct? Explain your answer.
160
chapter
DATABASES
Outcomes
After completing this chapter you should be able to: describe the advantages of electronic databases over manual databases understand and distinguish between the data structures (files, records, fields and characters) design and display data in forms and tables edit data and amend the design of a database sort records in a database create search specifications using relational and logical operators create and print reports based on a selective query create a mail merge document.
Overview
This chapter will help you to become an accomplished user of a database. It examines the basic features of databases and the major information processes involved in their use. You will learn how to modify a database, search and sort data, construct a query and generate a report.
Electronic databases can be used across most of the seven information processes. These processes are not distinct, and tasks often involve a combination of processes. The development of a database emphasises the following information processes: Organising: Data structures can be described and data can be arranged in tables. (See section 6.1.) Analysing: Data can be interpreted by sorting and searching. (See section 6.3.) Processing: Data can be modified. (See section 6.2.) Displaying: Reports can be generated to present data. (See section 6.4.)
6.1 Basic features

A database is an organised collection of data. Some examples of databases are taxation records, library catalogue systems, car registration records, student records, CD-ROM encyclopedias and census reports. People have used manual databases for hundreds of years, long before the advent of the computer. One common example of a manual database is the telephone book. It is a database arranged alphabetically by family name. Electronic databases have several advantages over manual databases: ease of editingdata can be corrected and updated without having to retype all the data ease of storagelarge amounts of data can be stored and retrieved as required ease of searchingdata can be searched and sorted quickly and accurately to obtain the required information display optionsdata can be presented in a variety of ways using tables, forms and reports to suit most purposes. Databases are accessed by a database management system (DBMS). A DBMS has no data in it. It is a software package that allows the user to enter, maintain and provide access to a database. The user can choose which data is required and how to display that data in a meaningful way. The term database is often used as shorthand for DBMS. DBMSs are classified according to the way they organise information. Two common types of DBMSs are flat file and relational. This chapter examines flat file databases. These DBMSs organise data into a single table and are suitable for many small applications.
Functio
162
ITTFact t I Fac
DBASE is one of the leading database management programs for personal computers. Wayne Ratliffe originally designed it because he needed a program to help him calculate the odds in a football tipping competition.
Function
Data structures
Data is the raw material entered into the information system. Databases store data in data structures called files, records, fields and characters. The telephone book is used to illustrate these data structures (see Figure 6.1). A file is a block of data. When you have done some work on the computer it is stored in a file. The LZ telephone book would represent a file. A file in a database is divided into a set of related records. A record is a collection of facts about one specific entry in a database. Information about a person in the telephone book is a record. A record is divided into one or more related fields. A field is a specific category of data. The family name, address and telephone number in the telephone book are all fields. Fields are also known as data items or categories, and are made up of characters. A character is the smallest unit of data that people can handle, and includes letters, numbers and special symbols.
organising
CHARACTER
CHARACTER RECORD
La M 40 Pauls St Ermington 823 5961
Space
FIELD Laan H CHARACTER
J
FILE RECORD Laan H
4 John St Balmain 605 8231
FIELD 4 John St Balmain
CHARACTER
LZ Telephone book
FIELD
Labab J 7 Mary St Raby 821 4391
CHARACTER
H
605 8231 CHARACTER
N
CHARACTER
Other records
Space
Other characters
Figure 6.1 The telephone book as an example of a database.
Databases
163
collecting
Creating a database
A database is created for a particular purpose. For example, large organisations create a database for personnel records to provide faster access to addresses, telephone numbers, salaries and service details. All databases are created to meet a specific need; however, they are not the solution to every problem. Clearly, a database would not be used if you had to write a letter or draw a map. Collecting data to be entered into the database may require a great deal of research or may involve the development of a questionnaire. It may be more appropriate to use oral questioning or interview techniques to collect data. If a database is to remain current, the collection of data and the checking of data will be ongoing.
organising
Data dictionaries
A data dictionary is a comprehensive description of each field in a database. It is information about the characteristics of each item entered in the database, such as the field names, field sizes, data types and field descriptions (see Table 6.1). The field name is the name of the field. It should be carefully selected to avoid confusion. Field names should be relatively short, clear and unambiguous. The data type or field type is the kind of data in the field. Each field stores data of a single data type. Some common data types are text, number, currency, yes/no and date/time. The field size, or field width, is the number of characters in each field. To keep the size of the database small and to help it work faster, the field size should be limited to the smallest number of characters that can be expected for that field. The field description specifies the contents of the field.
Field name
Family name Given name Street Suburb Postcode Home phone
Data type
Text Text Text Text Numeric or text Numeric or text
Field size
25 20 30 20 4 8
Description
Persons family name Persons given name Name of street Name of suburb Postcode of suburb Persons home phone
Table 6.1 A data dictionary for a database of names and addresses.
Functio
164
organising
Database keys
The organisation of data often involves a key. Keys are fields that are used to sort and retrieve information. It holds a data item that is unique for each record (such as a student ID number). When the records are sorted, the key is used so that not all the data is read. There are different types of keys: A single key is a field where each item of data is unique. Care must be taken when choosing a single key, as some fields (such as family names) are not always unique.
Function
A composite key, or compound key, is made by joining two or more fields together. It is used when no item in any field can be guaranteed to be unique. For example, a compound key can be made from fields such as Gender and Date of birth. A primary key is a single key or compound key that must have a value. Primary keys cannot be empty or null. A secondary key is a field that contains useful items of data often used in searches. Secondary keys are not always unique.
Tables and forms

A table, or list, organises data into columns (fields) and rows (records). It will display more than one record but only the number of fields that will fit across the screen (see Figure 6.2). Additional fields are brought into view by scrolling. A table is convenient when working with several records, or entering new data in only one field. There are several ways to change the screen layout of a table, such as changing the width of columns, hiding a column, and altering the row height. Data in a table is usually entered using a form, retrieved using a query, and printed using a report.
organising displaying
Figure 6.2 A table in the ADDRESS database.
A form, or label, is used to view, enter and change data in a table. It is often used to display the data for every field in a single record (see Figure 6.3). In most databases, the layout of the form can be changed. The user can position fields, headings, instructions and graphics. A well-designed form provides information explaining the required data and any rules that apply to particular fields. For example, a field name Sex (M/F) leaves no confusion about its required data. Fonts need be carefully chosen to ensure the screen is easy to read. The type size, stroke weight and colour of the font will have an impact on the user and the accuracy of the data that is entered. When entering data into a table or form, the user types the data for the first field and presses the Enter or Tab key to move to the next field. After entering the data for the last field of a record, the next record will appear. This process continues until Figure 6.3 A form showing fields in the ADDRESS database. all the data has been entered.
Databases
165
Exercise 6.1
1 What is a database? 2 Describe the advantages of electronic databases over manual databases. 3 What is the purpose of a DBMS? 4 What is a flat file database? 5 List the four data structures used in databases. 6 What is a data dictionary? 7 Explain the difference between a table and a form. 8 Describe a well-designed form. 9 A database is to be created containing student information. Construct a data dictionary using these fields: Family name, First name, Sex, School year, Class, Street, Suburb, Postcode, Phone, DOB (date of birth) and Age. 10 The following questions refer to the ADDRESS database shown in Figure 6.2. a How many fields are there in the database? b How many records are contained in the database? c What is the name of the third field? d Write down the data in the second record. e What is the last entry in the Suburb field? f What is the maximum number of characters needed for the Postcode field? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Create the EFTPOS database using the data in Figure 6.4. Save the database with the filename EFTPOS. Set the data type of the Balance field to currency.
Figure 6.4 The EFTPOS database.
Functio
166
a b c d e f g
Enter the data into a table. Design a form that displays all the fields. How many fields are in the EFTPOS database? How many records are contained in the EFTPOS database? What is the data type of the Street field? What is the second entry in the Given field? What is the maximum number of characters needed for the Bank field?
2 Create a customer database using the data in Figure 6.5 and save it with the filename CLIENT. Set the data type of the Last bill and Amount owing fields to currency, and the Date of bill field to date/time.
Function
Figure 6.5 The CLIENT database.
a b c d e f g
Enter the data into a table. Design a form that displays all the fields. How many fields are in the CLIENT database? How many records are contained in the CLIENT database? What is the data type of the Company field? What is the fourth entry in Date of bill field? What is the maximum number of characters needed for the Suburb field?
3 Create a database of the students in your class using the following field names: Family name, Given name, M/F, Age, Height, Hair colour. Describe their height as tall, medium or short. Save the database with the filename STUDENTS. a Enter the data into a table. b Design a form that displays all the fields. c How many fields are in the STUDENTS database? d How many records are contained in the STUDENTS database? e What is the data type of the Height field? f What is the third entry in Family name field? g What is the maximum number of characters needed for the M/F field? 4 Create a database of movie or sports stars using the following field names: Family name, Given name, M/F, Age, Famous film/sport. Save the database with the filename STARS. a Enter the data into a table. b Design a form that displays all the fields. c How many fields are in the STARS database? d How many records does the STARS database contain? e What is the data type of the Famous film/sport field? f What is the fifth entry in the Given name field? g What is the maximum number of characters needed for the Age field?
Databases
167
6.2 Modifying a database

Modifying a database helps to maintain data integrity. Data integrity is the reliability of the data. Data in a database should be correct and current. A database with inaccurate data is useless. This is why the telephone book is updated each year. To maintain data integrity, data needs to be checked when it is entered and updated when it changes. This is done immediately or at regular intervals depending on the nature of the database.
processing
Editing data
There are many reasons why data may need to be edited. For example, the user may need to change a persons address or include a new employee in the address database. Editing data involves inserting data, deleting data and moving data.
ITTFact t I Fac
Data diddling is a computer crime that involves the unauthorised editing of data. Data diddlers are people who modify data for their own benefit, such as changing university results.
Data is inserted into a field in a table or form by placing the cursor in the desired location. New records are inserted by moving to the last record and typing in the new data. The user can insert new records by choosing an appropriate command. It does not matter where the new records are inserted, as the records can be rearranged by sorting. Data is deleted from a field in a table or a form by placing the cursor to the right of the character to be deleted and pressing the Backspace key. A block of characters can be deleted by selecting the data and pressing the Delete key. The user can replace existing data by selecting the data and typing in the new data. To delete a record, the user selects the record and then presses the Delete key or chooses an appropriate command (see Figure 6.6).
Functio
168
Figure 6.6 Records selected in the ADDRESS database.
Function
Data is edited using the cut, copy and paste commands. These commands can be used on a block of text, one or more fields, whole records or the entire table. The actions are the same as in a word processor. First select the data and then use the Copy and Paste or Cut and Paste commands. It is possible to copy data from more than one field, or copy an entire record. Most databases have a spell checker that will check for spelling errors in fields whose data type is defined as text.
Amending the design

After a database has been put into use, the design may need to be changed. The structure of the database can be modified to accommodate new requirements. The data dictionary and the layouts of tables and forms can be redesigned. To add a field, the user must first decide on the field name, field size and data type. The user will then need to go back to each record and enter data into that field. Remember, it is convenient to use a table to enter new data into a single field across many records. Deleting a field should be done with caution. If a field is deleted, all its data from every record is gone. Furthermore, if a field is inserted or deleted, the user will probably need to edit existing forms, queries or reports. If a field name is confusing, it can be easily changed. The layout of forms and tables can be easily amended. In a form, the user can move fields, headings, instructions or graphics anywhere on the screen. In a table, the user can change the width of a column, rearrange the columns or hide a column. In addition to making these changes, the look of the text in forms and tables can be changed by selecting different fonts, styles or colours (see Figure 6.7).
processing
Figure 6.7 The layout of a form in the ADDRESS database. Databases
169
Exercise 6.2
1 What is data integrity? 2 List three ways of editing data. 3 Describe how new records are inserted into a database. 4 Describe how records are deleted from a database. 5 Why would it be necessary to modify the structure of the database? 6 Describe how to add a field in a database. 7 Why should care be taken when deleting a field? 8 How is the layout of forms and tables amended? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Create the inventory database using the data in Figure 6.8. Save the database with a filename of INVENTORY. Set the data type of the fields Date purchased to date/time and Purchase price to currency.
Figure 6.8 The INVENTORY database.
Functio
170
a Enter the data into a table and design a form that shows all the fields. b The serial number was entered incorrectly for the following records. Amend the data. Amplifier, Technics: 0982233 Heater, Haan: DA25900002 Tuner, Technics: 55673800 c The following purchases were made after the database was created. Insert the new records. Television, Phillips, NE-FR24, 76392965, 26-Jun-00, $650.00 Calculator, HP, CFX-9850, N7898, 9-Jul-00, $35.00 Coffee maker, Sharp, GP-484123, 4898341, 27-Jul-00, $90.00 d The radio alarm clock was accidentally damaged and could not be repaired. Delete this record from the database. e The place of purchase is a useful piece of information for an inventory database. Add a field called Place purchased. Insert the data into this field if all the items purchased before 1999 were bought at Grace Bros and those purchased after 1999 were bought at David Jones.
Function
2 Create a library database using the data in Figure 6.9. Save the database with the filename LIBRARY.
Figure 6.9 The LIBRARY database.
a Enter the data into a table and design a form that shows all the fields. b The subject was entered incorrectly for the following records. Amend the data. Skills and Tactics, Motor car Todays Music, Rock music c The following books were purchased after the database was created. Insert the new records. Australian Technology, Johnson M, Computer, 001.75, 0 86421 674 X, Rigby Modern Tennis, Norman C, Sport, 768.4, 0 97843 434 X, Reed d The books on travel were given to a friend. Delete any books on travel from the library database. e Delete the Publisher field and all its data. 3 Open the file called CLIENT and amend the data. a The amount owing for the following clients needs to be changed. Amend the data. Advance Cellars, $200.00 Holmers Computer, $0.00 Hanil Restaurant, $500.00 b There are two regular clients to be added to the client database. Insert the new records. Central Motors, 200 High St, Penrith, $600.00, October 23 2000, $400.00 Julias, 2 Iluka St, Rose Bay, $1000.00, November 12 2000, $600.00 c Add a field called Postcode and insert the postcodes of all the suburbs. Ashfield 2131, Balmain 2041, Bondi 2026, Bronte 2024, Coogee 2034, Darlinghurst 2010, Hunters Hill 2110, North Parramatta 2151, North Sydney 2060, Penrith 2750, Rose Bay 2029, Sydney 2000, Ultimo 2007, Wentworthville 2145 d Delete Tonys Fruit. 4 Open the file called STARS and amend the data. a Add a field called Nationality. Insert each stars nationality and save the file. b Insert the following records: Mel Gibson, M, 42, Mad Max, Australian Cathy Freeman, F, 26, Athletics, Australian.
Databases
171
6.3 Finding information

Database management systems are powerful tools because they can manage and allow the interpretation of massive amounts of data. They can search data very quickly and find in seconds information that may have taken hours using manual methods. For example, the telephone book only allows easy access to data if you know the persons name. With the same data stored in an electronic database, you could search using a phone number or address to find the persons name.
analysing
Sorting
Database information is always easier to use when the records are arranged in a meaningful order, not randomly, as they were entered. Sorting is the process of arranging data in a particular order. It is a way of organising the data. Sorts can be performed in either ascending or descending order. Ascending order arranges data from smallest to largest (09) or from first to last (AZ). Descending order is the reverse: from largest to smallest (90) or from last to first (ZA). To carry out a sort, the user first chooses the field on which the sort is to be based and then selects ascending or descending order. Data can be sorted on more than one field so that records are arranged in a precise order. For example, the data shown in Figure 6.10 is sorted on two levels: Suburb is the primary sort field and Family name is the secondary sort field. The result is that the records are arranged alphabetically by suburb; where there are multiple records with the same suburb, they are arranged alphabetically by family name. A telephone directory is an example of a three-level sort based on family name, first initial and second initial. A filter is used to limit the records viewed in the database. Records are filtered by selecting the records or specifying a certain condition.
Figure 6.10 The ADDRESS database sorted on two levels.
Functio
172
analysing storing retrieving
Searching
One of the major advantages of an electronic database is that data can be retrieved quickly and easily. Searching is the process of examining a database to retrieve data. For example, you could step through each record using a form view or browse in a table. Most DBMSs have a Find or Search command (see Figure 6.11). The user types in a word or a string of characters and the DBMS searches through the data looking for a match. It is often possible to limit the search to a particular field.
&
Function
This method is satisfactory for small databases with a few records but would be very time-consuming for large databases containing thousands of records. The most efficient way of searching a large database is to construct a query.
Figure 6.11 The Find command is used to search the database.
Querying the data

A query is a search of a database for records that meet a certain condition. It is a question you ask of the database. For example: What is the name of the employee who lives at Eastwood? The results of a query are usually displayed in a table but can be used as the basis of a form, report, graph or even another query. A query can also update or delete multiple records at the same time and perform built-in or custom calculations on data. To create a query, the user selects the Query command and chooses the fields to be displayed. A simple query is then constructed in the form: <Field name> <operator> <data> For example, if you were looking for a person with the family name of Davey in the ADDRESS database, the query would be in the form: Family name = Davey. The data in the query is often called the criteria. There are three methods of entering a simple query: Menu: This is often the easiest way to pose a query but is the least flexible. The DBMS presents the user with a list of options from which to choose. Query by example (QBE): This requires the user to enter the criteria against a field. For example, if you were looking for people who lived in Eastwood, you would type Eastwood in the Suburb field and leave the remaining fields blank. The DBMS would then search the database and select all records that have Eastwood in the Suburb field (see Figure 6.12). Query language (QL): This is a specialised language designed to allow users to access information from the database. It is the most complex method because the user must learn the language but it provides the most power and flexibility. Different DBMSs support different query languages. SQL (Structured Query Language) is a standard query language but there are different versions of it in use.
analysing storing retrieving
&
Figure 6.12 A query on the ADDRESS database using QBE.
Operators
A query is constructed using an operator such as those in Table 6.2. The operator represents the action to be performed in the query. Operators are classified as either relational or logical. Relational operators (=, <>, <, >, <=, >=) are characters or symbols indicating the relationship between two expressions. They are used for simple queries.
Databases
173
Wildcard characters represent one or more unknown characters. Some common wildcard characters are the asterisk (*) that substitutes for any number of characters and the question mark (?) that substitutes for one character. A query such as Family name = Dav* would find family names such as Dave, Davo, Davis or Davey. However the query Family name = Dav? would only find family names such as Dave or Davo. Logical operators (AND, OR, NOT) are used to combine simple queries so that a search is carried out on one or more fields. It is important to understand the difference between these operators. The AND operator requires both the first and the second query to be true. Only records satisfying both queries will be found. For example, if you are looking for a person with a family name of Davey who lives in Eastwood, the query would be: Family name = Davey AND Suburb = Eastwood The OR operator requires either the first or the second query to be true. Records satisfying either of the queries will be found. For example, if you are looking for all of the people with a family name of Davey and all the people who live in Eastwood, the query would be: Family name = Davey OR Suburb = Eastwood
Operator
Relational = <> < > <= >= contains does not contain begins with ends with is blank is not blank
Description
Equal to Not equal to Less than Greater than Less than or equal to Greater than or equal to
Functio
Logical AND OR NOT together either one exact opposite
Table 6.2 Examples of operators.
174
Function
Exercise 6.3
1 Explain the difference between ascending and descending order. 2 What is a sort on two levels? 3 Describe a simple way to search a small database. 4 What is a query? 5 What is the usual form of a simple query? 6 List three methods of entering a simple query. 7 What is a query language? 8 What are the advantages of using a query language? 9 Describe two common wildcard characters. 10 Explain the difference between the AND operator and the OR operator. 11 Write the meaning of the following queries: a Class = 11IPT b Mark > 50 c Sex = F d Family name begins with B e Given name = Mi* f Postcode = 276? g Suburb = Cabramatta AND Given name = Penny h Price > $100 AND Colour = Blue i Postcode = 2457 OR Family name = Brown j Bill < $100 OR Street number = 5 12 Write out queries using relational operators for each of the following. You can make up appropriate field names. a All the girls in the school. b Year 11 girls in the school. c Customers who live in either Parramatta or Bankstown. d Boys in the basketball club who are eligible to play in 16 and under teams. e All customers who owe more than $20 000 for the month of March. 13 The following questions refer to the ADDRESS database shown in Figure 6.2. a Write down the second record if sorted on Postcode in ascending order. b Write down the fourth record if sorted on Given name in descending order. c Which of the Johns would come first if the primary sort field was Given name and a secondary sort field was Home phone in ascending order? d Write down the second record if the primary sort field was Suburb and a secondary sort field was Family name in descending order. LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Open the EFTPOS database and construct the following queries. a All the people who live in Five Dock. b All the people with a given name of Doug.
Databases
175
c d e f g h i j
All the people with a family name of Nguyen. All the people who live in Fairfield. All the people with a postcode greater than 2200. All the people whose family name contains the letter a. All the people whose home phone number does not contain the digit 1. All the people who live in a street. All the people whose family name contains the letter s and given name contains the letter e. All the people whose given name is Olivia or who live in Rose Bay.
2 Open the CLIENT database and construct the following queries. a All the clients whose suburb is Sydney. b All the clients whose last bill was greater than $900. c All the clients who have an amount owing. d All the clients whose date of last bill was 25 September 2001. e All the clients who sell computers. f All the clients who sell shoes. g All the clients who owe more than $500. h All the clients with an amount owing and who own a restaurant. i All the clients in Ultimo who have an amount owing. j All the clients who sell computers or have an amount owing. 3 Open the STUDENTS database and construct the following queries. a All students who are female. b All 16-year-old students. c All students over 16. d All students with brown hair. e All students with black hair. f All students who are tall. g All students who are medium in height. h All students who are 16 and tall. i All short students with brown hair. j All students who are 17 or have blond hair. 4 Open the STARS database and construct the following queries: a All stars whose age is 42. b All stars with a family name of Freeman. c All stars who are female. d All stars who are Australian. e All stars who are over 20. f All stars who are male or American. g All stars who are female and Australian.
Functio
176
Function
6.4 Reporting
A report is the formatted and organised presentation of data. Examples of reports are mailing labels, invoices, sales summaries and telephone lists. DBMSs allow complete control of the design of a report in tabular (column) layout. It is possible to insert headings, sort data, choose the fields, switch fields, change column width and select records. The purpose of the report will determine its content, format and style. Most DBMSs allow different reports to be created from the database for different purposes. For example, the user might create one report that groups data and calculates totals, and another report for printing mailing labels (see Figure 6.13).
Figure 6.13 Mailing labels generated from the ADDRESS database
Creating a report
Before creating a report, the user needs to select the required records. For example, when generating mailing labels you may not need a label for every person in database. Reports are often constructed using a query or the Find command. The next step is to select the fields to be included in the report. These fields are placed in appropriate positions, formatted and sorted. For the mailing labels shown in Figure 6.13, the fields chosen were: <Given name> <Family name> <Street> <Suburb> <Postcode> Reports can include functions such as count, sum and average that perform calculations on selected fields. Reports typically have a number of standard sections.
displaying
Report sections
Most DBMSs allow the user to define the following sections in a report: The report header appears once at the beginning of a report. It is used for items such as a company logo, the report title and the date (see Figure 6.14). The page header displays information such as a title, column headings or any other information needed at the top of every page. A page header appears after the report header on the first page of the report.
Figure 6.14 The sections of a report generated from the ADDRESS database. Databases
177
Most of the information will be displayed in the detail section. The user has a variety of tools to manipulate and format fields. The page footer displays information such as the date, page number or any other information the user wants at the bottom of every page. The report footer appears once at the end of the report. It displays items such as report totals. The report footer appears after the page footer on the last page of the report.
Report format
Before a report is printed, it is necessary to ensure the report has the correct format. When formatting a report, the user needs to adopt the following good design principles: Use headings that identify the purpose of the report. Use layouts (such as tabular or column) that present the information effectively. Balance text on the page either vertically or horizontally. Ensure styles are consistent throughout the report and suit its purpose. Ensure columns have clear and descriptive headings. Use white space appropriately to improve readability. Include page numbers and the date in the header or footer.
ITTFact t I Fac
Online databases are databases that can be accessed via the Internet. They typically provide current information on news, sport, shares and other areas of special interest. Online databases are updated daily.
displaying
Mail merge
Organisations often send the same letter to more than one person. For example, an organisation might want to inform its customers of a new service. One solution is to write a letter, photocopy it and type in the required names and addresses. A more efficient solution is to use mail merge. Mail merge combines a letter written on a word processor with data from another type of file, such as a database. Mail merge saves time and makes the final documents more personal. There are three basic steps in carrying out a mail merge: set up a data source (or database document) set up a word processor document (or merge document) merge the two documents. The mail merge is generally carried out in the word processing application. The user selects the mail merge command from the relevant menu and is then prompted for the name of the data source. The user positions the cursor in the word processor document where the data is to be inserted and chooses a merge field from the data source. The process is repeated when more than one field is to be included (see Figure 6.15). Finally, the user selects a command to merge the documents. The selected fields are replaced with information from the data source. Each row of information from the data source produces a unique version of the word processor document.
Functio
178
Function
Figure 6.15 A mail merge document showing the field names that will be replaced with data from the database.
Exercise 6.4
1 What is a report? 2 What determines a reports content, format and style? 3 How are records selected for a report? 4 List five sections of a report. 5 What sort of information generally appears in a report header? 6 Why is white space used in a report? 7 What are the advantages of mail merge? 8 How is a mail merge document created? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Open the CLIENT file and create the following reports: a A tabular layout of all the records sorted by suburb. b A tabular layout of clients that are restaurants. c A tabular layout of all the records, containing only the Company and Amount owing fields. d A column layout to be used as a mailing label that contains only the Company, Address and Suburb fields. 2 Open the STARS file and create the following reports: a A tabular layout of all the records sorted by family name in ascending order. b A column layout that contains only stars first names and family names. c A tabular layout of all the stars who are male. d A column layout showing all the fields, sorted by age in descending order.
Databases
179
3 Open the file called EFTPOS and create the mailing labels shown in Figure 6.16.
Figure 6.16 Mailing labels generated from the EFTPOS database.
4 Create the letter shown in Figure 6.17 and save it with the filename PAYMENT.
Figure 6.17 A form letter using the CLIENT database.
Functio
180
a Insert the merged fields from the CLIENT database into the letter. b Merge the letter and the database so that each person receives a payment letter. c Create a query so that only clients with an amount owing will receive the payment letter. 5 Create personalised invitations for your next birthday party. a Write an invitation to your party using a word processor and save it with the filename BIRTHDAY. b Insert the relevant fields from the STUDENTS database into the letter. c Merge the letter and the database so that a personalised letter is printed for each person.
Chapter review
PART A Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best answers the question or completes the statement. 1 Electronic databases cannot: A search and sort data quickly and accurately B perform recalculations on data quickly and accurately C correct and update data D present data in a variety of ways 2 Which of the following lists are in order from smallest to largest? A field, character, record B field, record, character C character, field, record D record, field, character 3 Which data type in a database stores alphabetic characters? A word C field B text D record 4 A field that contains unique data in every record is a: A primary key C secondary key B field key D compound key 5 Layouts in forms and tables of a database are easily amended by: A deleting a field B constructing a query C designing a report D moving fields, headings or instructions 6 The most effective way of searching a large database is to: A use a search or find command B print a report C browse a table D construct a query 7 A database is used to store birthdays using the date format (DD/MM/YY). Five records are shown in Table 6.3.
Name
Briggs, Teena Lopez, Paul Tang, Hu Long Young, Patsy
Birthday
07/02/85 25/07/85 01/11/85 25/02/85
Table 6.3 A table from the BIRTHDAYS database.
These five records are then sorted in ascending order by Birthday. What is the name of the last person in the sorted list? A Briggs, Teena C Tang, Hu Long B Young, Patsy D Lopez, Paul 8 The database feature that is used to rearrange data in alphabetical order is called: A searching C sorting B copying D organising 9 A business has created a database of its customers in Australia. The conditional part of the query to retrieve all customers in Sydney who are over 20 years of age would be: A City = Sydney AND Age < 20 B City = Sydney AND Age > 20 C City = Sydney OR Age < 20 D City = Sydney OR Age > 20 10 Which of the following is not a good design principle? A Use layouts that present the information effectively. B Balance text on the page either vertically or horizontally. C Use many different styles throughout a report. D Ensure columns have clear and descriptive headings.
Databases
181
Chapter review
PART B For each of the following statements, select from the list of terms the one that most closely fits the statement. Write the letter corresponding to your choice. Statements 1 The process of arranging data in a particular order. 2 The kind of data in the field. 3 A specific category of data. 4 A comprehensive description of each field in a database. 5 An organised collection of data. 6 Displays more than one record but only allows the fields that fit across the screen. 7 It is used to view, enter and change data in a table. 8 A collection of facts about one specific entry in a database. 9 A search of a database for records that meet a certain condition. 10 The formatted and organised presentation of data. 11 Fields used to store and retrieve information. 12 The number of characters in each field. 13 The reliability of data. 14 The process of examining the database to retrieve data. 15 It is used to limit the records viewed in a database. 16 It represents an action to be performed in the query. List of terms a b c d e f g h data dictionary data type database field form query record report i j k l m n o p sort table field size search data integrity operator filter key
PART C Write at least one paragraph on each of the following questions. 1 What is the difference between searching and sorting a database? 2 Briefly explain the following terms: a database management system (DBMS) b query language. 3 Outline the four data structures used in databases. 4 You are going to enter a large CD collection into a database. a Name five fields that you think would be the most relevant. b List two searches on this data that would be frequently carried out. 5 Fishers Ghost Golf Club wants to use a database to manage the records of its members. What tasks would they use the database for? Design a suitable database for the golf club.
182
chapter
SPREADSHEETS
Outcomes
After completing this chapter you should be able to: describe the uses and advantages of an electronic spreadsheet create a spreadsheet by entering labels, values and formulas use a spreadsheets built-in arithmetic, statistical and logical functions move and copy data from one location to another in a spreadsheet use absolute and relative referencing of cells format a spreadsheet use a spreadsheet to create a chart of each type from numerical data identify and describe the purpose of each type of chart.
Overview
This chapter will help you to become an accomplished user of spreadsheet software. It examines the basic features of spreadsheets and the major information processes involved in their use. You will learn how to enter formulas and functions, format a spreadsheet and create an appropriate chart to convey particular kinds of information.
Spreadsheets can be used across all the seven information processes. The processes are not distinct and tasks often involve a combination of processes. The development of a spreadsheet emphasises the following information processes: Organising: Data is arranged into rows and columns, and formulas are developed. (See section 7.1.) Processing: The cells in a spreadsheet can be edited. (See section 7.1.) Analysing: The user can ask what if questions and identify trends using charts. (See sections 7.2 and 7.4.) Displaying: Cells can be formatted and information presented in charts. (See sections 7.3 and 7.4.)
7.1 Basic features

A spreadsheet uses a rectangular grid made up of rows and columns to organise and store data that requires some type of calculation. For centuries, people have used pencil and paper to construct rows and columns of numerical data and manipulate it in some way. For example, people used ledgers to keep records of their sales, income and payments. Today, a software application called a spreadsheet is used to do these tasks. A spreadsheet is an excellent tool to help solve problems that require many calculations. Business people use spreadsheets to keep track of financial transactions and stock. The spreadsheet allows them to present data in tables and charts, and make predictions based on trends. Spreadsheets are also used by scientists, engineers and people in a wide range of professions to carry out many different tasks. A spreadsheet can be used to plan a budget, calculate loan repayments, keep track of income and expenses, and perform countless other activities dealing with numbers. Electronic spreadsheets have five advantages over manual spreadsheets: ease of calculationnumerical calculations can be performed quickly and accurately ease of editing datamistakes can be corrected before printing, and data can be moved and copied recalculationif one item of data is changed, all other data that depends on it is recalculated, which allows users to try out different what if? options. ease of storagelarge amounts of data can be stored and retrieved as required display optionsdata can be presented in many different ways using tables and charts.
Functio
184
organising
Structure of a spreadsheet
All spreadsheets consist of rows that run horizontally across the screen and columns that run vertically down the screen. Rows are usually numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on, while columns are often named in alphabetic terms: A, B, C, up to
Function
Z; then AA, AB, AC up to AZ; then BA, BB, and so on. Some spreadsheets use numbers for both rows and columns, so that the rows are referred to as R1, R2, R3, etc. while the columns are referred to as C1, C2, C3, etc. It is not possible to view all the rows and columns on the screen at one time. However, the user can scroll up, down, left, or right in the spreadsheet window to view other sections as required. Some spreadsheet programs create a workbook made up of one or more spreadsheets, called worksheets or sheets. These sheets allow the user to organise related information in a single file. Different sheets are accessed by clicking the sheet number on a tab. A cell is the intersection of a row and column (see Figure 7.1). The position of the cell in the spreadsheet is called its cell reference (or cell address). Clearly, every cell in a spreadsheet has a unique cell reference. For example, the cell reference of the highlighted cell in Figure 7.1 is C4, because it is at the intersection of column C and row 4. If a cell is highlighted in a spreadsheet it is called the selected cell or active cell. Data can be entered or changed in the selected cell. A cell is selected by clicking the mouse inside it, and is indicated by a frame around the cell. The Tab key selects the next cell to the right (i.e. in the next column) and the Enter key selects the next cell down (i.e. in the next row). Holding down the Shift key together with the Tab or Enter key reverses the direction of the selection.
cell reference
formula bar
row 2
selected cell C4 worksheet column E Figure 7.1 A blank spreadsheet showing some of the basic parts.
Spreadsheets are very particular about the type of data that is entered into each cell. There are three main types of data: A label is text entered into a cell to explain part of the spreadsheet. This data is not used in carrying out calculations. Labels are used for the headings of rows and columns. Values are numbers stored in a spreadsheet. This data is used in carrying out calculations. Formulas are instructions to perform a calculation. The answer to the calculation appears in the cell that contains the formula; the formula itself is not shown. The user can create a formula or select from predefined functions.
Spreadsheets
185
collecting
Creating a spreadsheet
Time should be spent planning the spreadsheet before any data is entered. The user should ask themselves: How is the spreadsheet going to solve the problem? What data needs to be entered? How will I obtain the data? What will be the headings and titles? How will the numbers look? What is the relationship between the items of data? Does it require a calculation? What formulas are to be used? What results are required?
collecting
Entering data
Data is entered into a cell as a label, value or formula. The first step is to decide into which cell the data is to be entered. Once this cell is selected, the user types the text and presses the Enter or Return key. The text appears in the selected cell. Most spreadsheets treat anything they cannot interpret as a value (number) or label. Labels that do not fit in one cell, such as a heading, the text will be displayed in the next cell. The #### symbol in a cell indicates that the cell is not wide enough to display the number it contains. The user must either widen the column by dragging the border in the column heading or adjust the type size. In Figure 7.2 a spreadsheet has been created to calculate the total cost of items purchased by a sporting goods store. Labels have been entered in all cells containing words; values have been entered for the number of units and their cost price (cells B5 to C10); and formulas have been entered to calculate the totals (cells D5 to D10 and D12).
=B5*C5 =B6*C6 =B7*C7 =B8*C8 =B9*C9 =B10*C10 =SUM(D5:D10)
Functio
Figure 7.2 A spreadsheet containing labels, values and formulas.
processing
Editing data
Data in spreadsheets may need to be edited, to correct mistakes or update values. The simplest way to edit data in a cell is to highlight the cell and make the changes in the formula bar. Data is inserted or deleted as in a word processor. The new data will replace the old data after pressing the Enter key. It may also be possible to double-click the cell and modify the data directly in the cell. In addition to correcting mistakes, editing may include moving data and replacing data.
186
Function
It is possible to copy values, labels, cell references and formulas from one cell to another, or to a range of cells. The action of moving data in a spreadsheet is similar to the actions in a word processor. The user can cut and paste, copy and paste, or drag and drop. First the cells to be moved are highlighted and the Cut or Copy command is selected. The content of the cells, including their formatting, is transferred to the clipboard. If the user is moving values and labels, these are inserted into the new location using the Paste command. To copy the contents of a cell into a range of adjacent cells, select the Fill down or Fill right commands. The Fill down command copies cells down the column, while the Fill right command copies cells across a row.
ITTFact t I Fac
Financial spreadsheets are used to manage money and are the most common application of spreadsheet software. Financial spreadsheets can be used to calculate budgets and loan repayments, produce profit and loss statements, and monitor investments on the stockmarket.
A spreadsheet allows users to search for specific data that is part of a label, value or formula and, if required, replace it. For example, you could find all cells that contained a particular cell reference or all cells whose contents match the selected cell. The Find and Replace functions are similar to those of a word processor except that the user can search for values or formulas by row or by column.
Spreadsheet layout
displaying
The spreadsheet layout is the appearance of the spreadsheet. There is no one correct way to design a spreadsheet. Each particular problem has its own design requirements. However, a well-designed spreadsheet has four easily identifiable areas called the instruction, input, calculation and output (see Figure 7.3). The instruction area contains information about the spreadsheet or directions for use of the spreadsheet. It is usually at the top of the spreadsheet and includes a title, a description, names of the authors, and the date. Larger spreadsheets include a brief outline of their structure, directions and parameters. A parameter is an input value that determines the information produced by the spreadsheet. The input area contains labels for headings and values on which calculations are based. The format of values and labels is often completed after the data has been entered. For example, when entering money values there is no need to include the $ sign as this will instruction area happen automatically if the values are formatted as currency. The calculation area contains formulas calculation and functions that complete the work area of the spreadsheet. The calculation area is the heart of a spreadsheet. The output area displays the result of output the spreadsheet. In many spreadsheets area input area the output area and the calculation area are the same. Figure 7.3 Spreadsheet layout.
Spreadsheets
187
Exercise 7.1
1 What is a spreadsheet? 2 Outline the advantages of electronic spreadsheets over manual methods. 3 How are rows and columns named in a spreadsheet? 4 Describe the three main types of data in a spreadsheet. 5 Describe some of the planning that should take place before data is entered into a spreadsheet. 6 What is the simplest way to edit data in a cell? 7 List four identifiable areas of a well-designed spreadsheet. 8 If the following data were entered into a spreadsheet, would it be classified as a label, a value or a formula? a New South Wales b =D1+E2 c 12 d B1-B7 e 2003 World Cup 9 Write down the data stored in these cells of the spreadsheet shown in Figure 7.2. a A6 b B8 c A1 d D4 e C12 f D10 10 What is the cell reference for the following data in the spreadsheet shown in Figure 7.2? a Golf shoes b $80 c 110 d Units e =B8*C8 f =SUM(D5:D10) LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Start up a spreadsheet program. a View the entire spreadsheet by scrolling. b What is cell reference of the cell in the last row and the last column? c How many cells make up the spreadsheet? d Move to the following cells in order: A14, S45, Z1, AD33, AA100. e Move to cell A1 and type in your name. 2 Create the spreadsheet shown in Figure 7.4 and save it with filename EXPENSES. a List the cells that contain labels. b List the cells that contain values.
Functio
=SUM(C5:C11) Figure 7.4 The EXPENSES spreadsheet. Application software
188
Function
c d e f g h i
List the cells that contain formulas. Increase the clothing expenses to $25 per week. Decrease the entertainment expense to $12 per week. Change Eating out to Restaurants. In cell D4, insert the label Monthly. Enter formulas in cells D5 to D11 to calculate the expenses on each item for one month. (Assume there are four weeks in a month.) Enter a formula in D13 to calculate total monthly expenses.
2 Create the spreadsheet shown in Figure 7.5. Use the Fill command to copy the formulas. Save the spreadsheet with the filename PLANTS.
=B6-C6 =SUM(B6:B10) =AVERAGE(B6:B10) Figure 7.5 The PLANTS spreadsheet.
a Identify the range of cells in the: i instruction area ii input area iii calculation area iv output area. b A scientist completed the same experiment with ivy. Add a row after Lily so that it appears as row 11. c Enter the label Ivy in cell A11. d The ivys growth with light was 18 and its growth without light was 6. Add this data to the spreadsheet. e Enter a formula in cell D11 to calculate the difference in growth for the ivy. 3 Create the spreadsheet shown in Figure 7.6 and save it with the filename MARKS. a Identify the range of cells in the: i instruction area ii input area iii calculation and output area. b Which student has the highest average? c Which student has highest maximum? d Add a column after Task3 so that it appears as column F. e Enter the label Task4 in cell F5. f In cells F6 to F16, enter the marks 56, 80, 64, 88, 75, 90, 62, 88, 58, 70 and 60. g Adjust the formulas for Max, Min and Aver so that they include the new column of data. h Betty Tang got a job and left school. Delete this data.
Spreadsheets
189
=AVERAGE(C6:E6) =MIN(C6:E6) =MAX(C6:E6) Figure 7.6 The MARKS spreadsheet.
4 Create a spreadsheet to analyse your time management. For each day of the week, enter the amount of time (in hours) you spend on sleep, eating, television, homework, study and other activities. Use the spreadsheet to total the hours for each activity and find their weekly averages.
7.2 Formulas
A formula is an instruction to perform a calculation. Formulas are what give spreadsheets real power. Whenever values (numbers) are changed, the formulas recalculate and produce new results. A formula usually starts with a particular symbol, such as the =, @or + signs. Some examples of formulas are: =4+3 =A4*2 =SUM(A1:A5). The asterisk (*) is used for multiplication to avoid confusion with the letter x.
organising
Creating formulas
Formulas consist of four main elements: numbers, cell references, operators and functions.
Cell references
A formula refers to a cell using a cell reference, such as A2. For example, if you wanted one cell to contain the same value as another cell, you would enter an = sign followed by the cell reference. Cell references allow formulas to refer to other cells in the same sheet, or even to cells in other sheets. Formulas can contain a range of cells, such as =SUM(A1:A5). A range is a group of adjacent cells in a single row or column, or in several adjacent rows and columns. For example, the range B7:C9 refers to the cells B7, B8, B9, C7, C8 and C9. Names are sometimes used to replace a cell reference and a range in a formula. After the formula is entered, the result of the calculation appears in the spreadsheet. The formula for the selected cell is usually displayed in the formula bar. If a formula refers to itself, either directly or indirectly it is called a circular reference. For example, if the contents of cell B4 was =B4+1, this is a circular reference. It will result in an endless loop and an error message will be displayed.
Functio
190
Function
A spreadsheet recalculates a formula if values in the cell references have changed. This is one of the most powerful features of a spreadsheet and helps users to try out all sorts of what if scenarios. This is the process of making changes to the data and observing their effects. For example, car manufacturers may use a spreadsheet to see what effect an increase in the cost of windscreens would have on the overall production costs of a vehicle. Users can specify whether recalculating is done automatically or only on request. When a calculation is performed by a formula, it uses the value stored in the cell, which may be different to the displayed value. For example, two cells may each contain the value of 5.005, but this figure may be displayed as $5.01 (currency format). If the two cells are added together, the result would be $10.01 not $10.02. The result is based on the actual value, not the displayed value. It is possible to change this option so that calculations are based on the displayed values.
Operators
Operators are used to perform a process, and are used to create formulas. Operators can be grouped as arithmetic, relational and text (see Table 7.1). For example, =A1*A2 multiplies the values in cells A1 and A2. If several operators are combined in a single formula, the operations are carried out according to mathematical rules. Multiplication and division are carried out before addition and subtraction unless parentheses are used to group the operations. For example, the formula =4+8/2 gives an answer of 8, but =(4+8)/2 gives 6.
Operator
Arithmetic + * / ^ % Relational = <> < > <= >= Text &
Description
addition subtraction multiplication division exponentiation per cent
Example
=6+2 gives 8 =6-2 gives 4 =6*2 gives 12 =6/2 gives 3 =6^2 gives 36 =15% gives 0.15
equal to not equal to less than greater than less than or equal to greater than or equal to
=3+2=4 gives FALSE =22-1<>20 gives TRUE =22<20 gives FALSE =22>20 gives TRUE =15+4<=20 gives TRUE =15+4>=20 gives FALSE
text joining
=A=&FALSE gives A=FALSE
Table 7.1 Some operators. Spreadsheets
191
Functions
Functions make calculations easier. Spreadsheet programs contain about 100 built-in formulas known as functions. Functions are used to perform simple or complex calculations. To use a function you must follow special rules or syntax. Functions consist of a function name such as SUM, a set of parentheses ( ) and arguments. Arguments are values on which the functions operate. Arguments are: numbers such as 2,3 in the formula =SUM(2,3). cell references such as B4, B5,B6,B8 in the formula =SUM(B4,B5,B6,B8). a range of cells such as B4:B8 in the formula =SUM(B4:B8). other functions such as MAX(B5,B9) in the formula =SUM(B4,MAX(B5,B9)). Functions are more efficient than making up your own formula. For example, to add cells from A1 to A10 the formula is =A1+A2+A3+A4+A5+A6+A7+A9+A10 or =SUM(A1:A10). In addition to being quicker to enter, functions allow you insert or delete rows or columns. For example, if you deleted row 3 the first formula would be incorrect and require editing. However, the formula that uses a function would remain correct. Functions can be grouped as arithmetic, statistical or logical (see Table 7.2 opposite).
processing
Absolute and relative referencing

When a formula is copied from one cell to another, you may want the cell references in the formula to stay the same, or you may want them to change to coincide with the new destination cell. Spreadsheets allow for this by providing two ways of referring to cells: absolute referencing and relative referencing. Absolute referencing (or absolute addressing) means that the cell references in a formula do not change if the formula is copied or moved. The formula is copied exactly, with the cell references remaining the same. The $ sign is used to indicate an absolute cell reference. For example, cell E5 may contain the formula =$B$5*$D$5, which multiplies the contents of cells B5 and D5. If this formula is copied to cell E6, the formula remains =$B$5*$D$5, and the result of the formula stays the same. Relative referencing (or relative addressing) allows you to copy the mathematical processes in a formula (such as the operators and functions) while changing the cell references so that they relate to the new destination cell. Relative referencing is the default option, so no special symbol is required. For example, cell E5 may contain the formula =B5*D5, which multiplies the contents of cells B5 and D5. If this formula is copied to cell E6, it would change to =B6*D6, which multiplies the contents of cells B6 and D6. The cell references have changed to coincide with the destination cell (see Figure 7.7).
Functio
=B5*D5 =B5*C5 =E5-F5
Figure 7.7 The SPORT spreadsheet. Application software
192
Function
Function
Arithmetic ABS INT LOOKUP PI ROUND SQRT SUM Statistical AVERAGE COUNT MAX MEDIAN MODE MIN STDEV Logical AND
Description
Example
absolute value integer part searches a range of cells for a lookup value mathematical constant rounds to a number of decimal places square root of a value adds up all the values in a list
=ABS(-12) gives 12 =INT(2.99) gives 2 =LOOKUP(B6,A9:C14) =PI() =ROUND(3.14159,3) gives 3.142 =SQRT(144) gives 12 =SUM(B4,B5,B6,B7)
average of its arguments how many numbers in the list of arguments maximum value in a list of arguments median (middle) of the given numbers most common value minimum value in a list of arguments standard deviation
=AVERAGE(2,4) gives 3 =COUNT(5,1,12,5) gives 4 =MAX(3,6,1,4) gives 6 =MEDIAN(8,3,10) gives 8 =MODE (4,6,6,4,4,4) gives 4 =MIN(3,6,1,4) gives 1 =STDEV(5,10,15) gives 5
returns TRUE if all the arguments are true; returns FALSE if one or more arguments are FALSE returns the logical value FALSE returns one value if logical test evaluates to TRUE and another value if it evaluates to FALSE reverses the logic of the argument returns TRUE if any arguments are TRUE; returns FALSE if all arguments are FALSE returns the logical value TRUE
=AND(2+2=4,2+3=5) gives TRUE =AND(2+2=5,2+3=5) gives FALSE =FALSE() =IF(5<7,1,2) gives 1 =IF(8<7,1,2) gives 2
FALSE IF
NOT OR
=NOT(1+1=2) gives FALSE =OR(1+1=2,2+2=5) gives TRUE =OR(1+1=1,2+2=5) gives FALSE =TRUE()
TRUE
Table 7.2 Some functions.
Spreadsheets
193
It is possible to have a formula containing both absolute and relative references. This is called a mixed cell reference. For example, if the formula =$B$5*D5 in cell E5 is copied to cell E6, it would change to =B5*D6. Formulas can be copied into adjacent cells using the Fill command. Select the cell that contains the formula and the destination cell(s), and then choose the Fill command. Both absolute and relative referencing can be used in this process.
collecting
Templates
Functio
194
A template is a kind of master document or blueprint that is created for repeated use. A spreadsheet template contains labels and formulas to solve a particular problem. The user enters the values to obtain the required solution. If numerous spreadsheets need to be created to solve similar problems, a template can save time and effort. Many spreadsheet programs contain standard templates for a range of uses, such as budgets, profit and loss statements, loan repayments and stock investments. There are four advantages in using a standard template: predetermined layoutthe labels and formulas are already entered ease of usedetailed understanding of formulas is not required reliabilitythe templates are fully tested, so it is unlikely that they will produce errors adaptabilitytemplates can be modified to suit specific needs. Figure 7.8 shows an example of a simple template used to calculate the daily income from each type of room in a motel. A single room costs $50, a double room $70 and a suite $100. The income is determined by multiplying the number of rooms in use by their appropriate rates. These formulas have been entered into cells D5, D6 and D7. They show a result of $0.00 until the number of rooms in use has been entered into cells B5, B6 and B7. The spreadsheet allows the manager to Figure 7.8 The MOTEL spreadsheet. quickly determine the total income for each day and helps make decisions about room rates. Creating a template involves the following steps: Understand the problem: Determine the precise requirements of the template. How is the spreadsheet going to solve the problem? What data needs to be entered? What information needs to be calculated? Design the template: Determine the solution to the problem using a spreadsheet. What will be the headings? How will the numbers look? What is the relationship between the data? What formulas are to be used? What will the spreadsheet layout be? Remembera problem can have more than one correct solution. Construct the template: Enter the labels and formulas and format the template. Test the template: Make sure the template is perfect. Test the template with a variety of values and make modifications if necessary. Document the template: Make the template easy to use. Add instructions on the screen or provide a manual for users of the template.
Function
Exercise 7.2
1 What is a formula? 2 Write the following cells as a range of cells: a C3, C4, C5, C5, C6, C7, C8, C9, C10 b D1, D2, D3, D4, D5, D6, D7, D8, D9, D10, D11 c A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, B3, C1, C2, C3 3 What is a circular reference? 4 List three different types of operators. 5 Give the results of the following formulas: a =8*2 b =2^4 d =17-10/2 e =(20-12)/2 g =4^2/4 h =(23-7)/(2*4) j =((24-4)*(13+7)) 6 What result do the following formulas produce? a =6*3=18 b =15-8<>7 d =4*4>12 e =14/7<=3 g =2+3*3<12 h =(2+3)*3<14 c =21% f =4+2*4+7 i =50%+40%
c =5+8<15 f =6*5>=35-5
7 Explain the difference between absolute and relative referencing. 8 Describe four advantages in using a template. LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Create the spreadsheet shown in Figure 7.9 and save it with the filename ARITHMETIC. a Change the contents of the following cells: B3 to 12; D3 to 4; B4 to 18; D4 to 10; B5 to 9; D5 to 6; B6 to 24; D6 to 12. b Extend the spreadsheet by adding a row that finds the average of two numbers. c Extend the spreadsheet by adding a row that counts the number of calculations.
Figure 7.9 The ARITHMETIC spreadsheet.
2 Create the spreadsheet shown in Figure 7.10 and save it with the filename DEPARTMENT. a Change the number of employees for each department as follows: i Womans to 12 ii Mens to 14 iii Childrens to 9 iv Electrical to 10 v Furniture to 5 vi Kitchen to12 vii Sport to 11.
Figure 7.10 The DEPARTMENT spreadsheet.
Spreadsheets
195
b Harrys Department Store is expanding into hardware. i Enter the label Hardware into cell A12. ii Enter 5 into cell B12. iii Amend all the formulas in cells D5 to D10 to include this new data. 3 Start up a spreadsheet program. a Enter the following data: A2 16 A3 64 A4 =A2 A5 =SUM(A2:A4) C2 5 E2 35 b Copy the range of cells A3 to A5 to cells C3 to C5 using relative references. c Copy the range of cells A3 to A5 to cells E3 to E5 using absolute references. 4 Create the spreadsheet shown in Figure 7.11. The formulas shown in cells C5 and D5 need to be copied down their respective columns to row 10 using relative references. Save the spreadsheet with the filename DISCOUNT.
=B5*(1-C5) =IF(B5<50,10%,15%) Figure 7.11 The DISCOUNT spreadsheet.
a Amend the formulas in the spreadsheet so that employees receive: i a 12% discount if the price of an item is less than $50, and a 17% discount if the price of an item is greater than or equal to $50 ii a 10% discount if the price of an item is less than $100, and a 20% discount if the price of an item is greater than or equal to $100. b Waynes World is offering employees a discount on an exercise bike. i Add a row after Shoes so that it appears as row 7. ii Enter the label Bike into cell A7. iii Enter the value 190 into cell B7. iv Enter formulas in cells C7 and D7 to calculate the discount rate and discount price. 5 Create the template shown in Figure 7.12. The formulas shown in cells C5 to C10 need to be copied into columns D and E using relative references. (They indicate price changes as a result of the growing season.) Save the spreadsheet with the filename VEGETABLE.
Functio
196
Figure 7.12 The VEGETABLE spreadsheet template.
Function
a Use the template to calculate total vegetable prices for October, November and December for two different years. The September prices (per kilogram) were: i potatoes $1.29, onions $1.59, carrots $1.99, beans $2.29, peas $2.99, mushrooms $5.99 ii potatoes $1.19, onions $1.79, carrots $2.09, beans $2.19, peas $3.49, mushrooms $5.89. b Add a row after Beans so that it appears as row 9. c In row 9, enter the following data: zucchini; September price of $1.99; decrease of 3% in price for each of October, November and December. d The supply of vegetables for next season will be affected by a drought. The expected percentage increases on the September prices are as follows: potatoes 25%, onions 17%, carrots 12%, beans 10%, zucchinis 10%, peas 8%, mushrooms 5%. Modify the formulas in the template using this data.
7.3 Formatting a spreadsheet

Formatting means changing the appearance of the spreadsheet. There are many ways to format a spreadsheet and make it more appealing. However, it is most important that the format is appropriate for its purpose and helps communicate the information. Formatting a spreadsheet involves changing the rows and columns and the cell formats.
Rows and columns

Spreadsheet programs allow the user to adjust the height of rows and the width of columns. This is necessary to accommodate headings, larger type sizes or wrapping text. Row height and column width are changed in several ways: Drag the border in the row heading or column heading to the required width. Redefine the default row height or column width. This adjusts all rows and columns to the same width. Different spreadsheet programs have different defaults for row height and column width. Adjust the row height and column width to the minimum necessary to display the contents of the selected cells. Hide selected rows and columns. Hiding rows and columns does not delete them from the spreadsheet. In a spreadsheet, it is often necessary to add or delete rows and columns. When a row is inserted, all the rows below it are moved down one place. When a column is inserted, all the columns to the right are moved to the right one place. Including empty rows and columns to add spacing can improve the readability of the spreadsheet. Deleting rows and columns from a spreadsheet reverses this process. The rows below move up and the columns to the right move to the left. Cell references are automatically changed when adding and deleting rows and columns unless they are absolute cell references.
displaying
Cells
Each spreadsheet program includes a number of different ways of displaying text and numbers. Formatting a cell does not change the contents of the cell but determines the way it is displayed. There are numerous options for formatting cells, such as number, alignment, fonts, borders and shading.
displaying
Spreadsheets
197
Number
Cells that contain numbers are formatted using the toolbar or a command from the menu bar. Modern spreadsheet programs automatically apply a built-in format based on the data the user has entered. Number formats for selected cells include the following: General: The number is displayed exactly as it is typed. No specific number format is applied. Fixed: The number is displayed to a specified number of decimal places. For example, if two decimal places are specified, 8.592 would appear as 8.59. Comma: The number is displayed with commas every three places. For example, 12345678 would appear as 12,345,678. Currency: A dollar sign ($) is added at the beginning of the number, which is usually expressed to two decimal places. For example, 8.592 would appear as $8.59. Per cent: The number is expressed as a percentage by multiplying it by 100 and adding the per cent symbol (%). For example, 0.34 would appear as 34%. Scientific: The number is expressed in scientific notation. Many spreadsheet programs automatically use scientific notation to display very large or very small values. For example, 12 000 000 would appear as 1.2E+7 (which stands for 1.2 107). Date: The number is displayed in a specified date format (see Figure 7.13). For example, 4/7/01 could appear as 04/07/2001, 4-Jul or 04- Jul-01 . Time: The number is expressed as a time value. For example, 14:30 could appear as 2:30 PM, 14:30 or 14:30:00. Fraction: The number is expressed as a fraction. For example, 0.5 could appear as 1/2, 2/4 or 50/100. Special: This format is used to display special numbers such as postcodes and phone numbers. Figure 7.13 Some of the cell formats available in Microsoft Excel.
Alignment
Alignment is the way text lines up, and it is used to distinguish different types of information. The contents of a cell are aligned either vertically or horizontally. The default vertical alignment is to the bottom of the cell. However, it can be changed to top, centre or justified. The default horizontal alignment depends on the type of data. Labels are aligned left and numbers, dates and times are aligned right. There are several options for horizontal alignment: Align left aligns the contents at the left edge of the cell. Align right aligns the contents at the right edge of the cell. Centre aligns the contents around the middle of the cell. Centre across selection centres the contents of the left cell in a selected range. Wrap text applies wordwrap to the text in a cell. Shrink to fit reduces the size of the font so that the selected cell fits the column.
Functio
198
Function
The orientation of the text in a cell can also be changed. This involves rotating the text a set number of degrees. For example, if the user needs text to read vertically upwards, a rotation of 90 degrees is required. Rotated text is generally harder to read but it does allow longer, more descriptive headings to be used.
Fonts
As with word processors, spreadsheet programs allow users to apply a range of fonts to emphasise important parts of a spreadsheet. Fonts can applied to characters within cells, a selected cell or a range of cells. Modifications can be made to the typeface, type size, type style, stroke weight and colour. Some spreadsheets provide built-in styles and table formats, which can be used to ensure a consistent format.
ITTFact t I Fac
The first Internet arrest occurred in the USA on 19 May 1996. Leslie Ibsen Rogge, wanted on bank robbery and other charges, was arrested as a result of his picture being posted on the FBIs Web site.
Borders and shading

Borders, patterns and shading can be used to increase the readability and improve the appearance of a spreadsheet. They can be applied to a selected cell or range of cells. There are many options to change the style of a border, such as line weight and colour, background colour and pattern.
Macros
Modern spreadsheet programs allow users to create and use macros. A macro is a series of commands stored in a file that can be executed by pressing a few keys. Macros are used to automate repetitive tasks; they save time and reduce keyboard errors. For example, your name may appear in all your spreadsheets. If you stored your name in macro and assigned it to the F2 key, every time you pressed F2 the macro would enter your name. This is a simple example, but macros can be used to perform much more complex series of actions. They can open menus, choose commands, enter text and do hundreds of other tasks extremely quickly. The easiest way to create a macro is to record it. The user selects the appropriate Record macro command and enters a name for the macro, so it can be saved as a file. The user then carries out the desired series of actions, which are recorded by the macro recorder. When the actions are completed, the user stops the macro recorder by selecting the appropriate command or button. The saved macro can then be used by selecting the appropriate Run macro command. This command will carry out all the actions stored in the macro. In some programs, a macro can also be assigned to a button on a toolbar. In addition to using the macro recorder, macros can be created using a macro language. This requires an understanding of computing programming, and is not part of this course.
processing storing retrieving
&
Spreadsheets
199
Exercise 7.3
1 Why is it necessary to adjust the height of rows and the width of columns? 2 Describe the effect of deleting rows and columns. 3 List 10 different ways in which numbers can be formatted. 4 What is currency format? 5 Describe the default horizontal alignment. 6 Explain the difference between centre and centre across selection. 7 What is orientation of text? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Create and format the spreadsheet shown in Figure 7.14. The formulas shown in cells E11, F11 and G11 need to be copied down their respective columns to row 16 using relative references. Save the spreadsheet with the filename FLEET.
=$D$7 =D11*$D$6 =C11*$D$5 Figure 7.14 The FLEET spreadsheet.
a Enter a formula into cell H11 to add the depreciation, kilometre and parking expenses. b Copy the formula in cell H11 to cells H12 to H16 using relative references. c Enter a formula into cell E18 to add the depreciation expenses for the six vehicles. d Enter a formula into cell E19 to average the depreciation expenses for the six vehicles. e Copy the formulas in cells E18 and E19 to cells F18 to H19 using relative references. f The price of petrol increases. Change the parameter in cell D6 from $0.35 to $0.36. g You find another parking station that charges $200 per month. What savings would be made to the total monthly fleet cost by using this parking station? h Amend the kilometres driven for each fleet vehicle as follows: i NNO583 to 167 ii TTR444 to 320 iii OJP875 to 270 iv QYF639 to 360 v RRE810 to 291 vi STE568 to 594.
Functio
200
Function
Porters Communication expands its vehicle fleet. Add two rows after delivery vehicle RRE810 and insert the following data: i Row 13: Delivery; HQA266; $37,500; 160 ii Row 14: Executive; OGP484; $61,000; 250. The delivery vehicle NNO583 is sold. Delete its data.
2 Create and format a spreadsheet using the data in Figure 7.15 and save it with the filename TAX.
=B4 =LOOKUP(B4,A7:A12) =LOOKUP(B4,A7:B12) =C16*C17 =C14-C15 =LOOKUP(B4,A7:C12) Figure 7.15 The TAX spreadsheet. =E15+E17
a Use the spreadsheet to calculate the tax payable on the following taxable incomes: i $5000.00 ii $15 000.00 iii $36 500.00 iv $38 000.00 v $100 000.00 b The government decides to change the tax rates to 0%, 15%, 30%, 35%, 40% and 45%. Amend the tax spreadsheet. c In addition to the above tax rates, the government includes another tax bracket. People who have a taxable income above $60 000 pay a base tax of $19 256.50 with a tax rate of 50%. Insert the data to include this tax bracket. 3 Create and format a spreadsheet using the data in Figure 7.16. The formulas shown in cells D7, E7 and F7 need to be copied down their respective columns to row 12 using relative references. Save the spreadsheet with the filename BONUS.
=D7+E7 =IF(AND(B7>8,C7>100),200,0) =IF(OR(B7>8,C7>100),10*C7,0) Figure 7.16 The BONUS spreadsheet. Spreadsheets
201
a The data entered for Sue Lane is incorrect. She has completed 9 years of service with 75 hours of overtime. Correct her data. b Bobs Cakes has decided to increase the additional bonus from $200 to $300. Make the necessary change to the formulas in column E. c In addition to increasing the additional bonus, Bobs Cakes has decided to calculate the bonus and additional bonus on 50 hours of overtime instead of 100 hours. Make the necessary changes to the formulas in columns D and E. 4 a Create an enrolment spreadsheet for Elizabeth High School. Enrolments this year were as follows: Year 7 110 Year 8 125 Year 9 107 Year 10 95 Year 11 71 Year 12 60 b A new housing estate has been built near the school and the number of enrolments is expected to increase by 15% within the next three years. Use the spreadsheet to calculate the projected student numbers in three years. c Format the spreadsheet using different fonts and borders to make it more appealing. 5 a Create a spreadsheet that shows the advertising budgets of the Gourmet Pizza Company for the past two years. Last year, the budget was allocated as follows: newspapers $25 000; television $14 000; radio $5000; Internet/email $11 000; magazines $8000. This year the allocations are: newspapers $32 000; television $12 000; radio $7500, Internet/email $20 000; magazines $5500. b Use the spreadsheet to compare the total budget for each year and the changes in allocations as a percentage of the total allocation for each medium. c Format the spreadsheet using different fonts and borders to make it more appealing.
7.4 Charts
A chart is a graphical representation of numerical data. While tables are a useful way of organising data, the reader must study them closely to understand the information. By representing the data graphically, charts make it much easier to understand. Charts show trends in the data and allow comparisons to be made quickly. For that reason, they are widely used in business to help people make quick and accurate decisions. Charts are also more inviting to look at than a large chunk of text or numbers, so are good to include in reports. One of the strengths of electronic spreadsheets is that they can quickly convert rows and columns of data into a chart that can be read at a glance.
Functio
analysing displaying
Creating a chart
To create a chart the user needs to complete the following steps. Select the data to be charted. A chart must include data from more than one row or column. Non-adjacent rows or columns can be selected. Figure 7.17 shows four rows of data selected to create a line chart. Choose the appropriate chart type. The user can choose the chart type that presents the data most clearly and effectively.
202
Function
Figure 7.17 The RAINFALL spreadsheet.
Specify the data for the axes. Axes are the lines that border the chart data. They provide a frame of reference for comparisons. The X-axis is the horizontal line and the Y-axis is the vertical line (see Figure 7.18). Insert appropriate titles. A chart title describes the information within the chart while an axis title identifies an axis. Insert text to make the chart easier to understand. Data labels are additional text that provides more information about the data. A legend is a key that explains the patterns, colours or symbols associated with the chart data
chart title Y-axis Y-axis title legend
X-axis X-axis title Figure 7.18 A line chart showing data from the RAINFALL spreadsheet.
Types of charts
There are many different types of charts including bar, column, line and pie. Each chart type has many variations allowing the user to show data differently.
analysing displaying
Bar charts
A bar chart presents data in horizontal rectangles. The length of the rectangle gives a visual representation of its value. In bar charts, numeric values are plotted along the X-axis and categories along the Y-axis. Categories are divisions of the chart data. Bar charts are good for showing comparisons between items and variation over a period of time. In Figure 7.19, a bar chart has been created from a spreadsheet to analyse airport profits. Each rectangle is called a data marker. A set of related data markers corresponding to a single row or column is called a data series. Column B (Year 1) and column C (Year 2) from the spreadsheet each form a data series. A legend has been used to describe each data series. Each airport is a category along the Y-axis and a scale for the numeric values has been constructed along the X-axis.
Spreadsheets
203
Figure 7.19 The AIRPORT spreadsheet and bar chart.
Column charts
A column chart presents data in vertical rectangles. The height of each rectangle gives a visual representation of its value. In column charts, categories are plotted along the X-axis and numeric values along the Y-axis. Like bar charts, column charts are also good for making comparisons between items and showing variation over a period of time. In Figure 7.20, a column chart has been created to compare sales in New South Wales, Queensland and Victoria. Row 7 (NSW), row 8 (QLD) and row 9 (VIC) from the spreadsheet each form a data series.
data series
Functio
204
Figure 7.20 The SALES spreadsheet and column chart. Application software
Function
Line charts
A line chart presents data by joining adjacent values with a line. Each value is plotted as a dot called a data marker or data point. In line charts, categories are usually plotted along the X-axis and numeric values along the Y-axis. Line charts are good for showing trends or changes in data over a period of time. They emphasise time flow and rate of change rather than the amount of change. In Figure 7.21, a line chart has been created to show the trends in the number of trips booked by a travel agent over four months. Row 6 (Uluru), row 7 (Perth), row 8 (Gold Coast) and row 9 (Cairns) each form a data series.
Figure 7.21 The TRIPS spreadsheet and line chart.
Pie charts
A pie chart presents data as sectors of a circle (slices of a pie). Each area of a sector is a data marker and there is always only one data series. A pie chart shows the relationship or proportions of parts to a whole. Pie charts appeal to people because they are easy to read and are attractive. In Figure 7.22, a pie chart has been created to show the proportions of different types of waste products handled by a waste disposal company. Clearly, pie charts do not have axes but show the relative percentages of each data marker.
Figure 7.22 The WASTE spreadsheet and pie chart. Spreadsheets
205
Exercise 7.4
1 Why would you create a chart? 2 Outline the steps needed to create a chart. 3 How are axes used on a chart? 4 Distinguish between a data label and a legend. 5 Describe four different chart types. 6 Describe the data marker in: 7 What is shown in a pie chart? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Create the spreadsheet and bar chart shown in Figure 7.19 and save it with the filename AIRPORT. a In the spreadsheet, add a row after Hobart so that it appears as row 11. b Enter the label Bankstown into cell A11. c Enter 6 into cell B11 and 8 into C11. d Create a bar chart with this additional data. e Enter Airports as the Y-axis title. f Change the chart title to Profits of airports. g Print the bar chart. 2 Create the spreadsheet and column chart shown in Figure 7.20 and save it with the filename SALES. a In the spreadsheet, the sales for NSW in year 3 should have been 5.7. Edit this data. b Create the column chart with the amended data. c Enter Years as the X-axis title. d Change the Y-axis so that the maximum value is 7. e Print the column chart 3 Create the spreadsheet and line chart shown in Figure 7.21 and save it with the filename TRIPS. a In the spreadsheet, delete the data for December. b Create the line chart with the amended data. c Delete the chart title. d Change the units on the Y-axis from 100 to 50. e Print the line chart. a a bar chart b a pie chart.
Functio
206
4 Create the spreadsheet and pie chart shown in Figure 7.22 and save it with the filename WASTE. a In the spreadsheet, delete the Other waste category (row 9) and add a new category for metal. b Change the percentage for each waste product as follows: i Paper to 29% ii Food to 32% iii Plastic to 22% iv Glass to 10% v Metal to 7%. c Create the pie chart with the new data. d Print the pie chart.
Chapter review
PART A Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best answers the question or completes the statement. 1 Electronic spreadsheets cannot: A perform calculations quickly and accurately B generate charts to present data C carry out recalculations to help decision-making D quickly and accurately search a large amount of data 2 A series of cells placed vertically in a spreadsheet is a: A row B column C value D label 3 Instructions to perform a calculation in a spreadsheet are called: A a template B an operator C an argument D a formula 4 The value on which a function operates is called: A an operator B a formula C a function name D an argument 5 In a spreadsheet, the contents of cell E1 is =$C$4. This is copied and pasted into cell F1. The formula as it appears in cell F1 is: A =$D$4 B =$D$5 C =$C$4 D =$C$5 6 Which of the following is a built-in function? A =A1+2 B Save C Percentage D Average 7 When creating a template you need to enter: A labels and formulas B values C labels D formulas 8 A pie chart is used to show: A trends or changes in data over a period of time B the relationship or proportions of parts to a whole C comparisons between items D variation over a period of time 9 Which type of chart presents data as sectors of a circle? A a bar chart B a line chart C a column chart D a pie chart 10 A business wants to show the trend in its share price over a period of one week. The best type of chart to represent this information is: A a column chart B a bar chart C a line chart D a pie chart
Spreadsheets
207
Chapter review
PART B For each of the following statements, select from the list of terms the one that most closely fits the statement. Write the letter corresponding to your choice. Statements 1 A formula that refers to itself, either directly or indirectly. 2 A graphical representation of numerical data. 3 A group of cells in a single row or column, or in several adjacent rows and columns. 4 A way of specifying a cell in a formula so that it stays the same when the formula is copied to another location. 5 An instruction to perform a calculation. 6 A number stored in a spreadsheet on which calculations are carried out. 7 Performs a process and are used to build up required formulas. 8 Text entered into a cell to provide an explanation of the spreadsheet. 9 The intersection of a row and a column. 10 The position of a cell in a spreadsheet. 11 A command used to copy the contents of a cell into a range of adjacent cells. 12 A master document that is created for repeated use. 13 A stored series of commands that can be executed by pressing a few keys. 14 A cell that is highlighted in a spreadsheet. 15 An area of a spreadsheet that contains labels and the values on which calculations are based. 16 An area of a spreadsheet that contains formulas and functions. List of terms a cell b cell reference c label d formula e range f circular reference g operator h absolute reference PART C Write at least one paragraph on each of the following questions. 1 Explain the difference between the three main types of data in a spreadsheet. Give examples of each type. 2 Briefly explain the following terms: a function b what if prediction c relational operator. 3 Briefly describe the options for formatting cells. 4 What types of charts can be created using a spreadsheet? Outline the steps required to create a chart.
i j k l m n o p
chart value macro input area template calculation area fill down selected cell
208
chapter
GRAPHICS
Outcomes
After completing this chapter you should be able to: describe the advantages of using a computer graphic describe the essential features of painting and drawing programs create and manipulate bit-mapped graphics create and manipulate vector graphics as geometric shapes crop, resize and distort graphic images describe the relationship between resolution, colour and file size compare and contrast bit-mapped graphics and vector graphics.
Overview
This chapter will develop your knowledge and skills in relation to computer graphics. It examines the basic features of graphics and the major information processes involved in their use. You will learn how to modify a graphic by positioning, cropping, resizing and distorting it.
Most modern application software contains some basic graphics tools. Specialist graphics programs are also available for all types of computers. They enable you to draw pictures, save them and alter them in a variety of ways. Graphics software can be used across all of the seven information processes with particular emphasis on the following processes: Collecting: Graphics can be created, captured or obtained in the form of clip art. (See section 8.1.) Organising: Images can be represented using paint and draw software. (See sections 8.3 and 8.4.) Processing: Images can be edited and manipulated. (See section 8.2.)
8.1 Basic features

One of the most powerful ways of presenting information is by using a graphic. A graphic is a picture such as a drawing, painting or photograph. A graphic created, displayed or stored using a computer is called a computer graphic. The ability to present information in graphic form has become an important feature of most software applications. There are three main reasons for using a graphic: Displaying information: Graphics are sometimes the only effective method of presenting information such as an X-ray or ultrasound. Ease of understanding: The Chinese proverb that says A picture is worth a thousand words is often very true. Graphics often convey a message more effectively than text. Visual interest: Graphics make a document more attractive, helping to keep the readers interest. Computer graphics are used extensively in business, entertainment, art and education. For example, every aspect of televisionadvertisements, news and moviesall rely heavily on the use of computer graphics. Graphics can have a number of different purposes: A symbol is a graphic that represents words. It allows people to obtain information quickly and accurately, even if they cannot speak the local language (see Figure 8.1). A logo is a symbol designed to identify an organisation. Logos are included in advertising and on signs and stationary. Logos contain graphics to help identify a company, product or service.
Functio
210
Figure 8.1 Some common symbols.
Function
A chart is a graphical representation of numerical data. Charts convert data in rows and columns into a picture that can be understood more quickly. A diagram is a graphic that explains the parts or operation of a thing (such as a video recorder) or a process. The readers understanding of the text will be improved by the inclusion of an appropriate diagram. All computer graphics when displayed on the screen are made up of tiny dots called pixels (for picture element). A pixel is the smallest part of the screen that can be controlled by the computer. The total number of pixels on the screen depends on the type of computer screen you are using and is called its resolution. The more pixels used in an image, the higher the resolution and the more detailed the picture.
Inserting graphics
Methods of creating graphics are discussed in the next section; however, it is not always necessary to create graphics from scratch. It is possible to use clip art and capture graphics from other sources.
collecting
Clip art
Clip art refers to prepared pictures that are often provided with other application software (such as word processors) or distributed separately on CDROM or via the Internet. The pictures are generally grouped by subject, such as technology, animals or education (see Figure 8.2). There are millions of clip art drawings and photographs available in a wide variety of formats. You can import a clip art image into a graphics program and change it to suit your purpose. Clip art images can be resized, rotated or retouched. This makes it very easy to include an appropriate picture in your document. Clip art may have various degrees of copyright control, so it is important to use clip art in a way that does not infringe copyright. (Copyright is discussed in more detail on pages 323.)
Figure 8.2 Examples of clip art provided with the Microsoft Office software package.
Graphics
211
Capturing graphics
Capturing a graphic involves obtaining an image in digital form so that it can be stored, edited and printed by a computer. Graphics are captured from paper or the Internet or using a digital camera or video camera. A scanner is used to capture graphics from paper. The scanner converts the image into digital data that can be processed by the computer. Scanners offer a range of different resolutions, such as 2400 dpi, 4800 dpi and 9600 dpi. The higher the resolution, the better the quality of the image but the larger the file size. Web browsers allow users to capture graphics from Web sites and paste them into other applications. However, most graphics on the Internet are protected by copyright and may only be used in ways that do not infringe copyright. A digital camera captures images like a conventional camera, but saves them on a storage medium such as a memory card, hard disk drive or floppy disk. A video camera captures moving images on video tape. These can be converted to digital form and transferred to a computer using special hardware and software. There are also digital video cameras that record images directly in digital format.
organising
Types of graphics programs

Images are classified according to the type of graphic program used to create them.
Paint programs
A paint program creates a graphic by telling the computer how to display each pixel. Paint programs include tools such as pencils, erasers and paintbrushes. They contain geometric shapes and a large selection of colours and patterns. Colours, lines and shapes can be placed exactly where you want them. Images are edited by erasing or adding dots. Some common paint programs are Paintbrush, PixelPaint, SuperPaint, GEM Paint, Photoshop, Canvas and Deluxe Paint. AppleWorks (formerly ClarisWorks) includes a paint module. The graphics created by a painting program are called bit-mapped graphics or raster graphics. Bit-mapped graphics produce good quality images when shading and detail are needed. They are excellent at manipulating detail in scanned images, such as photographs. However, when transformed (resized or stretched), bit-mapped graphics become ragged and suffer loss of resolution (see Figure 8.3).
Functio
212
Figure 8.3 A transistor enlarged as a bit-mapped graphic and as a vector graphic. Application software
Function
Draw programs
A draw program creates graphics by dividing the picture into a number of objects, such as straight lines, curves and shapes. Each object is defined by its characteristics, such as position, line width and pattern. These characteristics are stored as mathematical expressions and displayed on the screen as pixels. Objects are created using a variety of tools. The basic tools are a straight line, circle, rectangle, rounded rectangle, arc and polygon. Users can change the line thickness of each of these tools and fill an enclosed area with a colour or pattern. The range of colours is often more limited than in paint programs. Graphics are edited by changing the characteristics of each object, not by erasing or adding dots. Some common drawing programs are ClarisDraw, Adobe Illustrator, CorelDraw, Macromedia FreeHand and Microsoft Draw. AppleWorks (formerly ClarisWorks) includes a draw module. The graphics created by a drawing program are called vector graphics or object-oriented graphics. Vector graphics do not lose resolution when they are transformed (resized or stretched) and require less memory than bit-mapped graphics (see Figure 8.3). Vector graphics are not converted into dots until their size and resolution has been specified for printing.
Graphic tools
Although painting and drawing programs create different types of graphics, they share some common graphic tools and techniques. Table 8.1 contains the basic tools found in many graphics packages. To create a graphic, the user selects the appropriate toolbox icon and moves the pointer to the window. Colours and
Tool
Name
Selection arrow Text tool Magnifier Straight line tool Rectangle tool Rounded rectangle tool Circle tool Arc tool Irregular polygon tool Eraser Paint brush Paint can Spray can
Use
Select, move and change the size of objects Enter text in different fonts and sizes Enlarge the view of the selected area Draw straight lines Draw rectangles and squares Draw rectangles and squares with rounded corners Draw circles and ovals Draw arcs (smooth curved lines) Draw irregular polygons Remove unwanted parts of a graphic Draw freehand lines of a chosen colour and width Fill an enclosed area with a chosen colour or pattern Create an airbrush effect by spraying a chosen colour
Table 8.1 Some of the basic tools of a graphics program. Graphics
213
patterns can be chosen from palettes and used to fill the inside of a shape or change the colour of the shape. Images are processed (edited) using these basic tools.
ITTFact t I Fac
The development of the mouse allowed painting with a computer to be more intuitive. Prior to that, people had to use the arrow keys on the keyboard, which was a fairly artificial way of drawing.
Exercise 8.1
1 What is a graphic? 2 List three reasons for using a graphic. 3 What is the resolution of a graphic? 4 How can you use clip art to create an appropriate picture in your document? 5 How can you capture a graphic? 6 How does a paint program create a graphic? 7 Describe some of the tools used in a painting program. 8 How does a draw program create a graphic? 9 Describe some of the tools used in a drawing program. LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Open a clip art file in a graphics program. Alter the graphic by changing its size and background colour. Save the graphic with the filename CLIPART. 2 Draw the transistor shown in Figure 8.3 using a painting program and a drawing program. Save the graphic with the filename of TRANSISTOR. Compare and contrast the output of the two graphics programs. 3 Draw the wine logo shown in Figure 8.4 using a painting program. Alter the graphic using different colours and patterns and save it with the filename WINE.
Functio
214
Figure 8.4 The wine logo.
Function
4 Draw the arrow shown in Figure 8.5 using a drawing program. Alter the graphic using different line sizes, colours and patterns and save it with the filename ARROW.
Figure 8.5 Arrows.
5 Draw a computer keyboard using a graphics program and save it with the filename KEYBOARD.
8.2 Modifying a graphic

Complex computer graphics are built up slowly from a variety of standard shapes. Graphics programs allow you to position a graphic anywhere on the page. In addition, depending on the type of graphic, it may need to be cropped, resized or distorted. These features make it easy to create the perfect image.
Positioning
You will often need to move a graphic (or an object within the graphic) to a particular position. Before you can move a graphic it must be selected. In a painting program, you can select a region using a special selection tool, such as a rectangle or a lasso. The selected region is usually shown using a dotted line. In a drawing program you use the selection arrow to choose an object by clicking the interior or border of the object. If you have successfully selected the object, it will display handles. Handles are usually located in the four corners and in the middle of each side. Most drawing programs allow you to select multiple objects (usually by holding down the Shift key) to make the same change to several objects. After the graphic or item has been selected, it can be moved by holding down the mouse button and dragging the selection to the required position. Rulers and grids make it easy to move a graphic to the exact position.
processing
ITTFact t I Fac
The term morphing comes from the word metamorphosis, which means transformation. In graphics, morphing is a special effect that gradually transforms one image into another.
Graphics
215
processing
Cropping
Cropping means using only part of an image. The method of cropping a picture varies between programs but it usually involves selecting the graphic and dragging the mouse to specify the areas to be cropped (omitted). In some programs the user must first select a cropping tool. Cropping can have different effects in different programs. In some cases, the cropped parts of the image are permanently deleted. In other programs, the cropped parts are not deleted but simply hidden. The picture can be restored to its original state (see Figure 8.6).
Figure 8.6 The effect of cropping a graphic.
processing
Resizing
Resizing means making a graphic smaller or bigger. It keeps the proportions the same so that the picture will not be distorted. In a drawing program, a graphic can be resized without affecting its quality. Resizing usually involves selecting the graphic or object and dragging one of its handles inward to shrink the picture or outward to expand it (see Figure 8.7). In some cases one or more keys must be held down at the same time to maintain the pictures proportions. If the graphics program does not have handles around objects, there is usually a special resize command.
Functio
216
Figure 8.7 The effect of resizing a graphic.
Function
Distorting
Distorting means changing the appearance and proportions of a graphic. In a drawing program you can distort a graphic without affecting its quality. Distorting may involve stretching, tilting, flipping or rotating a picture. Stretching a graphic changes its size and proportions (ratio of height to width). Stretching a graphic or object usually involves selecting the graphic and dragging one of its handles inward or outward to change its width or height (see Figure 8.8). Tilting a graphic puts it on a slant.
processing
Figure 8.8 The effect of distorting a graphic.
A graphic can also be changed using the Flip and Rotate commands (see Figure 8.9). The Flip Horizontal command creates a mirror image of the graphic: the right side becomes the left side and vice versa. The Flip Vertical command creates a mirror image by swapping the top and the bottom. The Rotate command allows you to spin the graphic or object a certain number of degrees.
Figure 8.9 The effect of flipping a graphic horizontally and vertically.
Exercise 8.2
1 What tools in a painting program can be used to select a region? 2 How do you select an object in a drawing program? 3 Where are the handles of a selected object usually located? 4 What is used to move a graphic to an exact position?
Graphics
217
5 How do you crop a picture? 6 Explain the difference between resizing and distorting. 7 How do you resize a graphic? 8 List four ways you can distort a graphic. 9 How do you stretch a graphic? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Draw the house shown in Figure 8.6 using a drawing program and save it with the filename HOUSE. a Alter the graphic using different line sizes, colours and patterns. b Edit the graphic by cropping, moving, copying, resizing, distorting, rotating and flipping. 2 Draw the shapes shown in Figure 8.7 using a drawing program and save it with the filename DESIGN. a Alter the graphic using different colours and patterns. b Edit the graphic by cropping, moving, copying, resizing, distorting, rotating and flipping. 3 Draw the magician shown in Figure 8.8 using a painting program and save the graphic with the filename TOPHAT. a Alter the graphic using different line sizes, colours and patterns. b Edit the graphic by cropping, moving, copying, resizing, distorting, rotating and flipping. 4 Draw the basketball shown in Figure 8.9 using a painting program and save it with the filename BASKETBALL. a Alter the graphic using different colours and patterns. b Edit the graphic by cropping, moving, copying, resizing, distorting, rotating and flipping. 5 Draw the tennis racquet shown in Figure 8.10 using a drawing program and save it with the filename TENNIS. a Alter the graphic using different colours and patterns. b Edit the graphic by cropping, moving, copying, resizing, distorting, rotating and flipping.
Functio
Figure 8.10 Tennis racquet.
218
Function
8.3 Bit-mapped graphics

A bit-mapped graphic, or raster graphic, treats each pixel (dot) on the screen individually and represents this by bits in memory. A bit (binary digit) is the smallest unit for storing data, and is either a 0 or a 1. Bit-mapped graphics are created by painting programs. They are suitable for realistic illustrations and scanned photographs. The computer controls the number, size, tone and colour of each pixel. These characteristics, together with the number of pixels, determine the size of the file needed to store the graphic. A high-resolution graphic (one with more pixels per inch) requires more memory than a low-resolution graphic.
Bit-mapping
Bit-mapping, or memory mapping, is the relationship between the image on the screen and the bits in memory. One or more bits must be stored for each pixel on the screen. At the simplest level, one pixel can represent one bit: a 0 would mean the pixel was off and a 1 would mean the pixel was on. Consider a blackand-white graphic that is 640 pixels horizontally and 400 pixels vertically: this amounts to 256 000 (640 400) pixels and would require 256 000 bits of memory. Bits are combined in groups of eight to form bytes. It follows that the graphic would require 32 000 (256 000 8) bytes, or about 32 Kb of memory. Tones, or greyscale, refers to the progressive series of shades ranging from black through to white. Tones are used in graphics to add detail to images but they require more memory than simple black and white. Instead of one bit being sufficient to represent one pixel, several bits will be required, depending on the number of tones. For example, if two bits are used to represent one pixel, four shades will be possible, since two bits result in four binary numbers: 00, 01, 10 and 11. If three bits are used to represent one pixel, eight shades will be possible, since three bits results in eight binary numbers: 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110 and 111. It follows that if you increase the number of bits assigned to each pixel by one, the number of tones or shades is multiplied by two (see Table 8.2). As a result, if we change the 640 400 graphic from Number of bits Number of tones black-and-white to 16 tones it will reor colours quire four bits per pixel. The graphic 1 2 would then require four times the amount of memory, or about 128 Kb 2 4 (4 32 Kb). 3 8 Colour graphics are obtained from 4 16 an RGB (red-green-blue) monitor that uses combinations of red, green and 5 32 blue light to display a wide range of 6 64 colours. The minimum number of colours that can be displayed is eight: 7 128 red only; green only; blue only; red 8 256 and green (yellow); red and blue 16 65 536 (magenta); blue and green (cyan); red, green, and blue (white); and no colour 24 16 777 216 (black). Displaying and storing colour 32 4 294 967 296 graphics requires more bits per pixelmore memory. For example in Table 8.2 The relationship between bits and Table 8.2, if eight bits represent one tones or colours.
organising storing retrieving
&
Graphics
219
pixel, a graphic could contain 256 colours, or 64 colours each with 4 tones (64 4), or 32 colours each with 8 tones (32 8). As a result, if the 640 400 pixel black-and-white graphic is changed to 16 tones and 16 colours it will require eight bits per pixel. The graphic would then require eight times the amount of memory, or about 256 Kb (8 32 Kb).
processing
Editing bit-mapped graphics

Bit-mapped graphics are edited using a painting program (see Figure 8.11). It is important to remember that bitmapped graphics are interpreted as a collection of dots or pixels, so they can only be edited by erasing dots or adding dots. Painting programs contain a range of tools to edit graphics. The eraser tool rubs out pixels. The bucket tool fills an enclosed area with the selected colour or pattern. The selection rectangle or lasso are used to select parts of a graphic, which can then be deleted, moved, cut, copied and pasted.
Figure 8.11 A bit-mapped graphic in a painting program.
Functio
220
Editing a bit-mapped graphic at an object level is often a problem. Enlarging the graphic enlarges each pixel, creating a staircase pattern known as aliasing. Resizing a bit-mapped graphic can also result in distortion. This problem is greater with black-and-white graphics than with greyscale or colour. With greyscale or colour bit-mapped graphics, a process called anti-aliasing can be used. Intermediate tones or colours are used to create a gradual transition from one colour to another, tricking the eye into seeing smooth lines. Black-and-white bitmapped graphics need to be kept as close as possible to the original size and shape.
ITTFact t I Fac
Many graphics programs have their own storage formats. There have been many attempts to create standard graphics format, but each format has advantages and disadvantages.
Function
Bit-mapped graphic formats

To import pictures into a painting program, it is important to have some knowledge of file storage formats. Table 8.3 shows some of the common file storage formats for bit-mapped graphics. The three-letter filename extension is used on IBM-compatible computers to identify a pictures format. For example, a file called PICTURE.TIF is stored as a Tagged Image File Format (TIFF) graphic. This is a standard file format commonly used for scanning, storage and interchange of bit-mapped, greyscale and colour images.
storing retrieving
&
Graphic format name

Bit-map PC Paintbrush Tagged Image File Format (TIFF) Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) Graphics Interchange Format
Extension
BMP PCX TIF JPG
Description
A standard format used by Microsoft Windows applications. A common, older format, compatible with BMP. A format used for scanned images up to 300 dpi. A compression format used for high-quality still images. Widely used on the Internet. A format used mainly for Web graphics.
GIF
Table 8.3 Some common file formats for bit-mapped graphics.
Exercise 8.3
1 What is a bit-mapped graphic? 2 What characteristics determine the size of a graphic file? 3 What is bit-mapping? 4 Calculate the number of bytes needed to store the following graphics: a a black-and-white graphic with a resolution of 800 600 pixels and 2 tones b a black-and-white graphic with a resolution of 1024 768 pixels and 16 tones c a colour graphic with a resolution of 1280 1024 pixels and 4 colours d a colour graphic with a resolution of 640 480 pixels and 256 colours e a colour graphic with a resolution of 1600 1200 pixels and 4 colours each with 4 tones f a colour graphic with a resolution of 1024 768 pixels and 32 colours each with 8 tones g a colour graphic with a resolution of 800 600 pixels that uses 4096 colours and 16 tones. 5 What causes the staircase pattern called aliasing? 6 Why is resizing a black-and-white bit-mapped graphic a greater problem than resizing a greyscale or colour graphic?
Graphics
221
7 Why is it important to have some knowledge of file storage formats? 8 What is the file extension for the Microsoft Windows bit-map format? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Draw a dog like the one shown in Figure 8.11 using a painting program and save it with the filename PUPPY. a Alter the graphic using different colours and patterns. b Edit the graphic by magnifying a section or enlarging the picture. 2 Draw the leaf shown in Figure 8.12 using a painting program and save the graphic with the filename LEAF. a Alter the graphic using different colours and patterns. b Edit the graphic by magnifying a section or enlarging the picture.
Figure 8.12 Leaf.
3 Draw the Australian flag shown in Figure 8.13 using a painting program and save it with the filename FLAG. a Alter the graphic using different colours and patterns. b Edit the graphic by magnifying a section or enlarging the picture. 4 Draw the chef shown in Figure 8.14 using a painting program and save it with the filename CHEF. a Alter the graphic using different colours and patterns. b Edit the graphic by magnifying a section or enlarging the picture.
Figure 8.13 The Australian flag.
Figure 8.14 Chef.
Functio
5 Draw the cup shown in Figure 8.15 using a painting program and save it with the filename COFFEE. a Alter the graphic using different colours and patterns. b Edit the graphic by magnifying a section or enlarging the picture.
Figure 8.15 Cup of coffee.
222
Function
8.4 Vector graphics

Vector graphics are made up of objects such as straight lines, curves or shapes. Each object is defined by its characteristics, such as position, line width and pattern. These characteristics are stored as mathematical expressions and are displayed on the screen as pixels. Vector graphics are created by drawing programs. They are scalable, which means you can resize a vector graphic without reducing its qualitythe lines appear smooth with no noticeable aliasing. You can also distort the picture to create dramatic designs and special effects. Vector graphics print at the highest resolution of the output device being used. They are suitable for line drawings, logos and diagrams that do not use much shading, but they are not good at reproducing gradual colour transitions such as those in a photograph.
Drawing elements
Objects are created in a vector graphic program using drawing elements. The basic tools are the straight line, circle, rectangle, rounded rectangle, arc and polygon (see Figure 8.16). You can change the line thickness of each of these tools and fill an enclosed area with a colour or pattern. Colour is assigned to an object, though there is often a limit to the number of colours. Some drawing programs have additional tools such as stars, triangles, hearts and flow chart symbols. When you draw a shape it usually starts at a corner, although it is possible to create some shapes from the centre. In addition to all of the drawing tools, text can be entered in a variety of fonts and sizes.
collecting
Figure 8.16 A drawing program showing some of the basic tools.
Editing vector graphics

Vector graphics are edited using a drawing program. Even though the graphic is displayed on the screen using pixels, the computer defines the graphic by the characteristics of each object. For this reason, editing involves altering the characteristics of the objects rather than adding and deleting pixels. This is a fundamental difference between bit-mapped graphics and vector graphics. Objects can be deleted, moved, cut and copied. First, the object to be edited must be selected using the selection tool.
processing
Graphics
223
To delete an object, press the Backspace or Delete key or select the Clear command. To move an object, drag the object to its new position. To cut an object and move it into the clipboard, select the Cut command. The object will disappear. The clipboard can be used as a temporary storage area for objects. To copy an object into the clipboard, select the Copy command. To paste an object from the clipboard, select the Paste command. The object will reappear and you can move it to the desired position. After you have drawn an object, you can always go back and change its size or shape. Resizing makes the object smaller or bigger. To resize an object, select the object and drag the handles inward to make it smaller or outward to make it bigger. You may need to change the handles to a resize icon depending on the drawing program. Distorting changes the appearance of an object. For example, you can change the proportions of an object by stretching it. Objects can also be rotated to the left or the right, and flipped horizontally or vertically. Remember that resizing and distorting an object does not reduce its quality. Objects in a vector graphic can overlap (see Figure 8.17). In general, the most recently created objects are displayed in front of older ones. However, you may want to rearrange objects. To move an object to the top, select the Bring to Front command. To move an object to the bottom, select the Send to Back command. The overlapping star and squiggly lines in Figure 8.17 are arranged using these commands.
Figure 8.17 Overlapping objects.
Functio
224
Objects that are associated can be grouped together as if they were a single object. For example, you may have used several objects to draw a car. If you group these objects together you can move or resize the car as a whole, rather than having to change each object. Editing is much easier if associated objects are grouped. Objects can be ungrouped if you need to edit a single object.
storing retrieving
&
Vector graphic formats

Table 8.4 shows some of the common file storage formats for vector graphics. The three-letter filename extension is used on IBM-compatible computers to identify a pictures format. For example, a file called IMAGE.EPS is stored as an Encapsulated Postscript file. The Encapsulated Postscript (EPS) format can
Function
contain vector or bit-mapped graphics. It is the format of Adobes Postscript printer language that is commonly used in professional publishing. Typesetting machines can print these graphics at resolutions up to 2400 dpi, which is suitable for publication.
Graphic format name

Computer Graphics Metafile Encapsulated Postscript Macintosh PICT Windows Metafile Format WordPerfect Graphic
Extension
CGM EPS PCT WMF WPG
Description
An international standard for vector graphics A Postscript format used in professional publishing A format widely used on Apple Macintosh computers A format commonly used in Windows applications The format used for graphics in WordPerfect (a word processor)
Table 8.4 Some common file formats for vector graphics.
Exercise 8.4
1 How does the computer store the characteristics of each object? 2 List six basic tools used to create a vector graphic. 3 How is colour used in a drawing program? 4 How do you edit a vector graphic? 5 List four ways you can change the characteristics of an object. 6 How do you resize an object? 7 List the commands used to rearrange objects that overlap. 8 Why are objects grouped? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Draw the overlapping star and squiggly lines shown in Figure 8.17 using a drawing program and save it with the filename STAR. Rearrange the two objects. 2 Draw the pyramid shown in Figure 8.18 using a drawing program and save it with the filename PYRAMID.
Figure 8.18 Pyramid. Graphics
225
3 Draw the telephone shown in Figure 8.19 using a drawing program and save it with the filename TELEPHONE. a Alter the graphic using different line sizes, colours and patterns. b Group all the objects to make the graphic appear as a single object. c Edit the graphic by moving, copying, resizing, distorting, rotating and flipping.
Figure 8.19 Telephone.
4 Draw the truck shown in Figure 8.20 using a drawing program and save it with the filename TRUCK. a Alter the graphic using different line sizes, colours and patterns. b Group all the objects to make the graphic appear as a single object. c Edit the graphic by moving, copying, resizing, distorting, rotating and flipping.
Figure 8.20 Truck.
5 Draw the sailing boat shown in Figure 8.21 using a drawing program and save it with the filename SAILING. a Alter the graphic using different line sizes, colours and patterns. b Group all the objects to make the graphic appear as a single object. c Edit the graphic by moving, copying, resizing, distorting, rotating and flipping.
Figure 8.21 Sailing.
Functio
226
Chapter review
PART A Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best answers the question or completes the statement. 1 Resolution is usually measured in terms of the: A amount of memory on the graphics card B size of the screen C total number of pixels on the screen D total number of characters on the screen 2 A pixel is: A a picture containing tiny dots B the smallest part of the screen that can be controlled by the computer C the relationship between the image on the screen and the bits in memory D a group of tiny dots in a picture 3 A graphic created by a painting program is called a: A picture graphic B vector graphic C bit-mapped graphic D PIC file 4 Cropping a graphic: A changes its appearance and proportions B hides or deletes part of an image C makes it smaller or bigger D moves it to a particular position 5 To move a graphic to a particular position it first must be: A chosen B named C selected D dragged 6 A graphics program in which editing is carried out at the pixel level is a: A drawing program B painting program C clip art image D resolution editor 7 Bit-mapped graphics are suitable for: A logos B diagrams C line drawings D realistic illustrations 8 Distorting a graphic: A hides part of the picture you do not want to see B makes it smaller or bigger C changes its appearance and proportions D moves it to a particular position 9 Draw programs create graphics by dividing the picture into a number of: A objects B frames C sections D bits 10 A vector graphic is not good if you want to: A resize the image without reducing quality B distort the image to create dramatic designs C print the image at the highest quality D reproduce gradual colour transitions
Graphics
227
Chapter review
PART B For each of the following statements, select from the list of terms the one that most closely fits the statement. Write the letter corresponding to your choice. Statements 1 A tiny dot in a computer graphic. 2 The total number of pixels that can be displayed on a screen. 3 Creates a graphic by telling the computer how to display each pixel. 4 A graphic created by a painting program. 5 Creates a graphic by dividing the picture into a number of objects. 6 A graphic created by a drawing program. 7 Prepared pictures that are generally grouped by subject, such as technology, animals or education. 8 Deleting or hiding part of a picture you do not want to see. 9 The relationship between the image on the screen and the bits in memory. 10 A staircase pattern formed when you enlarge a bit-mapped graphic. 11 Changing the appearance and proportions of a graphic. 12 Objects in a vector graphic that are associated together to act as a single object. 13 Obtaining an image in digital form so that it can be stored, edited and printed by a computer. 14 A graphic that represents words. 15 Colours or patterns can be chosen from it to fill the inside of a shape. 16 It is usually displayed on an object from a vector graphic after it has been selected. List of terms a aliasing b bit-mapping c bit-mapped graphic d clip art e cropping f draw program g paint program h pixel i j k l m n o p resolution vector graphic capturing palette symbol handle distorting group
PART C Write at least one paragraph on each of the following questions. 1 Describe four common tools found in graphics programs. 2 Explain the difference between a painting program and a drawing program. 3 Briefly explain the following terms: a bit-mapping b resolution. 4 Describe three ways of modifying a graphic. 5 Describe the differences between editing a bit-mapped graphic and a vector graphic.
228
chapter
DESKTOP PUBLISHING
Outcomes
After completing this chapter you should be able to: describe the stages in desktop publishing create publications using a desktop publishing program describe and use the basic design elements create publications using good design principles use the page layout tools of a desktop publishing program.
Overview
This chapter will develop your knowledge and skills in relation to desktop publishing. It examines the basic features of desktop publishing and the major information processes involved in their use. You will learn the basic design elements, the principles of page layout and how to print a publication.
Planning, creating and distributing a publication spans all seven of the information processes. Desktop publishing software emphasises the following information processes: Collecting: The publication is planned and text and images are gathered. (See sections 9.1 and 9.2.) Organising: Data is combined in different formats. (See section 9.2.) Processing: Text and images are manipulated in the desktop publishing program. (See section 9.1.) Displaying: The page layouts are viewed on screen and printed. (See sections 9.2, 9.3 and 9.4.)
9.1 Basic features

Desktop publishing (DTP) is the use of specialised software to combine text and graphics to create a publication. The specialised software enables the user to control everything on the page. Desktop publishing software is used to create many different types of publications, including magazines, newspapers and books. The term was first used by Paul Brainerd on the release of PageMaker 1.0 in 1984. Prior to the introduction of desktop publishing, the page layout process involved a team of specialists: a typesetter, who typed and formatted the text a designer, who planned the overall design of the publications a photographer and an illustrator, who provided the graphics a layout artist, who physically laid out the pages on grid sheets, or boards. Today, using a desktop publishing program, it is possible for one person to take a publication through all of its stages. Desktop publishing offers four main advantages over previous methods: Greater control: The designer can position the elements anywhere on a page, and can experiment with different designs. Ease of editing: Text, graphics and colour can be changed easily throughout the publication process. Reduced cost: Savings are possible because fewer people are involved, text does not need to be retyped, and designs can be modified and reused. However, there are the additional capital costs of computer hardware and software. Reduced time: Publications are quicker to produce because fewer people are involved and changes can be made instantly. Modern word processors are capable of combining text and graphics, and can be used to create basic publications such as advertisements or multi-column
Functio
230
Function
newsletters. However, desktop publishing programs are better at these sorts of tasks because they give the user greater control in positioning the elements on a page. Word processors and desktop publishing programs work in fundamentally different ways. With word processing, the emphasis is on the text: formatting and document layout are usually carried out after the text is written and edited. With desktop publishing, the page is generally designed before the final text is imported.
Stages in desktop publishing

The four main stages in desktop publishing are described below.
Planning and design

The first step is to spend some time planning a publication. Poor planning leads to publications that are confusing and fail to deliver the intended message. Wellplanned publications present information in a clear, attractive and effective way. Planning involves the following steps: Identify the purpose: What is the reason for publishing the document? Determine the essential information and the design elements to create a good design. Identify the audience: Who will read the publication? This is a critical factor, as the audience will determine the tone, content level, and the use of graphics and headlines. Gather ideas: Find a good design and adapt the ideas. Desktop publishing programs contain templates to help inexperienced users. After a publication has been planned, it can be helpful to make a pencil sketch of the design ideas. Desktop publishing software can then be used to create a sample document using place-holder text and graphics. This sample document should contain all the planned design elementsthe position of headings, the number of columns for text, the borders, the placement of graphics and the type styles used for text. It will serve as a guide during the page layout stage. A good design makes it easy for the reader to receive information.
collecting
Creating content
Text can be entered directly into the desktop publishing program or imported from a word processing program. Because word processors contain superior text editing tools, it is best to use a word processor if the text exceeds a paragraph in length. Most desktop publishing programs can import text in a wide range of file formats and can preserve a documents formatting if necessary. Graphics can be prepared using the drawing tools in the desktop publishing program or imported from a graphics program. The drawing tools included in desktop publishing programs are very basic and are only suitable for simple drawings. Most desktop publishing programs can import graphics in a wide range of file formats, including bit-mapped and vector graphics.
collecting organising
Page layout
Page layout is the arrangement of text and graphics on a page. Publications are built from design elements such as text and graphics. These elements can appear side-by-side or even overlap. Words can be stretched, turned and twisted into a picture. Stories can jump from page to page. This control is achieved by treating each element as an object. Objects in a desktop publishing program are similar
processing
Desktop publishing
231
PS P
Figure 9.1 The Powerspark logo.
POWERSPARK
Electrical Services Pty Ltd
National Distributor for
Merlin Gerin U.P.S.
160 VA-1600 VA Offline 320 VA Online Manufactured to ISO 9001-support-service
Unit 5, Easecote Road, Epping 2121
456 2777
to objects in a drawing program. There are text objects, picture objects and drawn objects: text objects contain words; picture objects contain graphics; and drawn objects include lines, borders and geometric shapes. A desktop publishing document is a combination of different kinds of objects. The sign in Figure 9.1 is created using a combination of text objects and graphic objects. In desktop publishing, objects are defined by creating a frame. A frame is a space or box that holds text or a graphic. If a text frame is created, you can type words into that frame, making a text object. If a picture frame is created, you can import a picture into it, making a graphic object. The number of objects on the page increases as a design becomes more complex. The content of each object is independent of its frame and is easily formatted. You can control the way text flows in a publication by connecting, or linking, text frames. A text frames on one page can be connected to another text frame on the same page or on a different page. This is useful in newspapers and magazines, where a story begins on one page and is continued several pages later. Text frames are connected using a Connect command or clicking with a special linking tool. If a text frame contains too much text, the excess text is stored in an invisible overflow area. To see this text, you must increase the size of the text frame, decrease the size of the text, or connect the frame to another text frame.
displaying
Viewing and printing a publication

When creating a publication using a desktop publishing program, it is often necessary to view parts of the publication at different sizes. To refine a small design element, it helps to be able to work at an enlarged view. To get an overall impression of the publication, it helps to be able to view a whole page or double-page spread. Desktop publishing programs allow the user to zoom in or out to view a publication at different sizes (see Figure 9.2). Full page view generally doesnt allow you to read the text (depending on the size of your screen) but it is useful in creating or changing the design. Actual size view is used to read words or precisely position pictures. The Zoom in and Zoom out commands provide close- or long-range views. The viewing mode is often shown as a percentage of the actual size. For example, a zoom of 50% is one-half of the actual size (100%), while a zoom of 200% is twice as big as the actual size. Printing is the final stage in desktop publishing. A draft copy can be printed on an inkjet or laser printer to check the publication. Once any necessary changes have been made, the publication can be printed on a high-resolution printer.
Functio
232
Function
Figure 9.2 Part of a document at actual size, or 100% view (left) and at 50% view (above).
Exercise 9.1
1 Outline four advantages in desktop publishing. 2 Explain how using a desktop publishing program is different to using a word processor. 3 List the basic stages of desktop publishing. 4 Why is the audience a critical factor to a publication? 5 Describe the three kinds of objects in a desktop publishing program. 6 What is a frame? 7 How do you connect text frames? 8 What happens if a text frame contains too much text? 9 Explain the purpose of full page view and actual size view. 10 What proportion of the actual size are the following viewing modes? a zoom of 50% b zoom of 400% LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Create a Wanted poster using a desktop publishing program by following these steps. a Make a text frame near the top of the page and enter the word WANTED. b Select the text and alter the typeface, type style and type size. Resize the text frame if necessary. c Import a picture of yourself or someone else. d Resize the picture. e Crop the picture as required. f Position the picture frame in the centre of the page and add a border around it. g Add another text frame below the picture. Type in the details of the wanted person and the reward offered. h Alter the typeface, type style and type size. Resize the text frame if necessary. i Add a border around the outside of the poster. 2 Create an advertisement similar to Figure 9.1 using a DTP program and save it with the filename POWERSPARK.
Desktop publishing
233
3 Create a letterhead similar to Figure 9.3 using a DTP program and save it with the filename LETTERHEAD.
42 Elizabeth Drive Liverpool NSW 2170
Figure 9.3 A letterhead.
4 Using a DTP program, create a two-page document with a two-column page layout. Save it with the filename TEXTFLOW. a Add a text frame across the top of the first page for a large heading. b Add a text frame in each column on both pages (four in all). c In a word processor, create two new documents of around 100 words each. They could be favourite poems, short stories you have written, book reviews, or reviews of TV programs or films. Save them with the filenames TEXT1 and TEXT2. d In your DTP document, type a main heading in the top text frame and format the text. e Import the text from your TEXT1 document into the left-hand text frame on page 1. f Connect it to the left-hand text frame on page 2. Set the text size so that the text fills both frames. g Repeat the process for the TEXT2 document using the right-hand text frames. 5 Create an advertisement similar to Figure 9.4 using a DTP program and save it with the filename APPLECENTRE.
The Apple Macintosh Professionals
Functio
A division of Australia's leading Apple Macintosh Computer Co. 66 Clarence Street Cnr. Erskine & Clarence Streets, Sydney
Figure 9.4 The AppleCentre advertisement.
367 8585
234
Function
9.2 Design elements

Publications are built using the basic elements of design: text, graphics and colour. The use of these elements determines whether a publication looks good and is effective in conveying its message.
Text
Desktop publishing programs give users a high degree of control over the formatting of text. Users can usually choose from a wide variety of fonts. A font is a set of characters in one typeface with a particular type size, type style and stroke weight. A font can be described using a number of characteristics (see Figure 9.5): The baseline is an imaginary line on which the characters sit. The font height (or type size) is a measure of the physical size of the typeface. It is measured in points, where one point is equal to 0.351 mm or 1/72 of an inch. The x-height is the height of the lower case letters. The cap height is the height of the upper case letters. An ascender is the part of a letter that extends above the x-height. A descender is the part of a letter that extends below the x-height. Leading is the spacing between lines of text.
ascender
collecting displaying
cap height
baseline
Desktop
descender serifs
x-height
font height
leading
Figure 9.5 Parts of a font.
Typefaces can be divided into two main groups: serif and sans serif. Serif typefaces, such as Times Roman, have little tails (serifs) at the ends of their characters. Sans serif typefaces, such as Helvetica or Arial, have smooth characters with no tails (see Figure 9.6). (Sans is French for without.) Desktop publishing programs often come with a selection of serif and sans serif typefaces suited to particular tasks. However, frequent changes of typefaces in a publication cause visual clutter and distract the reader from the meaning of the words. A good design can be achieved using just one or two typefaces, with variations in the type style and type size. A difference in type style (such as italics or bold) helps to attract the readers attention, while a difference in type size helps to indicate the relative importance of information. The selection of a typeface is critical to good design. There are a number of principles for selecting typefaces for body text and headings.
Desktop publishing
235
Times Roman in 8 point Helvetica in 8 point

Body text
Figure 9.6 Serif and sans serif typefaces.
Body text refers to the text that makes up the main part of the writing, other than the headings. Serif typefaces are recommended for body text because they are considered easier to read in large slabs. The serifs help the eye jump from character to character. Capitals should not be used for body text. Lower case makes it easier for the eye to gather groups of letters and words. This improves comprehension and reduces fatigue. The use of upper and lower case also indicates the beginning of new sentences. Body text is usually written in plain (normal) text with a type size of between 10 and 12 points, depending on the typeface and audience. Italics can be used for body text but some italics are hard to read. Widows and orphans should be avoided. A widow is the first word or line of a paragraph that is left at the bottom of a page or column. An orphan is the last word or line of a paragraph that appears at the top of a page or column. Widows and orphans often occur with changes to a font, frame size or page setup.
Headings
Headings can be written in either a serif or a sans serif typeface. Since headings are usually short and in a large point size, there is little difference in readability. The choice depends on the style of the layout and the nature of the publication. If you need to change the letter spacing, sans serif typefaces are preferred. If a sans serif typeface is used for the body text, a serif typeface for headings provides a good contrast. Using a second serif typeface for headings can cause a clash of styles. Headings can be in capitals or upper and lower case. Capitals are more difficult to read but give a heading more authority and distinction. Capitals are best used for simple, straightforward headings while upper and lower case are best for long, complex headings.
Functio
236
Function
Columns
A column is a vertical area reserved for text. Magazines and newspapers often contain two or more columns of text on the one page (see Figure 9.7). You create column text within a text frame by specifying the number of columns and the spacing between each column. For maximum readability, columns should contain between 30 and 60 characters per line. A general rule for column widths is to multiply the width of the lower case alphabet by 1.5. A minimum of 0.5 centimetres is recommended between columns, otherwise the page looks crowded. Column breaks can be inserted to move text into a new column.
Figure 9.7 A layout using columns.
Formatting text
In addition to offering a choice of fonts, desktop publishing programs allow users to control other aspects of text formatting, including alignment, line spacing, indenting, hyphenation and character spacing. These all affect the appearance and effectiveness of a publication. Alignment is the way text lines up. Because text is entered into frames in DTP programs, you can specify both the horizontal alignment and the vertical alignment. There are four types of horizontal alignment: aligned left, aligned right, justified and centred (see Figure 5.12 on page 147). Alignment should be consistent throughout a publication. Left alignment is generally considered the best choice for body text. Centring is generally used for only small amounts of text, such as the text used in an invitation. Justified text gives a neat appearance and is often used in long documents that require continuous reading, such as textbooks, novels, newspapers and magazines. There are three types of vertical alignment: top, centre and bottom. Top alignment aligns the first line of text with the top of the frame. Centred alignment centres the text in the middle of the frame. Bottom alignment aligns the last line of text with the bottom of the frame. Line spacing, or leading (pronounced ledding), refers to the spacing between lines of text. Increasing the line spacing of body text improves readability. Decreasing the line spacing means that more text will fit on a page. The default (automatic) line spacing in most desktop publishing programs is set at 20 per cent leading, or 120 per cent of the text size. For example, a type size of 10 points would have 12 points (120% of 10) between the lines. The advantage of using automatic leading is that the line spacing changes automatically if the point size is changed. Sans serif typefaces require more leading to improve their appearance, as they do not have a serif.
Desktop publishing
237
Indenting moves text a certain distance from a margin. There are four different types of indents: left/right indent, first line indent, hanging indent and negative indent. (see Figure 5.14 on page 149). A first line indent is generally used to indicate the beginning of a new paragraph. This makes a document easier to read. Paragraphs below headings, however, should not be indented. It is good design to use the same size indent throughout a document. Hyphenation is the use of a hyphen to break a word at the end of a line. It is used to improve word spacing and the appearance of a document, but it does reduce readability. Hyphenation is commonly used in publications with narrow columns, such as newspapers, as it removes the gaps or rivers of white caused by justified text. Most desktop publishing programs allow hyphenation to be done automatically or manually. Character spacing is the spacing between individual letters. There are two types of character spacing: tracking and kerning. Tracking is an overall adjustment of the spacing between all letters. It is generally applied to whole paragraphs. Tracking is most effectively used in headings. Small amounts of tracking can also be used to reduce the amount of white space in justified text or avoid bad word breaks. Kerning is an adjustment of the spacing between certain letter pairs to improve their appearance. Kerning is necessary because the standard spacing appears to be incorrect for certain letter pairs, such as AW (see Figure 9.8). In this example, the shapes of the letters means that there appears to be too much space between them. Kerning moves the A and W closer together to give letter spacing that is visually even. The amount of adjustment required depends on the font and the specific letter pairs. Kerning is only required for headings with a type size greater than 14 point, as the optical effect is not apparent in smaller point sizes. Negative kerning can be used to move letters further apart if there appears to be insufficient space between them.
AWAIT AWAIT
Functio
Times 48 point with normal spacing Times 48 point with kerning
Figure 9.8 Examples of standard letter spacing with no kerning (top) and the same word with kerning applied to the A, W and A (bottom).
Condensing and expanding are forms of horizontal scaling. Condensing squeezes the letters together, making them narrower. Expanding spreads them out, making them wider. This form of scaling is often specified as a percentage of the normal width. Percentages greater than 100 expand the text, while percentages less than 100 condense it. Condensing and expanding are usually only used on headings. For example, condensing can be used to make a heading fit a particular area without having to change the font. The amount of scaling should be kept small to maintain legibility.
238
Function
Graphics
Graphics improve a publication by explaining an idea, supporting a message or promoting a theme. A graphic could be a piece of clip art, a photograph, an illustration or a chart. Clip art can be used for a range of purposes. Clip art icons (symbols) are often used to highlight sections of a publication. Photographs can be used to display products or show real life situations. Illustrations can include technical diagrams and drawings, cartoons and more artistic freehand drawings. They can be used to convey information or simply add visual appeal. Charts are used to illustrate a trend or make a relationship clear at a glance. The methods of sizing and cropping graphics in a desktop publishing program are similar to those in a drawing program. However, all DTP programs have slightly different tools and techniques. Resizing a graphic makes it smaller or bigger. To resize a picture, you generally select the graphic and drag the handles inward to make it smaller or outward to make it bigger. You may first need to select a special resizing tool. It is usually possible for the user to hold down a key to resize in proportion. Cropping hides or deletes parts of a picture you do not want to see. To crop a graphic, you generally select the graphic frame and drag a handle inwards to hide part of the graphic. You may first need to select a special cropping tool. The size, number and placement of graphics can support or weaken the intended message. If too many graphics are used, they lose their impact. The size of a graphic should reflect its importance to the message. The arrangement of graphics on the page needs to be consistent and lead the eye towards the content (see Figure 9.9). It is also possible to use a graphic as a background image behind everything else on the page. To be successful, the graphic must be manipulated so it is very faint and does not obscure the text. For example, the word DRAFT could be printed in the background of a publication. This is called a watermark. Alternatively, a photograph or illustration can be used as a background.
collecting processing
Figure 9.9 In the example on the left, the graphic leads the eye away from the text. In the example on the right, the graphic leads the eye towards the text.
Colour
Colour has the ability to make a publication more effective. It contributes to the style and feel of the publication. It is not only the range of colours that must be considered but also the tone. Colour draws attention to the content and makes graphics come to life. The style of the publication is affected by the relationships between colours. For example, slight variations of the same colour or related colours can be used to unify the publication. Contrasting colours, such as red and yellow, are used to attract the readers attention.
collecting displaying
Desktop publishing
239
Colour can also be used to aid navigation and assist meaning. For example, different sections of a publication can be indicated by different coloured panels. Colour should not be overused as it will lose its effect. A colour scheme is easy to change and can be tested with a potential audience. Some desktop publishing programs provide templates in different colour schemes for different purposes.
ITTFact t I Fac
When a full-colour publication is printed, a colour separation method is used. This method uses just four basic colours: cyan (blue), magenta (red), yellow and black. The whole range of colours and tones are produced using combinations of these four process colours. This colour model is known as CMYK.
In addition to the use of colour, white space can be an important design element. White space is the space on a page that is left blank. Correctly used, it improves readability by adding proportion to a page and reducing clutter. It places other elements in perspective (see Figure 9.10). White space should have a clearly defined shape so that the reader recognises it as a graphical element. Many designers believe that white space should be restricted to one or two areas on a page.
Affordable Elegance
Features
Functio
Address
Magnificent views from a large residence on 2 hectares. The residence includes 4 bedrooms with ensuite, 2 baths, dishwasher, 2-car garage, air conditioning, formal dining room, and fireplace. Friendly neighbourhood. $600,000. 23 Woodlands Drive Byron Bay, NSW 2481 Inspect by appointment
Contact Mr Henry Teale, Phone (02) 674 9987

Figure 9.10 This advertisement uses white space as a design feature.
240
Function
Exercise 9.2
1 List some of the characteristics used to describe a font. 2 Why should body text be written with a serif typeface? 3 What typefaces can be used for headings? 4 How can you calculate the optimum column width? 5 What is the preferred horizontal alignment for long documents? 6 Why would you change the leading of text? 7 Why is first line indenting used? 8 When is kerning required? 9 Why are graphics used in a publication? 10 How is the style of the publication affected by the relationships between colours. 11 What is white space and how can it be used? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Create a house advertisement similar to Figure 9.10 using a DTP program. Save it with the filename ADVERTISEMENT. 2 Create a dinner menu similar to Figure 9.11 using a DTP program. Save it with the filename MENU.
Entrees Avocado with seafood $12.00 Prawn cutlets with crab $15.00 Souffl Oysters $12.00 Scallops en brochette $13.00 Mediterranean Salad $8.00 Main Course Crumbed noisettes of lamb $16.00 Beef in red wine $17.00 Fish fillets with artichokes $18.00 Pumpkin tortellini with walnut and citrus sauce $15.00 Roasted turkey with pine nut stuffing $19.00 Tarragon chicken in filo pastry $18.00
Figure 9.11 A well-designed menu.
3 Create an advertisement for a desktop publishing program using a DTP program. Save it with the filename SCHOOLDTP. a Design a page layout that includes a text frame for a heading (12 cm 2 cm), a text frame for the body text (7 cm 7 cm) and a picture frame for a graphic (4 cm 7 cm).
Desktop publishing
241
b Type in the heading School DTP. c Format the heading by specifying the typeface, type style and type size. d Type in the following body text: The presentation of school projects often involves more than a simple word processor document. Typically arranged around one or two columns, the text wraps around a number of graphics and charts. Banner headings are popular, as are illustrations downloaded from the Internet. Students need to know how to import a wide variety of graphic and text formats, wrap text around irregular objects, produce well-designed documents quickly, and use the programs proofing tools. e Import an appropriate clip art picture into the picture frame. 4 Create an advertisement similar to Figure 9.12 using a DTP program. Save it with the filename RENT.
RENT TODAY
Professional Computer Rentals provide the best rental service in Australia IBM & Compatible Systems Macintosh Systems Laser Printers Peripherals Notebooks Long or Short Term Rentals
Call for full range of services
Professional Computer Rentals 48 Hotham Parade, Atarmon 439 2596

Figure 9.12 A computer rentals advertisement.
439 2596
Functio
242
5 Using a DTP program, create a document containing three text frames: 3 cm 8 cm, 5 cm 8 cm, and 7 cm 8 cm. Save it with the filename FORMAT. a Type the following text into one of the text frames. When beginning any design, ideas roughed out on paper help to visualise and formulate your objectives while taking into account the design parameters of the publication. Even professional designers still take to pen and pencil before committing their ideas to the computer screen. Look at the overall shapes you are making with the text, graphics and white space. b Copy the text into each of the other two text frames. c Hyphenate the text in each of the text frames using the same hyphenation zone. d Condense the text in one of the text frames and expand it in another. e Use different line spacing in each of the text frames. f Use different vertical alignment in each of the text frames (top, centre and bottom).
Function
9.3 Page layout

Page layout is the arrangement of text and graphics on a page. The page layout is fundamental to the communication of information and ideas in any publication. A well-designed publication will send a message effectively and efficiently.
Design principles
A basic knowledge of reading patterns is required to understand the principles of page layout. When reading, we start at the top left corner of the page and work our way across and down until we reach the bottom right corner. It follows that the top left corner is the primary optical area. It is where our eyes will initially focus. The eyes then move across and down the page. This movement is referred to as reading gravity. A design that forces the reader against reading gravity will hinder communication. Good design first captures and promotes reading gravity. Design elements such as headings and graphics can enhance or disturb the readers rhythm. The designer must ensure that these elements work together to encourage reading rhythm and comprehension. Good design positions the major headings near the top left corner where the eye initially focuses. The layouts in Figure 9.13 follow good design principles. The eye naturally focuses on the headline in the primary optical area. The text is positioned so that the reader follows reading gravity. The page layouts in Figure 9.14 are badly designed. The headline is not located in the primary optical area and the reader is forced to read against reading gravity.
Heading
displaying
Heading Heading
Figure 9.13 Well-designed page layouts.
Heading
Heading
Heading
Figure 9.14 Poorly designed page layouts.
In addition to promoting reading gravity, there are three basic guidelines to making a well-designed publication: Simplicity: Including too many design elements distracts the reader from the intended message. Reducing the number of design elements, using plenty of white space and aligning elements will make publications simple and effective.
Desktop publishing
243
Consistency: Fonts, formatting, colours, layout and style should be consistent throughout a publication. Readability is improved if all similar kinds of information look the same. Contrast: Contrast means creating an obvious difference between elements on a page. It draws the reader to a special feature, such as bold type or graphic. Contrast should not be overused otherwise it becomes distracting.
ITTFact t I Fac
Symmetrical page layouts are often used for formal invitations, advertisements and business forms. They give a publication order and present a conservative image.
displaying
Page layout tools

Desktop publishing programs include a variety of tools to make it easier to produce publications. Some of the common tools are described below.
Layout options
Publications are printed in either portrait or landscape orientation. Portrait is the vertical (tall) orientation of a page. Landscape is the horizontal (wide) orientation of a page. In addition to the orientation, layouts options include: Paper size: Most publications, such as newsletters and brochures, are printed on A4 (210 mm 297 mm) paper. Different paper sizes are used to create booklets, posters, banners and business cards. Special folds: The paper can be folded left to right or top to bottom to create greeting cards, pamphlets, brochures and book publications (see Figure 9.15). Some DTP programs include features that automatically create layouts to suit the selected folding option.
book fold
tent card
Functio
244
Figure 9.15 Book and tent folds.
When a publication is going to be bound, it is necessary to consider the gutter. The gutter is the margin between the text and the spine of the book. Larger books require a wider gutter.
Rulers and guides

Desktop publishing programs allow the user a high degree of precision in positioning objects on a page by using rulers, guides, snap-to features and frame nudging.
Function
Figure 9.16 Rulers and layout guides.
The document window in a DTP program generally has a horizontal ruler at the top and a vertical ruler on the left-hand side (see Figure 9.16). You choose different units of measurements for a ruler, such as inches, centimetres or picas. (A pica equals 12 points or one-sixth of an inch.) Most programs allow you to reset or move the ruler so it is easier to measure and position objects on the page. The position and size of a frame are often shown in a measurements box when a frame is selected. Precise changes to the position and size of the frame can be made by entering new values in the measurements box. Layout guides are non-printing vertical and horizontal lines that are used to position objects on a page with a great degree of precision. In addition, many desktop publishing programs have a background grid that can be used as a basis for alignmentthis grid can be set at different widths. When you want to line several objects up, you first add a guide and drag it to the desired position. You then drag the text or picture frame to align with the guide. To make this easier, many desktop publishing programs have a Snap to Guides or Snap to Grid command for this purpose. With this feature selected, frames automatically snap to align exactly with the nearest guide or grid line. Frame nudging allows you to move a frame up, down or sideways one pixel at a time, generally using the arrow keys on the keyboard.
Templates and master pages

A template is a special kind of blueprint document that can be copied and adapted for repeated use. A desktop publishing template is a ready-made document that includes the desired layout, type formats and other design elements. You can create a new document based on a template, then replace the sample text and pictures with your own words and illustrations. Some desktop publishing programs come with templates for many different purposes, such as certificates, brochures and newsletters. You can use these templates as they are, or modify them to suit your own requirements. Templates save you having to design a publication from scratch each time. Master pages are another feature that can be used to ensure consistency in multiple page publications. A master page is like a bottom layer that sits underneath the text and graphics you create on a page. It can contain those design elements you want to appear on every page, such as headers, footers, borders and graphics. Putting these items on the master page means that they will appear on each page of the publication in the same position. Often it is possible to set up multiple master pages and apply them to different pages of a document. For example, the normal text pages in this book are based on one master page, while the first page of each chapter and the chapter review sections are based on different master pages.
Desktop publishing
245
Exercise 9.3
1 What is page layout? 2 Describe a page layout that is well designed. 3 List three basic guidelines to making well-designed publications. 4 What are special folds layouts used to create? 5 What is a gutter? 6 What are layout guides? 7 List the tools that can be used to position frames. 8 Describe the snap-to feature. 9 How do you use a desktop publishing template? 10 What is a master page? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Create an advertisement similar to Figure 9.17 using a DTP program and save it with the filename EAGLE.
Eagle Connections
A branch of Oak Tree Pty Ltd Specialists in Computer Cabling UTP Cable Coaxial Cable Fibre Optic Cable Telephone Cable STP Cable Test Equipment Repeatera Data Connectors Printer Sharing
S Accessories for all L U LAN Applications P

Figure 9.17 An advertisement for Eagle Connections.
824 5623
ATI
ters rin
3 Boyle Street, North Rocks 2151
2 Create an advertisement similar to Figure 9.18 using a DTP program and save it with the filename ATI.
Functio
HP KYOCERA IBM/LEXMARK DATAPRODUCTS

Cost-effective printers for every application ALL STATES Advanced Technologies International 4 Wanganella Street BALGOWLAH 2093
907 9848
Figure 9.18 An advertisement for ATI printers. Application software
246
Function
3 Create a business card similar to Figure 9.19 using a DTP program and save it with the filename JEWEL.
Janelle's Jewellers 31 Roma Rd St Ives NSW 2075 Fax 488 9998 Phone 488 9999
Figure 9.19 A business card.
4 Create a house advertisement similar to Figure 9.20 using a DTP program and save it with the filename HOUSE.
Home For Sale
Magnificent new home is classic Australian Federation

$750,000 Let's talk! Ask for Gary Prince. Home shown by appointment. Phone 832 1669
Figure 9.20 An advertisement for a house.
Features an extremely large living area, huge billiard room, 5 very spacious bedrooms, main bedroom with ensuite/robes, study, two bathrooms, two-car garage, bay windows, fireplace, skylights and more.
5 Design a two-page brochure that describes the dangers of illegal drugs. The layout should contain headings, text in columns, graphics and drawn objects. Save the publication with a filename of DRUGS.
Desktop publishing
247
9.4 Printing a publication

Printing a publication is the final stage in desktop publishing. The quality of a printout is called the resolution and is measured in dots per inch (dpi). The higher the dpi, the smaller the dots and the sharper the text and graphics. When comparing resolution it is important to note that 600 dpi is four times the resolution of 300 dpi. That is because a square grid 600 dots wide and 600 dots long results in 360 000 dots per square inch as opposed to 90 000 dots per square inch for a resolution of 300 dpi. Resolution is dependent on the printer. Dot matrix printers offer the lowest resolutionsbetween 60 dpi and 180 dpi. Inkjet printers offer higher quality at 600 dpi or greater. Many colour inkjet printers include special hardware or software to improve the quality of images resulting in near photographic quality. Inkjet printers are not suitable for large volume printing, however, because they are slow and the ink cost is high. Laser printers generally offer resolutions between 600 and 1200 dpi, and colour laser printers are available. Laser printers are used for high-volume printing because they are fast and the cost per copy is low.
ITTFact t I Fac
The first commercial printing press was developed by Gutenberg in 1440. It was adapted from a machine used to crush grapes. The Gutenberg printing press created a page of text by combining characters moulded separately on small blocks.
displaying
Draft copy
A draft copy is used to check the layout and proofread the text. Many printers offer several choices for print quality: low, normal and high, or draft and final. Some laser printers only print at the highest resolution. At low resolution, fewer dots are used to form the text or graphics, so printing is faster. At high resolution there are more dots per inch, so the printing takes longer but the results are better. Choosing low or draft prints the publication at the lowest resolution and fastest speed. It reduces costs by using less ink to print each page. A draft copy can also be printed without the graphics if the user only wants to check the text.
displaying
Final copy
When all the checking is completed, a final copy is printed. The final copy is printed at the printers highest resolution. Commercial printing services are available that specialise in high-quality printing using offset printing presses and high-resolution printers. They can print at resolutions greater than 2400 dpi. A device called a typesetter or imagesetter is used to create images of the pages on special photographic paper or film. These images are transferred to metal plates that are used by the printing press. The typesetters and imagesetters used by commercial printing services work with Postscript files. Postscript is a page description language that uses special commands to describe how text and images will be printed on the page. A Postscript file is used only for printing and cannot be opened or changed. Most desktop publishing programs save publications in Postscript format. Commercial
Functio
248
Function
printers are used for jobs that involve high-quality output, unusual paper sizes or large print runs. When a publication is sent for commercial printing it is advisable to check a proof. A proof is a high-quality copy of the publication as it will appear when printed. This is the last chance to fix any errors, check that colours are reproducing correctly, and fix any other problems. Proofs are important because they allow you to: check the design elements and layout make last-minute corrections to fix any errors (although this can be very expensive) check that the colours are reproducing correctly fix any technical problems that may have occurred with the files.
Additional design elements

Additional design elements such as drop caps, text effects, callouts, text wrap, borders, lines, headers and footers are included in many publications. Their use depends on the type of publication.
collecting
Drop caps
A drop cap is an enlarged initial letter that extends above or below the baseline in the first line of body text (see Figure 9.21). They are used to announce the beginning of a chapter or section and are an elegant way of enlivening the text. Drop caps are created using a special command or by individually formatting the initial letter. Drop caps can be any size but usually occupy about three lines of body text. Like most design elements, they should be used sparingly.
Figure 9.21 Some of the drop cap options in Microsoft Publisher.
Text effects
Most desktop publishing programs allow text to be treated as a graphic. This means the text can be manipulated in a variety of ways to add attractive effects. These include slanting the text, rotating it through a specified number of degrees, or wrapping it along an arc (see Figure 9.22). It is often used for headings and banners and to make signs. Text effects are not suitable for all types of publications and should not be over-used.
Figure 9.22 Some text effects. Desktop publishing
249
Borders and callouts

Borders and lines are used to improve the appearance of a publication. Borders are inserted to highlight a particular piece of text. Borders can be created in different colours, line thicknesses and styles (see Figure 9.23). Customised borders are created by using a piece of clip art or scanned photograph. Graphic objects do not usually need a border as the graphic already stands out. However, borders can be effectively used around charts and to separate two graphics.
Figure 9.23 Some border styles.
The term callout has two meanings, used in different contexts: It refers to a short piece of text quoted from the main article and reproduced in large type to catch the readers attention. Often these callouts are boxed or separated from the main text by lines. It can also refer to a label that describes an area of a picture. These labels are often connected to the area they describe by a callout line. Some desktop publishing programs have a special command to automatically create this kind of callout. In other programs a callout is created by drawing a text frame, positioning it and typing the text for the label. The callout line is created using the straight line tool.
Text wrap
An effective way to combine words and pictures is to wrap the text around the objects as shown in Figure 9.24. When wrapping text, the picture object must be brought to the front of the text object. You then select the picture object and choose a Text Wrap command. The DTP program maintains a non-printing boundary between the picture and the text. The text wrap boundary can be resized, cropped and adjusted to control the amount of white space between the text and the picture.
Desktop Publishing
Functio
Desktop publishing is the use of specialised software to combine text and graphics to create a document. In the past, publishing involved the time-consuming process of manually cutting and pasting articles or graphics.
Figure 9.24 An example of text wrap. Application software
The advent of the computer and of more sophisticated software has now totally revolutionised the publishing process, giving everyone the means to create professionallooking publications.
250
Function
Headers and footers

A header prints the same text at the top of each page, and a footer prints the same text at the bottom of the page. Headers and footers usually contain such information as the page number, the title of a document or chapter, and the date and author. Headers and footers can contain borders or lines to separate them from body text. They are often created on a master page.
Exercise 9.4
1 How is the resolution of a printout measured? 2 Compare the printing capacity of laser printers, inkjet printers and dot matrix printers. 3 Explain the difference between low- and high-resolution printing. 4 What is Postscript? 5 Why is it important to see a proof when a job is sent to a commercial printer? 6 Where are drop caps used in a publication? 7 Describe some of the text effects available in most DTP programs. 8 How do you create callouts? 9 How do you wrap text around an object? 10 List some of the information typically contained in headers and footers. LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Use a DTP program to create the text effects similar to those shown in Figure 9.22. Save the publication with the filename WORD ART. 2 Use a DTP program to wrap some text around a graphic as shown in Figure 9.24. Save the publication with the filename TEXT WRAP. 3 Use a DTP program to create an advertisement similar to Figure 9.25. Save the publication with the filename INVITATION.
Wanganui Senior High School

requests the pleasure of your company for the Year 12 Formal Ball at Berry Hill Reception Centre, 21 Poots Road, Manly on Saturday 2 December 2000 at 7.30 p.m. RSVP 12 November 2000 DRESS Black tie
Figure 9.25 An invitation. Desktop publishing
COST $35 per person includes dinner
251
4 Use a DTP program to create an advertisement for an art show similar to that shown in Figure 9.26. Save the publication with the filename ART.
Australian Art
In support of Animal Welfare, Stanley Winery will host a complimentary art show and sale. Friday 28 July 2000 from 5 p.m. to 10 p.m. at 25 Lock St, Sydney featuring entertainment, food and beverages.
Exhibition and Sale

Figure 9.26 An advertisement for an art show.
Jennifer Taylor 94 Flora Street Sutherland, NSW 2232 542 67898
5 Use a DTP program to create your own rsum using the design in Figure 9.27. Save the publication with the filename RESUME.
PERSONAL
Age: 17 years Family: Janet Taylor, mother Customer Service Adviser ANZ John Taylor, father Primary School Teacher Interests: Aerobics, computing, music, reading
EDUCATION
School Certificate: Thomas Mitchel High School (1999) High School Certificate: Graduating this year Extra-curricular activities: Student council, debating team, netball team
Functio
SKILLS
Computers: Confident and competent user of computer application software Communication: Good oral and written communication skills
EMPLOYMENT
Sales assistant McDonalds (19981999) Sales assistant David Jones (2000)
Figure 9.27 A rsum.
252
Chapter review
PART A Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best answers the question or completes the statement. 1 To define an object in a desktop publishing document you create a: A frame B border C box D rectangle 2 How would a small section of a publication be viewed? A actual size view B full page view C zoom in D zoom out 3 In DTP the term leading means: A automatic changing of type styles B automatic changing of margins C correcting the spacing between letters D the spacing between lines of text 4 Improving the appearance of text by reducing the spacing between certain letter pairs is called: A condensing B kerning C leading D line spacing 5 The difference between the words publishing and program in Desktop publishing program is in the: A stroke weight B font C type style D typeface 6 Body text should always be written: A from right to left B in a serif typeface C in upper case D with a type size of 10 point 7 Layout guides are: A a ready-made design of a document B a design that can be used as a basis for other pages C non-printing vertical and horizontal lines used to position objects D used to provide special effects not available with ordinary text 8 An enlarged initial letter that extends above or below the baseline in the first line of body text is called: A a drop cap B a callout C a header D indentation 9 The quality of a printout is called the: A draft copy B Postscript file C dpi D resolution 10 A label that describes an area of a picture is called a: A drop cap B sign C symbol D callout
Desktop publishing
253
Chapter review
PART B For each of the following statements, select from the list of terms the one that most closely fits the statement. Write the letter corresponding to your choice. Statements 1 A space or box that holds text or a graphic. 2 The arrangement of text and graphics on a page. 3 The use of specialised software to combine text and graphics to create a document. 4 The first word or line of a paragraph that is left at the bottom of a page or column. 5 The blank space on a page. 6 Adjusting the spacing between certain letter pairs to improve the appearance of the text. 7 A margin between the text and the spine of a book. 8 A feature that aligns a frame to the nearest guide or mark on a ruler. 9 Used to check a layout or proofread text. 10 A high-quality copy of the publication as it will appear when printed. 11 Part of a letter that extends above the x-height. 12 A background image behind everything else on a page. 13 A non-printing vertical or horizontal line used to position objects on a page. 14 A bottom layer that sits underneath the text and graphics you place on a page. 15 A page description language that describes how text and images will be printed on a page. 16 The vertical orientation of a page. List of terms a draft copy b desktop publishing c final copy d frame e gutter f kerning g page layout h snap-to PART C Write at least one paragraph on each of the following questions. 1 What factors must be analysed before using a DTP program? 2 Describe the design principles for using text, graphics and colour. 3 Explain the difference between a gutter and a margin. 4 Briefly explain the use of the following features of DTP programs: a layout guides b different view options. 5 Compare and contrast the use of templates and master pages. 6 Describe three design elements other than text, graphics and colour.
i j k l m n o p
white space widow master page Postscript watermark portrait layout guide ascender
254
chapter
MULTIMEDIA
10
Outcomes
After completing this chapter you should be able to: describe the essential characteristics of a multimedia system plan a multimedia presentation using a storyboard create a multimedia presentation using good design principles display text, images, audio and animated information describe the compression of data distinguish between path-based and cellbased animation identify the standard file formats used for multimedia.
Overview
This chapter will develop your knowledge and skills in relation to multimedia. It examines the characteristics and information processes involved in a multimedia system. You will learn how to combine different types of media to create a multimedia product. The basic design principles of multimedia are presented throughout the chapter.
All seven information processes are involved in the development of multimedia. Many of the tasks involve a combination of processes. The development of a multimedia product emphasises the following information processes: Collecting: Data is gathered in text, audio, video and graphic formats. (See sections 10.1 and 10.3.) Organising: Data in various formats is combined to create a multimedia product. Tools such as storyboards are used to organise the data. (See section 10.1.) Processing: Multimedia authoring packages and presentation software are used to create the products. (See sections 10.1, 10.2 and 10.4.)
10.1 Basic features

Multimedia is the presentation of information using text, graphics, animation, audio and video. Multimedia presentations include at least three of these media types. Multimedia products have become increasingly popular because the addition of audio, video and animation makes them quite different to a standard printed page as a way of delivering information. Multimedia has the potential to provide a richer experience than other information media. It can combine the best of television, film, graphics, animation, books, magazines and radio. The way the different media types are combined and presented is called a multimedia production. A key feature of multimedia is interactivity. Interactivity means that the user is able to choose the sequence and content of information. A multimedia product is often judged on its degree of interactivity. Interactive multimedia accepts input from a mouse, touch screen or keyboard and performs some action as a result of that input. The Internet is an example of an interactive environment. The expressions surfing the Net and browsing refer to the experience of jumping from one Web page to another using hypertext. Hypertext is text that includes an embedded link to another piece of text, an image or another Web page. Clicking on the hypertext causes the computer to jump to the link destination. Hypertext is also used to navigate through multimedia products. It may link to audio, graphic, animation or video files, or to another screen of information. (Chapter 11 examines the World Wide Web in detail.) The development of multimedia has been made possible by recent advances in information technology. Because audio and video files are much bigger than text and graphics files, creating multimedia requires powerful hardware and software. A multimedia system requires a fast processor, a large amount of primary storage, a high-resolution screen, high-quality sound, and the latest in removable storage media. For example, a high-quality digital video movie requires 5 Gb of storage and demands a DVD disc and multi-gigabyte hard drive. Improvements in communication speed and capacity on the Internet have meant that it is also becoming a multimedia delivery system.
Functio
256
Function
Creating a multimedia product

Multimedia products are usually designed by a group of people who each have expertise in a particular field. Each person or team works on a different part of the project. There are people who are responsible for the system design, the content and each of the media types, as well as those with information technology skills. Multimedia has developed into a major industry. Multimedia products are used extensively in education, training, entertainment and information dissemination. Education and training: Multimedia provides teachers with new ways of presenting information and teaching skills. There is an increasing range of multimedia products available, including presentation software, encyclopedias and simulations (see Figure 10.1). Entertainment: Multimedia products designed for leisure activities include computer games, virtual reality and interactive television. Information dissemination: Multimedia products can be used to provide information from a database at an information kiosk. A touch screen allows people to select information about an organisation or service.
Figure 10.1 Microsofts Encarta was the first widely available multimedia encyclopedia.
Design
A multimedia product needs to be carefully designed. All aspects of the product are planned before production gets started. The key stages are listed below. Clarify the purpose: What is the reason for producing the multimedia product? Is it to educate or entertain people or to sell a product? Identify the audience: What are the age, skill level and background of the intended audience?
collecting
Multimedia
257
Accumulate ideas: Analyse different multimedia products for ideas. What works and what doesnt work? Gather data: Determine the text, audio, video and graphics that will form the content of the multimedia product. Validate this information to ensure its accuracy.
organising
Planning
A script and a storyboard are two tools used to plan a multimedia product. A script is a printout of all the text, graphics, animation, audio and video used in the production. It outlines the interactivity in the project. A script gives directions for the construction of the multimedia product. It is a textual method of representing ideas and actions. A storyboard is a series of frames each representing a different action or screen image. It is a visual method of representing ideas and actions. It is based on the traditional storyboard used by cartoonists to show the sequence of actions in a cartoon. Storyboards are drawn on paper and are frequently edited. Multimedia storyboards define each screen and the specific media types used. They consist of navigation paths, information and graphics. They are popular because they are simple to construct, easy to read and can be modified at every stage. There are four basic storyboard layouts (see Figure 10.2): lineara simple sequential path that is set up quickly hierarchicala sequential path in a top-down design (starting at the beginning and moving down through the multimedia product)
linear
hierarchical
non-linear
Functio
combination
Figure 10.2 Storyboard layouts. Application software
258
Function
non-linearno particular structure (moves between different layouts in any direction) combinationa blending of the above layouts.
File compression
Multimedia products are characterised by large file sizes. This is the result of combining large graphics, animation, audio and video files. A process called file compression reduces the number of bits required to represent information. It allows the user to store more data and makes data transfer faster. Compressed data must be decompressed in order to extract the original information. There are a number of standard compressed formats for different media, such as JPEG for graphics and MPEG for video. The amount a file is compressed is measured by the compression ratio. The compression ratio compares how much smaller the compressed file is to the uncompressed file. If a compressed file is half the size of the uncompressed file, the compression ratio is 2 to 1 (2:1). That is, two units of data in the original file equals one unit of data in the compressed file. A higher compression ratio indicates greater compression of data. For example, a compression ratio of 3:1 would create a smaller file than a compression ratio of 2:1. (A compression ratio of 1:1 would mean that a file would not be compressed at all.) Compression is either lossy or lossless. In lossy compression, some data is actually removed from the file. The resulting file is smaller in size but the quality is reduced. However, audio and video files can be compressed with quite high compression ratios without any noticeable change to the human ear or eye. For example, an MPEG file can provide a compression ratio up to 200:1. In lossless compression, no data is deleted, which means the file can recovered in its original state. This type of compression works by replacing repeated data with something that takes up less room. For example, in this book the word and appears many times. If each and was replaced with a plus symbol (+), only one-third of the space would be needed for that word. Lossless compression is used mainly on text files such as word processing, spreadsheets and database files. Each file of a given type can have a different compression ratio depending on the contents of the file. A text file usually has a compression ratio of 3:1.
storing retrieving
&
Multimedia authoring software

A multimedia product is created by firstly developing each of the media types. Separate groups of people may specialise in each media typeaudio, graphics, animation and digital video. They each create their part of the project using separate software applications and the files are then imported into a multimedia authoring program. Authoring software is used to combine text, graphics, animation, audio and video into a multimedia product. The software allows the user to bring together the separate media types and to combine them in a way that is interactive. It assigns relationships and actions to the different media elements using a scripting language. Most authoring software packages share similar features and are capable of creating similar multimedia products, but their approaches can differ. Three popular authoring programs are Macromedia Director, Asymetrix ToolBook Assistant and Macromedia Authorware. Director: Multimedia products are developed like a movie. The software treats each file as a cast member of a production. These files will appear at a
organising
Multimedia
259
particular time, in a particular position, and for a specified length of time. A cast window is used to store different media types and a store window is used to synchronise the different elements. ToolBook Assistant: Multimedia products are built using a book metaphor. The product is called a book and each screen is a page. It uses OpenScript as a programming language (see Figure 10.3). Authorware: Multimedia products are developed using a flow chart. The flow chart consists of icons that represents a specific programming task such as a selection.
Figure 10.3 An overview of ToolBook II Assistant.
There are also a number of simplified software packages that can be used for multimedia. Programs such as HyperCard allow text, graphics, animation, audio and video to be combined without requiring any programming experience. HyperCard organises information into a collection of on-screen cards called a stack. Interactivity can be added in the form of buttons and actions.
Exercise 10.1
1 What is multimedia? 2 Describe interactivity in a multimedia product.
Functio
260
3 List the type of people typically involved in the creation of a multimedia product. 4 Describe the contents of a script. 5 Why are storyboards popular? 6 What is file compression? 7 Why is lossy compression used for most audio and video files? 8 What is the purpose of multimedia authoring software? 9 Describe three popular multimedia authoring programs.
Function
LEARNING ACTIVITIES Work in groups to complete the following tasks. Sydney is applying to host the next Commonwealth Games and has decided to create a multimedia product. The product is to outline the physical features of the city and the facilities available for the Games. It would include interviews with sporting personalities. 1 List the media types that could be used in the production. Give an example of each type. 2 Create a storyboard for the production. 3 If possible, create a brief production using an authoring program. You may want to divide your group and each prepare one element of the presentation.
10.2 Presentation software

Presentation software is used to make a professional presentation to a group of people. It improves the communication of information. A presentation consists of a series of slides. A slide is an individual screen or page of the presentation. Each slide may contain text, graphics, animation, audio and video. These elements are treated as objects, similar to objects in drawing and desktop publishing programs. A presentation is a group of objects positioned on one or more slides. Microsoft PowerPoint, Lotus Freelance and Aldus Persuasion are examples of presentation software. Presentation software often allows you to create several different types of documents for use in a presentation, including the on-screen slides, audience handouts, overhead transparencies and speakers notes. On-screen slides are slides displayed on a monitor or projected onto a screen. The timing of the presentation is controlled either automatically or manually. The automatic option requires the user to set the timings for each slide so that the slides advance by themselves. The manual option involves manually advancing the slides by clicking the mouse button or a remote control device. Audience handouts can be created containing the contents of two or more slides on a page. Handouts can be given to people who attend the presentation. Overhead transparencies are slides printed on transparent film for use with an overhead projector. They can be in black and white or colour, and in portrait or landscape orientation. Speakers notes are notes the speaker may need to refer to when discussing the slides.
Slides
New presentations are created from a template or blank presentation. A template is a master document that can be copied and modified for repeated use. Templates in presentation programs are professionally designed for specific purposes and they allow the user to create a presentation very quickly. Templates can be previewed and modified if required. There are content templates and presentation design templates. A content template helps the user with content and gives suggestions about the organisation of different kinds of information. A presentation design template creates a presentation without
displaying
Multimedia
261
Figure 10.4 Some of the presentation design templates available in Microsoft PowerPoint.
worrying about the design elements (see Figure 10.4). Each template has its own colour scheme and fonts that work with the overall design of the presentation. A colour scheme is a set of balanced colours for the text, background and drawn objects. It ensures the colours will result in a professionallooking presentation. A blank presentation is created without a template. The user has control over the look and structure of the presentation. A blank presentation requires the user to design each slide by choosing from a range of layouts. A layout specifies the position of text and picture frames. A frame is a space or box that holds an object. Text frames contain text objects such as the slide title, bulleted lists, columns and tables. Picture frames contain graphic objects such as clip art and charts. The content of each object is independent of its frame and is easily formatted.
Viewing a presentation
Presentation software typically allows several different views of a presentation. Each view provides an alternative way of looking at the presentation. Some common views are listed below. Slide view shows a single slide and allows the user to insert text, graphics, sound and artwork. Outline view shows the slide titles and main text. It is used to plan, organise or edit a presentation. Slide sorter view shows a thumbnail (miniature picture) of each slide including the text and graphics. It shows how the presentation flows and is used to arrange the order of slides (see Figure 10.5). Notes page view is used to create speakers notes for the presenter. Slide show displays all the slides of the presentation in sequence. The timing of the presentation is controlled either Figure 10.5 A presentation in slide sorter view. automatically or manually.
Functio
262
Function
Inserting objects
Objects are the building blocks of a presentation. There are different types of objects, and the behaviour of an object depends on its type. Most slides contain text. Text is often imported into a presentation from a word processor. This allows the user to take advantage of the word processors superior editing and formatting tools. Text can be imported or typed into a text frame in slide view. A better method is to enter and edit in outline view. Outline view shows all the text on each slide (see Figure 10.6). It is also used to check the logical flow of the presentation by showing only the slide title. After the data is entered, it needs Figure 10.6 A presentation in outline view, showing the text. to be formatted. There are many different ways of formatting text, such as using a variety of fonts, changing the alignment and using a spelling checker. Presentation software often contains professionally created designs that can be applied to a presentation. These design templates contain colour schemes, custom formatting and styled fonts to give a presentation a particular appearance. They are an excellent way of creating a consistent presentation. Most presentations contain graphics. There are three different ways of inserting a graphic into presentation. The user can select from a range of clip art and images. Clip art is grouped into topics such as people, animals and entertainment. It is also possible for the presentation software to suggest a piece of clip art based on key concepts. The user can import pictures and scanned photographs. When a picture frame is selected, the user can crop, resize, distort or recolour the graphic. The user can draw a picture using the softwares drawing tools. Animation effects can be applied to text, graphics, sounds, movies and other objects. They are used to highlight important points and add interest to a presentation. For example, you can have text that appears letter-by-letter or objects that fly in from the left. It is possible to change the order and timing of animations. In addition to animations, presentations can contain transitions. A transition is a special effect used to go from one slide to the next. For example, one slide might slowly dissolve as the next slide comes into view. In general, two or three transitions in a presentation will maximise their impact on the audience. Sound and video can be inserted into a presentation. Some presentation software comes with a range of pre-recorded sounds, such as applause and gunshots. In addition to these sounds there may be clip galleries of sounds and movies (see Figure 10.7). These objects are categorised in a similar Figure 10.7 Some of the categories and items available in way to clip art. It is best to avoid using loud the Microsoft Clip Gallery.
Multimedia
263
noises that distract the speaker and the slides message. Presentation software also allows the user to import sounds and videos in a variety of formats. However, special hardware and software may be needed to play and edit particular sounds and videos.
Editing objects
Objects that are associated can be grouped together as if they were a single object. Editing is much easier if associated objects are grouped. Objects on a slide can be edited in different ways: Positioning: Objects are dragged into position using the grids, layout guides and rulers. The snap-to feature aligns a frame to a grid. The nudge feature allows the frame to be moved one pixel at a time. Resizing: Objects are made smaller or bigger using the handles. The mouse is placed over the handle and dragged until the object is the desired size. Alignment: Frames are aligned by their left, right, top or bottom edges, or by their centres. Objects can be spaced equal distances from each other. Distorting: Objects can be rotated a certain number of degrees or flipped horizontally or vertically. Overlapping: Objects can be stacked on top of each other. The order of the stack is changed using the Bring to Front or Send to Back commands.
Exercise 10.2
1 What is presentation software? 2 List the document types that can be created with presentation software. 3 How is the timing of a presentation controlled? 4 Describe a template in a presentation program. 5 Explain the difference between a content template and a presentation design template. 6 List the five common ways of viewing a presentation. 7 How can text be formatted in presentation software? 8 Describe three ways of inserting a graphic into a presentation. 9 Why is animation used in a presentation? 10 Outline the five ways of editing an object on a slide.
Functio
264
LEARNING ACTIVITIES Work in groups to complete the following tasks. An information technology company wants to develop a promotional multimedia presentation to attract new investors. The presentation must include its products, history, staff and future directions. 1 Create an imaginary company and write a storyboard for the presentation. 2 Describe the design features of the presentation. 3 Develop a brief multimedia presentation using presentation software. 4 Create handouts and show the presentation to the class.
Function
10.3 Types of media

A multimedia product is a combination of text, graphics, animation, audio and video. This section examines animation, audio and video in more detail, as text and graphics have been extensively examined in previous chapters.
Animation
Animation is the movement of an object. It is the result of a series of graphics or frames presented in rapid succession. Sometimes animations can present information more effectively than text or a static graphic. For example, an animation that shows the movement of blood through the body or the eruption of a volcano would be more effective than a still image. In multimedia presentations, animations can direct the user to an area of the screen or an interesting feature. They are usually started either automatically when a slide is viewed, or by the user clicking a button. When creating an animation the user needs to consider the size of the graphic and the speed of the movement. The speed is frequently set at 30 frames per second or 9000 (30 60 5) frames for a fiveminute animation. This creates the illusion of smooth movement. However, drawing 9000 frames of graphics is a huge task. A computer with animation software makes this task much easier. Animation is created using cell-based and path-based animation.
organising displaying
ITTFact t I Fac
The word animation comes from the Latin word animatus and means to give life.
Cell-based animation
Cell-based animation involves drawing and displaying individual frames or cells. Each frame is stored separately and is loaded into a graphics page in primary memory. It is the traditional method of animation. The animation works by displaying the first frame from a graphics page while creating the second frame in another graphics page. The second frame is slightly different to the first frame, depending on the items to be animated. The second frame is then displayed and the third frame created in the graphics page of the first frame. Animation occurs by alternating the display of graphics pages. This method of animation requires a very powerful computer to achieve 30 frames per second. For example, a highresolution colour graphic containing 500 000 pixels would require calculations for 15 million (500 000 30) pixels in one second. For this reason, path-based animation is preferred.
Path-based animation
Path-based animation involves displaying the movement of objects on a fixed background in a particular sequence or path. Only the pixels of the moving object are changed; those making up the background stay the same. This saves memory and processing time. Animation is achieved by drawing the object, wiping it, and then drawing the object in a new position (see Figure 10.8). This process is made easier because animation software can generate the intermediate frames between two objects. This is called tweening (short for in-betweening). It is a key process in computer animation.
Multimedia
265
Figure 10.8 An animation of a diving penguin.
Morphing and warping are animation techniques that create special effects. Morphing is the smooth change between two different images. It involves transforming the shape, size, dimension and colour of one image so it appears to merge into another image. For example, you could morph your own image into that of a movie star. Warping involves transforming or distorting a portion of an image. It divides the image into objects that can be manipulated. For example, a persons sad face could be given a smile with the remainder of their face staying the same.
Audio and video

Sound has become an essential part of most software. It is used to explain concepts, reinforce selections and add special effects. Sound travels through the air in waves with a particular volume and pitch. A sound wave is analog data. Analog data is represented by continuous variable quantities as opposed to digital data that is represented in the form of digits or numbers. Because computers are digital devices, sound must be digitised before it can be manipulated by a computer. In relation to multimedia, audio refers to sound that has been digitised. It is created using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC); this process is reversed by a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). The ADC and DAC are built into the computers motherboard or are added using a sound card. The method used by the ADC to digitise a sound wave is called sampling (see Figure 10.9). Sampling has three important characteristics called the sampling rate, sampling size and whether the sound is mono or stereo. The sampling rate is the number of times a sample (slice) is taken from the sound wave. During a sample, the amplitude of the wave (volume) is measured and converted to a number. The higher the sampling rate, the better the sound. The sampling rate is expressed in kilohertz (kHz), which is thousands of cycles per second. Two common sampling rates are 44.1 kHz (44 100 samples per second) and 22.05 kHz (22 050 samples per second). The sample size (or bit resolution) is the number of bits per sample. The most common sampling sizes are 8-bit sound and 16-bit sound. Better quality sound is recorded using 16-bits but for voices 8-bit sound is usually sufficient.
&
Functio
266
Function
3 2 0 001 010 100
Mono uses one channel and stereo uses two channels (left and right) of sound. Stereo sound is regarded as better quality. A file size (in bits) is calculated by multiplying the sampling rate (in kHz), the sample size (in bits), the time (in seconds) and the number of channels. For example, the size of an audio file that uses a sampling rate of 44.1 kHz with Digital audio system a 16-bit sample size and lasts for one Audio input minute in stereo would be: file size = 44 100 16 60 2 bits = 10 584 000 bytes (1 byte = 8 bits) +3 +2 = 10.09 Mb (1 Mb = 1 048 576 bytes) +1 Sampling 0 Sounds are produced using speakers. 1 2 They are connected to the computer via a 3 sound card and work with particular software. There is a range of software to record A/D 0 +2 +3 +2 1 conversion 100 110 111 110 011 and play audio. Operating systems often include accessories such as a media player, sound recorder and CD player (see Figure 10.10). These tools allow the user to edit a Disk sound file in different ways such as: deleting part of the sound file changing the speed of the sound file Reproduced playing a sound file in reverse signal adding an echo +3 changing the quality of the sound file +2 +1 D/A recording a sound into a sound file 0 conversion 1 overlaying (mixing) sound files 2 3 inserting sound into another document.
Audio output
Figure 10.9 The conversion of sound from waves (analog) to digitised form and back again in a digital audio system.
Video displays photographic images at speeds ranging from 15 to 60 frames per second (FPS). The number of frames per second and the video window size affect the file size. Video is often expensive to produce and results in very large files. For example, if a screen image is 0.5 Mb in size, then 60 seconds of video at 30 frames per second would require 900 (0.5 60 30) Mb of storage. For this reason, video files are usually compressed. The most popular compressed video formats are MPEG and QuickTime.
Figure 10.10 An audio CD player.
Multimedia
267
There is an important difference between video and animation. Video takes continuous motion and breaks it up into frames, while animation starts with independent frames and puts them together to create the illusion of movement. Video is imported into a multimedia product or created. A video camera can be used to create a video clip in analog or digital form. Analog signals need to be converted into digital using a video capture card. This card compresses the video clip using a compressdecompress (CODEC) algorithm before storing the information digitally. Video compression algorithms use the fact that there are usually only small changes from one frame to the next. They encode the starting frame and a sequence of differences between frames. Digital video production software is then used to edit the video into a multimedia product. Editing may involve adding text, audio and graphics to the video clip.
ITTFact t I Fac
Shockwave is a technology developed by Macromedia to enable Web pages to contain multimedia objects. It supports audio and video and is available for both Windows and Macintosh environments.
Exercise 10.3
1 How is the movement of a graphic achieved in animation? 2 Describe the basic principles of cell-based and path-based methods for producing animation. 3 Explain the difference between analog and digital data. 4 List three important characteristics of sampling. 5 What is the sampling rate? 6 Calculate the size of an audio file that uses a sample rate of 22.05 with 16-bit sound and lasts for two minutes in stereo. 7 What factors affect the size of a video file? 8 Explain the major difference between animation and video. 9 What is the purpose of digital video production software? LEARNING ACTIVITIES Work in groups to complete the following tasks. A video store is planning an interactive multimedia display of the latest movie releases. The display must include information about each movie, animation, sound and video clips. 1 Write a storyboard for the multimedia display. 2 Describe the design features of the production. 3 If possible, develop a brief multimedia display.
Functio
268
Function
10.4 Multimedia design

Creating effective multimedia products involves more than simply knowing how to use the authoring software. Good design is critical to the success of a multimedia product.
Design principles
The design of each screen should be based on three basic design principles: Consistency: The layout, format and style should be the same throughout the multimedia product unless different media types demand a change. Readability is improved when similar items are grouped. Grouping is achieved by spacing, use of colour for the text, and changing the backgrounds or borders. Navigation: Users need to understand the structure of the multimedia product and be able to find the information they want easily. The time taken to respond to a users action is important. People become frustrated if they have to wait more than a few seconds for the next screen or video clip to load. Simplicity: Dont overuse design elements as this will create visual clutter and confuse the user. The overuse of colour, sound and animations can be distracting.
displaying
Media
When a team of people are developing a multimedia product they need to communicate with each other to ensure consistency, simplicity and ease of navigation. There are a number of design considerations for each type of medium.
displaying
Text
A basic concern with text is how much to present. It is recommended that each screen should relate to only one task or piece of information. The screen should not be overloaded with text. The designer needs to decide what information is necessary. Text needs to be formatted to be effective. The following are some generally accepted design principles for text: Body text: Avoid using too many fonts. Sans serif typefaces can be clearer than serif typefaces when viewed on screen. The type size may need to be larger than that used for printed materials. Additional leading can improve readability. Care should be taken using font styles such as bold and italic. Long lines of text are difficult to read. Headings: Use either serif or sans serif typefaces. Different size headings reflect their importance. Layout: Promote reading gravity. Elements in the top right and bottom left corner of the screen have less importance. Readers eyes are most likely to focus on the top left corner. Formatting: Follow appropriate conventions for column width, alignment, line spacing, character spacing, indentation, hyphenation and kerning.
Multimedia
269
Colour
Colour contributes to the style and theme of a multimedia product. Colour draws attention to the text and makes a graphic come to life. Some colours should not be used together as they contrast badly and reduce readability. For example, blue or green text on a red background is very difficult to read. Too many different colours can be distracting and reduce readability. A colour scheme should be used to ensure consistency and a professional-looking multimedia product.
ITTFact t I Fac
The word virtual is used to refer to things that exist on a computer system or network rather than in the physical world. Examples include virtual storage, virtual sound, virtual space, virtual office and virtual reality. Virtual reality creates a simulated environment that the user experiences and explores by interacting with a computer.
Graphics and animation

Graphics and animations are used to create interest and provide information. However, they also place extra demands on the multimedia system, so need to be used carefully. They can support or weaken a multimedia product. Some design principles are listed below. The position and size of a graphic or animation should be based on its relative importance and should balance the other design elements. Use graphics and animations sparingly, otherwise they lose their impact. For example, an animation could be used to introduce a new section within the multimedia product. Adjust the graphics and animations to suit the most common screen resolutions. The resolution of a graphic is dependent on the screen and the number of colours that can be displayed. Make sure the intention of the graphic is easily understood. For example, a graphic might guide the user to another section of a multimedia product. The title of a graphic is often placed above the graphic with a caption below. Icons are small symbols that are associated with an object, function or action. Icons should be easily recognisable and be positioned in a defined area of the screen. The information in charts must be accurate.
Functio
270
Audio and video

The principles listed above also apply to audio and video. An occasional burst of sound as a special effect will focus the audience on the message. However, the frequent use of sound effects can draw attention away from the main information. Audio and video can be excellent media for explaining concepts but they also place extra demands on the multimedia system. A decision on the use of sounds and video is often made in terms of providing exciting additional elements and ensuring the multimedia product will function effectively. Audio and video files are usually very large and this factor must be taken into account before including them in the multimedia product.
Function
File formats
There are many different file formats used for multimedia. These formats are constantly changing and new versions are being developed. Some common formats are described below. WAV (pronounced wave) is a file format that stores either 8-bit or 16-bit sound. It was developed jointly by Microsoft and IBM and is built into Windows. One disadvantage with the WAV format is that it produces large file sizes. For example, a 10-minute WAV sound file will require more than 100 Mb. RealAudio is a de facto standard for exchanging sound files over the Internet. It was developed by RealNetworks and supports FM-stereo quality sound. A RealAudio player is required to hear a RealAudio sound file included in a Web page. Recent versions of Web browsers such as Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator include a RealAudio player (see Figure 10.11). MIDI (which stands for Musical Instrument Digital Interface and is pronounced middy) is a standard way of connecting computers and electronic musical instruments. A musician uses a MIDI instrument to play music and the computer to store and edit the music. MIDI allows 16 instruments to be played simultaneously via the MIDI interface. The sound is recorded in a file format called the MIDI sequence. A MIDI file contains note information and not details of a sound wave. A synthesiser is used to create and play the sound. MIDI files require less storage space but the quality of the sound is dependent on the synthesiser.
&
Figure 10.11 RealPlayer plays both RealAudio and RealVideo files.
MPEG (which stands for Motion Picture Expert Group and is pronounced em-peg) is a family of formats that have become a standard for compressed video. MPEG files achieve a high compression ratio by using lossy compression and only storing the changes from one frame to another. MPEG-1 standard provides a video resolution of 353 240 at 30 FPS. It is similar to the quality of conventional VCR videos. MPEG-2 standard offers resolutions up to 1280 720 and 60 FPS. It is sufficient for all major TV standards and is used on DVDs. MP3 (MPEG Audio Layer 3) is an audio compression technology that is part of MPEG-1 and MPEG-2. It compresses CD-quality sound using a compression ratio of 11:1. MP3 has made it possible to download quality audio from the Internet (see Figure 10.12). For example, a four-minute song that would normally require 44 Mb of space can be compressed using MP3 to only 4 Mb. MP3 compresses a file by removing the high and low frequencies that are out of our hearing range.
Multimedia
271
QuickTime is a video and animation format developed by Apple Computer. It is built into the Macintosh operating system and is used by many Macintosh applications. Apple has provided a QuickTime version for Windows. Animated GIF (Graphic Interchange Format) is a type of GIF image that can be animated. Animated GIF does not give the same level of control as other animation formats but is supported by all Web browsers.
Figure 10.12 A Web site for MP3.
Exercise 10.4
1 Why is navigation an important design principle? 2 What is a basic consideration when using text in a multimedia product? 3 Why is colour used as a design element? 4 Describe some of the factors that affect the use of graphics and animations. 5 How is a decision made on the use of sounds and video? 6 What is the main disadvantage with WAV sound files? 7 Explain the difference between a MIDI file and a sound file. 8 What is MPEG-2? 9 Why is MP3 an important file format? LEARNING ACTIVITIES Work in groups to complete the following tasks. The local shopping centre is planning an information kiosk for its customers. The kiosk must include the name and location of every shop, the types of products sold and advertisements. 1 Write a storyboard for the information kiosk. 2 Describe the design principles that will be used as a basis for the kiosk. 3 If possible, develop a brief multimedia product for the information kiosk.
Functio
272
Chapter review
PART A Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best answers the question or completes the statement. 1 A storyboard layout that uses a topdown design is called: A linear B hierarchical C non-linear D combination 2 Data compression that allows the original file to be recovered is called: A lossy compression B original compression C lossless compression D recovery compression 3 Which of the following is not a key characteristic of multimedia? A use of the latest technology B interactivity C different media types D the Internet 4 Presentation software is a tool that does not provide: A on-screen presentations on a monitor or projected onto a screen. B audience handouts of two or more slides. C one view of a presentation. D overhead transparencies in portrait or landscape orientation. 5 Presentation design templates often contain a: A transition B colour scheme C style D format 6 The number of bits per sample is called the: A sample size B sample rate C sample measure D sample bit 7 Displaying the movement of objects onto a fixed background is called: A cell-based animation B path-based animation C warping D morphing 8 Analog signals can be converted into digital using: A a video camera B digital video production software C a sound card D a video capture card 9 Which of the following is not a basic design principle for multimedia? A special effects B consistency C ease of navigation D simplicity 10 A sound file can be stored in the following format: A QuickTime B MPEG C JPEG D WAV
Multimedia
273
Chapter review
PART B For each of the following statements, select from the list of terms the one that most closely fits the statement. Write the letter corresponding to your choice. Statements 1 A family of formats for compressed video that have become a standard. 2 A series of frames each representing a different action or screen image. 3 Reduces the number of bits required to represent information. 4 It is used to combine text, graphics, animation, audio and video into a multimedia product. 5 An individual screen or page of the presentation. 6 Involves displaying the movement of objects onto a fixed background in a particular sequence. 7 An effect in which one image blends smoothly into another. 8 The method used by the ADC to digitise a sound wave. 9 A feature that allows the user to choose the sequence and content of information. 10 A format that stores either 8-bit or 16bit sound. 11 A special effect used to go from one slide to the next. 12 Involves drawing and displaying individual frames or cells. 13 A de facto standard for exchanging sound files over the Internet. 14 Involves transforming or distorting a portion of an image. 15 A miniature picture of each slide including text and graphics. 16 A unit for measuring the speed of displaying images. List of terms a authoring software b cell-based animation c file compression d interactivity e morphing f MPEG g sampling h slide i storyboard j WAV k path-based animation l FPS m thumbnail n warping o RealAudio p transition PART C Write at least one paragraph on each of the following questions. 1 Describe some of the characteristics of a multimedia product. 2 Explain the difference between lossy and lossless compression. 3 How are slides created using presentation software? 4 Briefly explain the following terms: a animation b sampling rate. 5 What is the difference between morphing an image and warping an image? 6 Describe the three basic design principles for an effective multimedia product.
274
chapter
THE INTERNET
11
Outcomes
After completing this chapter you should be able to: describe the basic features of the Internet view Web pages that include text, images, animation and video interpret Internet addresses use an Internet search engine to find data send and receive email and attachments send email to multiple recipients, including carbon copies (CC) create a Web page.
Overview
This chapter will help you to become a confident user of the Internet. It examines the basic features of the Internet and the major information processes involved in their use. You will learn about Web browsers, Internet addresses and electronic mail. The final section describes Internet publishing and the process of creating a Web page.
The Internet is a computer network, hence its major function is the transfer of data and information. However, the use of the Internet may involve all seven of the information processes. There is a particular emphasis on four information processes: Collecting: The Internet can be used to gather information and data. Search engines can be used to find the required information. (See section 11.1.) Storing and retrieving: The Internet can be used as a store for data and information. (See section 11.2.) Transmitting and receiving: Data can be transferred by sending and receiving email, contributing to newsgroups, chatting and downloading files. (See sections 11.1 and 11.3.) Displaying: Web browsing software is used to display Web pages from the Internet. Web authoring software is used to create and maintain Web pages. (See section 11.4.)
11.1 Basic features

The Internet (also referred to as the Net) is the worlds biggest computer network. It links millions of computers all around the world. These computers are in homes, schools, universities, government departments and businesses. The Internet was established in the early 1970s when the United States Department of Defence was worried about military attacks from other countries. It did not want the countrys defence network to be dependent on one main computer. At first the network was established between government departments and university sectors. However, people soon realised the potential of a computer network that everybody could use. The 1990s has seen a huge increase in the use of the Internet by businesses, educational institutions and individuals. The main uses of the Internet today include: communication, using electronic mail (email), Internet chat and videoconferencing accessing information from Web sites, databases and newsgroups downloading software conducting business and transferring funds playing interactive multimedia games, listening to music and watching videos.
Functio
276
Connecting to the Internet

For most users, establishing a connection to the Internet requires a computer, a modem, a telephone line, an account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP) and appropriate software, such as a Web browser and an email program. A modem is a device that enables the transmission of data from one computer to another. It may be internal (located inside the system unit) or external (connected as a peripheral device). An ISP is an organisation that provides access to the Internet for a fee. There are hundreds of ISPs in Australia, each offering a particular level of service and support for a specified charge.
Function
ITTFact t I Fac
The Information Superhighway is a popular name for the Internet and other related computer networks. It was first used in 1993 by US Vice President Al Gore in a speech outlining plans to build a high-speed national data communications network.
All computers connected to the Internet communicate with each other using a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern the transmission of data between computer devices. The protocol used on the Internet is called TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). It is a common language for data transmission and error detection across the Internet. It works by breaking information into smaller packets of data. Each data packet contains the information and the address of the receiving computer. The TCP standards inform the receiving computer what is inside the data packet and the IP standard tells the computer where and how to send the packet.
The World Wide Web

One of the most popular features of the Internet is the World Wide Web (WWW or Web). It provides a user-friendly interface to the Internet and quick access to documents. The Web began to gain mass popularity in 1993. Today a vast range of information, software, advice and business is located on the Web. The Web is an Internet network that allows people at one computer to collect information stored on another computer. People connect to other computers to look at Web sites. A Web site is a group of documents that present information on a particular topic. Each document is called a Web page. Web pages are stored on powerful computers called servers. Each server may store thousands of Web pages from different Web sites. To view a particular Web page, your computer connects to the server and finds the appropriate Web site. You view a Web page using software called a Web browser. (Web browsers are discussed in more detail in section 11.2.) The Web is like a house with millions of rooms each containing pieces of information. Each room may have many doors to other rooms. The rooms are Web pages and the doors are hyperlinks (see Figure 11.1). A hyperlink is a piece of text or graphic that contains an embedded link to another piece of text, an image or another Web page. Clicking on the hyperlink causes the computer to jump to the link destination. The expressions surfing the Net or browsing refer to the experience of jumping from one page to another using hyperlinks. A hyperlink can take the user to another part of the same Web page, to another page within the Web site, or to a page in another Web site, possibly in a different country.
collecting
The Internet
277
The button and the underlined text are both hyperlinks to the same location
Figure 11.1 A Web page showing hyperlinks.
& receiving
transmitting
Usenet and newsgroups

Usenet (users network) is a collection of discussion groups in which people with common interests can exchange information. It works like an electronic noticeboard. People can read messages and join in discussions by sending, or posting, messages. Each discussion group is referred to as a newsgroup. There are thousands of newsgroups on an enormous range of topics. Newsgroups are read each day by people from all over the world and provide a large diversity of opinion and knowledge. Each newsgroup is classified into one of eight major categories: computers (comp) social issues (soc) science (sci) recreation (rec) discussion (talk) miscellaneous (misc) newsgroups (news) alternative (alt). These letters appear at the start of a newsgroups name and indicate its major category. The rest of the name defines the specific topic of the newsgroup. For example: comp.sys.mac.misc is a newsgroup that deals with miscellaneous issues about the Macintosh computer system. There are rules regarding appropriate behaviour in newsgroups. Some of the rules are: Enter a newsgroup for several days and read the messages before you make a posting. (This is known as lurking.) Determine what is appropriate for that particular newsgroup. Post inoffensive messages. Be aware of cultural differences. Do not post messages that infringe copyright. Do not send the same message to various newsgroups (spamming).
Functio
278
Function
Internet Relay Chat

Chatting on the Internet is divided into three main groups: text, graphical and voice. Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is the most common text-based system. It provides a real-time conversation with one person or with hundreds of people. People meet for a chat in chat rooms (or on chat channels) which are located on computers called IRC servers. A chat room is a virtual room where people can talk in groups or privately, usually on a particular topic (see Figure 11.2). Most chat rooms are open to everyone and you can contribute to ongoing discussions by typing a few lines. Graphical and voice chat software requires more computer power but is increasing in popularity. People have made friends and have even met future husbands and wives through chat sessions. However, people can also make up different personalities and pretend to be anything they want to be. There are dangers for users, particularly children, in being exploited. In general, you should never reveal your address or phone number in a chat session. In addition, there are rules regarding appropriate behaviour in chats: Respect the privacy of people in chat rooms. Do not enter private channels. Do not write long messages. Long messages are best sent using electronic mail. Do not use offensive language. If you have a disagreement with someone, just ignore them. Be friendly to other people, particularly newcomers.
& receiving
transmitting
Figure 11.2 Some messages from a chat room that specialises in the Web.
Downloading files
Web pages are made up of files, which may include text, graphics, animation, video and sound. There can also be software files connected to Web pages via hyperlinks. As well as viewing a Web page, it is possible to copy the associated files from the Web server to your own computer. This is called downloading. The text from a Web page is downloaded using the browsers Save As command. It can be saved as an HTML file (using formatting codes that are interpreted by a Web browser) or as raw text. Graphics can be saved separately. Many files are downloaded in a compressed format. Data compression compacts
& receiving
transmitting
The Internet
279
the file so that it takes up less room. Two common compressed formats are zip and hqx. These files require the user to decompress or expand them using a compression program such as WinZip or StuffIt. Just because it is easy to do, using downloaded files from the Internet is not necessarily legal. Information published on the Internet is protected by copyright, just like information published in a book. This applies to all types of data, not just text. Copyright places legal limits on what you can do with the data. (See Chapter 2 for a detailed discussion of copyright.) If you use information from a Web page in your own written work, it must be correctly cited along with the other references you have used.
Exercise 11.1
1 List the tools required to connect to the Internet. 2 Describe the protocol used on the Internet. 3 Where are Web pages stored? 4 Explain the term surfing the Net. 5 Describe four rules regarding appropriate behaviour in a newsgroup. 6 Why are there dangers in chatting on the Internet? 7 What is data compression? List two common compressed formats. LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Investigate the Internet resources at school and the community by answering the following questions. a How many computers at school have Internet access? Where are they located? b Are there any restrictions on student access to the Internet? c Does any censorship or blocking software restrict student access to the Internet? What is the name of this software? d Does the local library offer Internet access? What are the arrangements for access? e Do you know the location of any Internet cafes? What are the arrangements for access? 2 In a study of university students, it was found that a significant proportion of university dropouts were using the Internet for four or more hours a day, including late at night. Is this excessive use of the Internet a problem? Why? How would you help a friend if they were spending too much time on the Internet?
Functio
280
11.2 Web browsers

A Web browser is a software program stored on a computer that allows it to find, read and display Web pages. Early versions of browsers were only capable of accessing text files. Todays Web browsers use a graphical user interface. Popular browsers include Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator. Online service providers such as America Online (AOL) and CompuServe provide a browser free of charge as part of their subscription package. Web browsers
Function
display Web pages, link to other Web pages and download information to your computer. A Web browser will display a Web page if the address (or location) is entered directly into the browser. It will receive graphics files that are embedded in the Web page. Web pages that have graphic files or multimedia files take longer to download, as they are larger in size. Browsers have the ability to store the addresses of selected Web pages. These stored addresses are called bookmarks or favourites and save time accessing frequently used Web pages. Web browsers also have a range of commands or buttons that make them easier to use. Some of the basic commands are listed in Table 11.1.
Command or button
Back Forward Refresh Home Stop Print Search
Use
Displays the previous Web page Displays the next Web page Reloads the current Web page from the server Returns to the home page Interrupts the download of a Web page Prints all or a portion of the current Web page Displays Web search tools
Table 11.1 Some common Web browser tools.
Internet addresses
IP addresses
Each computer connected to the Internet has a unique address called an IP address (Internet Protocol address). Most IP addresses use four bytes (32 bits) grouped in four 8-bit segments separated by a full stop (period). For example, the IP address for Microsoft is 205.188.200.58. A new generation of IP addresses uses 16 bytes (128 bits) grouped in eight 16-bit segments separated by a full stop. IP addresses are difficult for people to understand, so another addressing system is used based on domain names.
storing retrieving
&
Domain names
A domain name is the address of a specific computer on the Internet. Domain names are translated into IP addresses. Because they are based on English, they are easier for people to remember than IP addresses. Domain names can look complicated but they are easier to understand when they are broken down into parts. Each part is separated by a full stop and is called a domain. For example, www.hi.com.au is a domain name in which: www stands for World Wide Web hi stands for Heinemann Interactive and is the name of the specific computer com is the organisational domain au is the geographical domain. Organisational domains include edu for education, mil for military, gov for government, com for commercial, net for network and org for non-profit organisation.
The Internet
281
The geographical domain indicates the country in which the server is located. Geographical domains include au for Australia, uk for United Kingdom, fr for France and ca for Canada. The USA is the only country without a geographical domain, although some US sites have adopted us as the geographical domain.
Uniform Resource Locator

A URL (Uniform Resource Locator, pronounced youareell) is the address of a file or resource on the Web. It is usually in lower case in a single unbroken line with no spaces, such as http://www.hi.com.au/infoprocess (see Figure 11.3). URLs must be complete and exact, otherwise the file or resource will not be found. There are three parts to a URL: the protocol, the domain name and the file path. Protocol: This indicates a particular type of resource on the Web. For most Web pages, the protocol will be http:// (Hypertext Transfer Protocol). It allows access to Web pages based on hypertext. Another type of protocol is ftp:// (File Transfer Protocol). It allows files to be transferred between computers on the Internet. Domain name: This is the address of the specific computer where the resource is located, such as hi.com.au. The domain name is interchangeable with the IP address. File path: This is the full path to the file to be retrieved. It may be a simple file name or a directory path, such as /infoprocess. The domain name and the file path are separated by a forward slash (/).
Functio
282
Figure 11.3 The URL directs the Web browser to the server on which the Web page is stored.
storing retrieving
&
Searching the Web

Searching the Internet to find information can be like looking for a needle in a haystack. There is a mass information in different locations. Knowing the URL of a Web page is one way to find the information you are looking for. However, in most cases you will need to carry out a search before you will know which Web pages are relevant. The Internet offers a range of tools to find information such as search engines.
Function
ITTFact t I Fac
Brochureware refers to Web sites that offer very little information and no interactivity. These Web sites are created by organisations simply to have a presence on the Web. They are of very limited value to the organisation or to the public.
Search engines
A search engine is a database of indexed Web sites that can be searched using keywords. The index is built by regularly scanning the Web for new sites and accepting submissions from Web page authors. A search engine is accessed using a Web browser. There are dozens of search engines available on the Web, including Yahoo!, AltaVista, Excite and Magellan. Search engines have different methods of building their indexes and will often obtain different results from the same search. Some search engines provide directories of Web sites organised into categories such as technology, entertainment, or sport (see Figure 11.4). Good search engines are easy to use and provide precise results.
Figure 11.4 The Yahoo! search engine provides a directory of Web sites organised into categories. These can be searched by keyword.
Search engines require the user to enter one or more keywords related to their topic of interest. In addition, most search engines allow users to search for specific items such as graphics. When the user enters a keyword and clicks the Search button, the search engine scans its index and lists the Web sites that contain that keyword. The listing is usually in order of relevance and is in the form of hyperlinks. This allows the user to access the listed Web pages by simply clicking on them. Selecting a keyword is crucial to the success of a search. In general, it is best to include synonyms where appropriate (such as illness and disease) and to use keywords that are very specific. This will avoid being overloaded with information. Search engines generally allow the user to combine keywords in various ways, as shown in Table 11.2.
The Internet
283
Operator
Phrase And Or Not
Result
Two or more words are specified and the search engine looks for an exact match Searches for documents that contain both keywords in any order Searches for documents that contain at least one keyword in any order Searches for documents that do not contain the keyword
Example
Apple Computing apple AND computer apple OR macintosh apple NOT fruit
Table 11.2 Examples of combining keywords.
Different search engines use different methods to index Web sites, handle keywords and display results. For example, some search engines match keywords in the Web page title, while others use the body of the text. It is advisable to get experience using more than one search engine to become familiar with their capabilities. There are good reasons to use the Internet to find information: it is constantly updated, it can be faster to access compared to other methods of publishing, and it can be more convenient. However, just because something is on the Internet doesnt mean it is correct or up-to-date. You should always try to verify information from the Internet and use well-known sources wherever possible.
Exercise 11.2
1 List the tasks performed by a Web browser. 2 What is the purpose of a bookmark or favourite? 3 List seven basic commands found in most Web browsers. 4 Why do people use domain names instead of IP addresses? 5 Describe the file path of a URL. 6 What is a search engine? 7 Outline four ways keywords can be combined in searches. 8 List some good reasons to use the Internet to find information.
Functio
284
9 People who surf the Net often get lost and do not use their time efficiently. Do you agree with this statement? Why? What steps can you take to ensure you are proficient in using the Internet? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Start up a Web browser and answer these questions. a What is the name of the home page? b How do you stop a Web page from loading? c How is a Web page restored after loading has been interrupted? d Where are popular Web sites stored? e How do you go back to sites you have visited during the session?
Function
2 Compare three different Web sites by answering the questions below for each one. Three possible sites to compare are: http://www.ibm.com http://microsoft.com http://www.apple.com a What is the purpose of the Web site? b How easy is it to move around the Web site? c How current are the Web sites? d Which is the best Web site? Why? 3 Find information on your favourite topic using more than one search engine. Some search engine URLs are: http://www.altavista.com http//www.excite.com http//www.yahoo!.com http//www.hotbot.com http//www.dogpile.com a How many Web sites were found? b Narrow the search by combining keywords. c Save 10 relevant Web sites as Bookmarks or Favourites. d Organise the saved Bookmarks or Favourites into appropriate folders. e Check that the Bookmarks or Favourites work. 4 Find an interesting Web site. a Download the following data and save it using word processing software and the filename WEBSITE. i a Web page and its URL ii a block of text on the Web page iii a graphic on the Web page b Correctly cite the Internet source at the beginning of the document.
11.3 Electronic mail

Electronic mail (email) allows people to communicate by sending and receiving electronic messages using a computer. Email was one of the earliest uses of the Internet and has been around for about 40 years. In many business situations email messages have replaced memos and traditional handwritten letters (which are referred to by Internet users as snail mail). Email has the following advantages over other methods of sending messages: Speed: Email is fast. A message can be sent around the world in less than a minute. Multiple receivers: The same message can be sent to more than one user without having to copy the message. Cost: Email is relatively cheap compared to postal charges. The only cost is the cost of the call to the users Internet Service Provider. Convenience: An email message can be sent at any time of the night or day. The recipient does not have to be at their computer to receive the message. Storage and reuse: Email messages can be saved for future reference or inserted into other documents.
The Internet
285
File transfer: Virtually any kind of computer file can be attached to an email message. Files can be sent within organisations or around the world. Email systems work on computer networks of all sizes, from LANs (local area networks) to the Internet. They require email software to send, receive and manage email messages. Most modern Web browsers include an email component and there are also separate email applications, such as Microsoft Outlook, Netscape Mail and Eudora. In addition to email software the user needs an account with an ISP. The ISP provides the user with a unique email address. Web-based email is a recent development that avoids the need for specialised email software. The user subscribes to a Web-based email service and is then able to send and receive email by visiting a particular Web site using a Web browser. Services such as hotmail.com. and yahoo.com provide free Web-based email addresses. The cost is paid for by advertisers who place advertisements on the Web site.
& receiving
transmitting
Email addresses
An email message can be sent to anyone who has an email address. Email addresses are unique and consists of two parts separated by the @ (at) symbol in the form: name@domain name The first part is the name of the account. It is often a persons username and is chosen when the user opens an account with an ISP. The second part is the domain name. It is the location of the persons account on the Internet. The domain name identifies the specific computer or server where the email messages are stored. For example, the address John.Smith@redeye.net.au consists of the following parts: John.Smith is the username. If a user applies for a name that is already in use, it may be adapted by adding some more letters or numbers. redeye.net.au is the domain name. Redeye is the ISP, net means it is a network (Internet) organisation and au is for Australia.
& receiving
transmitting
Email messages
When an email message is sent to someone it is stored in a mailbox on their ISPs email server. It stays on the server until the person checks their email. Email messages are often short and informal, and may be typed very quickly. In informal messages, users often use inventive spellings, such as thanx and enuff and write all in lower case. The user does not have to be online to compose an email message. Messages can be written offline and sent when the user logs onto a LAN or to the Internet. This saves money if the ISP charges by the hour. In addition to the senders email address, an email message contains five main parts (see Figure 11.5): email address (To:)the address of the person receiving the message (the recipient) subjectthe topic of the message or a brief description carbon copy (Cc:)sends the same message to people other than the main recipient (optional) blind carbon copy (Bcc:)sends a copy to other people without revealing who else got the message (optional)
Functio
286
Function
Figure 11.5 An email message with an attachment.
main bodythe body of the message typed using the email software or imported from a word processor. Bandwidth refers to the information-carrying capacity of the cables and wires that connect the computers together. There is a limit to the amount of information that can be carried. For that reason, it is advisable to check with the recipient before sending large files, such as those containing video clips. Keep bandwidth in mind when sending messages and try to be concise and clear. Large files can be compressed before sending to save time and bandwidth. When a person receives a compressed file they must decompress it using the appropriate software. After an email is read it can be deleted or stored in an appropriate folder on the hard disk for later reference. You can reply to an email message simply by clicking on the Reply button. A new message window is opened with the address of the original sender automatically inserted. The previous message can be retained to remind the person of their original message. This is called quoting. The prefix Re: may be added to the original subject line to identify the thread of the message. Forwarding a message involves sending a message you received to someone else.
ITTFact t I Fac
An e-bomb is a large and useless electronic mail message that is sent to other users and creates havoc with their hard drives. E-bombs are sometimes sent with good intentions, such as advertising.
Creating email
Email software provides a number of features to help users create their email. An address book is used to store email addresses. This saves having to remember each persons address and type it into an email message. A mailing list is a group of people who want to receive the same messages. It may be people working on the same project or a group of people with the same interests. Mailing lists are created by entering the email address of each person in the list and giving the list a name. A signature is several lines that are automatically appended to all
The Internet
287
outgoing email messages. It may include contact details, the persons occupation, a Web site URL or a graphic. The widespread use of email has resulted in some informal rules to improve their readability and clarity. These rules are often referred to as netiquette and include the following: Keep messages short (less than a screen) and to the point. Avoid using email for trivia and gossip. Avoid using all capital lettersit is considered shouting. Make the subject line as meaningful as possible. Add blank lines between paragraphs. In addition, some people make use of informal devices such as emotions and acronyms. Emotions are little icons that show feelings, such as :) for smiling. Common acronyms include IRL for in real life and BTW for by the way.
Attachments
Attachments are computer files sent with the email message. They can be any kind of file, including text, video, audio, graphics or programs. Clearly the receiver of the email must have an application that can read or convert the file. When sending an attachment it is important to include a brief explanation in the main body of the email message. The explanation should state that there is an attachment and give its filename and format. All email programs need to encode file attachments into characters, since the Internet TCP/IP does not allow transmission of binary code. Many email programs use Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension (MIME). It is an Internet protocol that is able to negotiate many different operating systems and types of software. It has been a major step forward in the ability to exchange files other than text files.
Exercise 11.3
1 What is electronic mail? 2 List some of the advantages of using email. 3 What is the first part of an email address? 4 What happens to the email after it has been sent? 5 Explain the difference between carbon copy and blind carbon copy.
Functio
288
6 What is quoting? 7 How are feelings shown in an email message? 8 Why is it important to include a brief explanation in the main body of an email when sending attachments? 9 Employees have been dismissed for making comments about their bosses in email messages. The courts have ruled that organisations have the right to access their employees email on their computer networks. Is this an invasion of privacy? Who should have access to email at work? Why?
Function
LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Create a brief email message include an emoticon or acronym. a Send the email message to a friend and a carbon copy to the teacher. b Check that your partner received the email message. c Send a reply to your partner by quoting. d Forward the message to another person in your class. 2 Create an email message that contains an attachment such as a simple text document. The email should contain a brief explanation of the attachment. a Send the email message to a friend and a carbon copy to the teacher. b Check that your friend received the email message and was able to open the attachment. 3 Create an email questionnaire on a research topic. a Choose a topic such as the number people in your family. b Design a simple questionnaire with only one or two questions. c Create a mailing list and send the email questionnaire. d Collate the results. (A spreadsheet is useful tool to collate and chart the results.) e Distribute the results of the survey to people on the mailing list and thank them for their participation.
11.4 Internet publishing

The Internet has allowed millions of people around the world to become authors and publishers. Although Internet publishing can make use of email, newsgroups or electronic magazines (e-zines), most people equate Internet publishing with Web publishing. There are a number of advantages in Web publishing: Web pages can be read by all computers connected to the Internet, which means there is a huge potential audience worldwide. Information on the Web page can be quickly updated and revised. Feedback can be obtained immediately from the Web site. Professional-looking Web pages are relatively easy to create.
Web pages
Before creating a Web page it is advisable to critically examine other Web pages. Analyse their purpose, page layout, text, multimedia material and links, and the accuracy of the information. There are five main stages in creating a Web page: planning, designing, implementing, publishing, and testing and evaluating.
displaying
Planning
The first task in creating a Web page is to establish a clear purpose and identify an audience. This will influence the page layout, language level and content of the Web page. The audience might be other students at your school, the school community or students in other schools. The next task is to determine how you are going to attract the audience. This could involve compelling content, graphics or multimedia material. The page needs to get the users attention and make them want to come back again.
The Internet
289
When planning a Web page there are certain conventions that will save time and result in a professional-looking product. Some of these are listed below. The Web page should be less than one A4 page in length, or two to three scrolled screens. Many Web pages are the size of the average computer screen. The main elements of the Web page should be located on the first screen or home page. This often includes a brief introduction and a hypertext table of contents. There should be consistent navigation throughout all Web pages that make up the site. Every page should be linked to the home page (see Figure 11.6). Use a style that is consistent and appropriate for the purpose of the Web page. Avoid using too many fonts and styles. A user should be able to find the information they want within three mouse clicks. If users cannot find information quickly and easily they will go to another site. Do not overcrowd a page. Web pages should load in less than eight seconds otherwise users will become impatient. Avoid the overuse of graphics and other elements that will slow down the loading of a Web page. Reusing graphics on a number of pages will be faster than using different graphics on each page.
Functio
290
Figure 11.6 The home page of PC User magazines Web site. Note the clear, uncluttered layout and the defined areas for navigation links.
Designing
People read Web pages in the same way as they read other published documentsstarting at the top left corner of the page and working their way across and down the page. Web pages need to be designed to assist this reading gravity. There are six important elements in the design of a Web page: text, colour, multimedia, navigation and layout. Text should be clear and legible and in one or two typefaces only. Care should be taken using font styles such as bold and italic. Underlining should only be used for hyperlinks. Long lines of text are difficult to read. Using a
Function
border down the left-hand side of the page is a common technique for shortening the line length. Colour should be used carefully. Using many different colours can be distracting and reduce readability. Dark text on a light background or vice versa usually works well. Avoid using colours that have specific meanings. For example, unused hyperlinks are usually shown in blue and used hyperlinks in purple. Graphics create visual interest but are slow to load. When using graphics, consider the size of the graphic, whether the icons are instantly recognisable and whether the graphic easily fits on the screen. Two common graphic formats are JPEG and GIF. (See pages 221 and 225 for a discussion of graphic file formats.) Multimedia should not be an essential part of a Web page as some users might not have the right software or hardware to view it. If you want to include a Web page with multimedia, have it accessed from a standard Web page on which you advise users of the software required. It is important to advise users about the size of any sound or video files on your site. Navigation is an essential component of any Web pagepeople need to understand where they are and where they can go. Colouring different areas of the page, using visual symbols (icons and arrows), inserting clear page headers and creating simple hyperlinks improves navigation. Layout should provide a user-friendly interface with all the above elements working together. Other features to consider are bulleted lists, columns, tables, scroll bars, alignment, line spacing, and horizontal and vertical lines.
Implementing
Web pages are created using Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). HTML is a set of special instructions (called tags) that indicate how parts of a document will be displayed. Hyperlinks are special tags that can be attached to text or graphics to create a link to another Web page. Hypertext links are often shown in blue and are usually underlined. All hyperlinks refer to a particular Internet address (URL). A range of software can be used to create a file in HTML format, including many word processors, desktop publishing programs and multimedia authoring programs. Software developed for the specific purpose of creating Web pages is called Web authoring software. Common Web authoring packages include Microsoft FrontPage, Netscape Navigator Gold, Adobe GoLive and Claris Home Page. These programs allow the user to create Web pages without having to understand HTML code. Web authoring programs allow the user to import text, graphics, tables, audio and video from other programs. A Web page is built from these elements.
Publishing
Web pages are normally published and stored on a server. A server stores thousands of Web pages from different Web sites. People visit a Web site by connecting to the server. Large organisations have their own Web servers. Smaller organisations and individuals pay to have their Web site hosted by an ISP. ISPs charge a fee that is dependent on the total file size of the Web site, including graphics, sound and video. The larger the Web site, the larger the hosting fee. Many ISPs include a small amount of space on their Web server as part of their service to subscribers who open an Internet account with them.
The Internet
291
Once a Web page has been created, it needs to be transferred to a server so that it becomes part of the Internet. The process is called uploading. Files are uploaded to the server using FTP (File Transfer Protocol). After the Web site has been published, it needs to be advertised so people are aware of its existence. There are two main methods of advertising Web pages: via search engines and newsgroups. Search engines require the author of the Web page to write a short description and identify relevant categories. This is known as registering the Web page with the search engine. There are online services that can help you register the Web page with a number of search engines simultaneously. Newsgroups can also be good places to advertise Web sites. Messages are posted to relevant newsgroups summarising the content of the Web pages.
Testing and evaluating

Web pages are tested throughout their development using a Web browser. All the elements can be examined offline with the exception of hyperlinks. The Web pages are checked to get an overview and to ensure that all the elements are working together. It is useful to check the Web pages using different computer platforms (e.g. Windows and Macintosh) and using different types of Web browsers to make sure the result will be acceptable to all users. There are also online validation services that will check Web pages (see Figure 11.7). A final test is completed online to ensure the hyperlinks are working. If a hyperlink is incorrect, the visitor will receive a message that tells them the page they are looking for does not exist.
Functio
292
Figure 11.7 An online validation service.
Web sites are evaluated to determine whether they are satisfying their original purpose. An independent person should complete the evaluation to ensure it is unbiased. Web pages are evaluated for efficiency and effectiveness. Efficiency can be measured in the time taken to load the page, the ease of navigation and whether the cost was justified. Effectiveness is measured in terms of the quality of presentation, the accuracy of information and whether it is clearly understood.
Function
Web pages need to be maintained regularly to keep them up-to-date. The maintenance can often take up more time than the original design. The content is checked for accuracy and the hyperlinks examined to see if they are still appropriate. The revision date is often entered onto the Web pages so that people are aware of the last update.
ITTFact t I Fac
A flame war is when a long-standing debate on the Internet becomes abusive without any form of mediation.
Exercise 11.4
1 List the advantages of publishing on the Internet. 2 How do Web sites attract an audience? 3 Describe the elements of good design for: a text b colour. 4 Outline four ways of improving a Web sites navigation. 5 What are some of the advantages of using Web authoring software? 6 How do you advertise a Web page? 7 Why is a final test of a Web site completed online? 8 How are Web sites evaluated? LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 Create a personal Web page about yourself. Do not include contact information such as your address or phone number. Save the Web page using your name. Follow the stages outlined below. a Plan the page layout, content and features. b Design the Web page, including the text, colour, graphics, multimedia and navigation. c Implement (build) the Web page using appropriate software. d Advertise the Web page. Write a short description of the Web page and list relevant categories. e Test the Web page using a Web browser. 2 Create a Web page about a person you admire. Do not include contact information such as your address or phone number. Save the Web page using their name. Follow the stages outlined below. a Plan the page layout, content and features. b Design the Web page, including the text, colour, graphics, multimedia and navigation. c Implement (build) the Web page using appropriate software. d Advertise the Web page. Write a short description of the Web page and list relevant categories. e Test the Web page using a Web browser.
The Internet
293
Chapter review
PART A Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best answers the question or completes the statement. 1 The worlds biggest computer network is the: A World Wide Web B LAN C Ethernet D Internet 2 A discussion group on a particular topic is called a: A Usenet B chat room C newsgroup D ISP 3 Connecting to the Internet does not require: A an ISP B a modem C a browser D email 4 HTML stands for: A Hypertag Markup Language B Hypertag Markbook Language C Hypertext Markup Language D Hypertext Markbook Language 5 Which of the following is not part of a URL? A IP address B protocol C domain name D file path 6 Search engines require the user to enter a: A keyword B URL C phrase D domain name 7 Communicating by sending and receiving electronic messages using a computer is called: A chatting B email C a newsgroup D a Web site 8 A group of people who may want to receive the same messages is a: A quoting B carbon copy C address book D mailing list 9 Which of the following is not a convention when planning a Web page? A Multimedia is an essential part of every Web page. B The main elements of a Web page are on the home page. C Use a style that is consistent and appropriate for the purpose of the Web page. D A Web page should be less than one A4 page in length. 10 A Web site is advertised using: A a Web browser B Web authoring software C a search engine D email
294
Chapter review
PART B For each of the following statements, select from the list of terms the one that most closely fits the statement. Write the letter corresponding to your choice. Statements 1 An organisation that provides access to the Internet for a fee. 2 A protocol used on the Internet. 3 A group of documents that present information on a particular topic. 4 It provides a real-time conversation with one person or with hundreds of people. 5 A software program stored on a computer that allows access to the Web. 6 The address of a specific computer on the Internet. 7 A database of indexed Web sites that can be searched using keywords. 8 Computer files sent with the email message such as text, video, sound, pictures and programs. 9 The information-carrying capacity of the cables and wires that connect computers together. 10 Imports text, graphics, tables, audio and video from other programs to create a Web page. 11 A collection of discussion groups in which people with common interests can exchange information. 12 The address of a file or resource on the Web. 13 It allows people to communicate by sending and receiving electronic messages using a computer. 14 A group of people who want to receive the same message. 15 The Internet protocol used to exchange files other than text files. 16 Informal rules about appropriate behaviour on the Internet. List of terms a attachments b bandwidth c domain name d IRC e ISP f search engine g TCP/IP h Web browser i Web authoring software j Web site k mailing list l URL m MIME n netiquette o Usenet p email PART C Write at least one paragraph on each of the following questions. 1 When was the Internet first established? When did it become popular? Why? 2 Describe the World Wide Web. What is a hyperlink? 3 Describe the three parts of a URL. 4 Briefly explain the following terms: a Internet address b email. 5 Outline some of the rules for appropriate behaviour in newsgroups, chat sessions and email messages. 6 Describe the five main stages in creating a Web page.
The Internet
295
Appendix: ASCII and EBCDIC codes

ASCII
Character
NUL SOH STX ETX EOT ENQ ACK BEL BS HT LF VT FF CR SO SI DLE DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4 NAK SYN ETB CAN EM SUB ESC FS GS Null Start of heading Start of text End of text End of transmission Enquiry Acknowledge Bell Backspace Horizontal tab Line feed Vertical tab Form feed Carriage return Shift out Shift in Data link escape Device control 1 Device control 2 Device control 3 Device control 4 Negative acknowledge Synchronous idle End of trans block Cancel End of medium Substitute Escape File separator Group separator Record separator Unit separator Exclamation mark Double quote Hash Dollar Percent Ampersand
Description
Decimal
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
Hexadecimal
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1A 1B 1C 1D 1E 1F 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
ASCII code
0000000 0000001 0000010 0000011 0000100 0000101 0000110 0000111 0001000 0001001 0001010 0001011 0001100 0001101 0001110 0001111 0010000 0010001 0010010 0010011 0010100 0010101 0010110 0010111 0011000 0011001 0011010 0011011 0011100 0011101 0011110 0011111 0100000 0100001 0100010 0100011 0100100 0100101 0100110
Functio
296
Appendix
RS US Space ! " # $ % &
Function
' ( ) * + , . / 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : ; < = > ? @ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S
Quote Open parenthesis Close parenthesis Asterisk Plus Comma Minus Full stop Oblique stroke
39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57
27 28 29 2A 2B 2C 2D 2E 2F 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 3A 3B 3C 3D 3E 3F 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 4A 4B 4C 4D 4E 4F 50 51 52 53
0100111 0101000 0101001 0101010 0101011 0101100 0101101 0101110 0101111 0110000 0110001 0110010 0110011 0110100 0110101 0110110 0110111 0110000 0111001 0111010 0111011 0111100 0111101 0111110 0111111 1000000 1000001 1000010 1000011 1000100 1000101 1000110 1000111 1001000 1001001 1001010 1001011 1001100 1001101 1001110 1001111 1010000 1010001 1010010 1010011 Appendix
Colon Semicolon Less than Equals Greater than Question mark Commercial at
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83
297
T U V W X Y Z [ \ ] ^ _ ` a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Open square bracket Backslash Close square bracket Caret Underscore Back quote
84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 Open curly bracket Vertical bar Close curly bracket Tilde Delete 123 124 125 126 127
54 55 56 57 58 59 5A 5B 5C 5D 5E 5F 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 6A 6B 6C 6D 6E 6F 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 7A 7B 7C 7D 7E 7F
1010100 1010101 1010110 1010111 1011000 1011001 1011010 1011011 1011100 1011101 1011110 1011111 1100000 1100001 1100010 1100011 1100100 1100101 1100110 1100111 1101000 1101001 1101010 1101011 1101100 1101101 1101110 1101111 1110000 1110001 1110010 1110011 1110100 1110101 1110110 1110111 1111000 1111001 1111010 1111011 1111100 1111101 1111110 1111111
Functio
298
Appendix
x y z { | } ~ DEL
Function
EBCDIC
Character
blank . < ( + | & ! $ * ) ; / , % _ > ? ` : # @ ' = " a b c d e f g h i j k l m
Decimal
64 75 76 77 78 79 80 90 91 92 93 94 96 97 107 108 109 110 111 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 145 146 147 148
Hexadecimal
40 4B 4C 4D 4E 4F 50 5A 5B 5C 5D 5E 60 61 6B 6C 6D 6E 6F 79 7A 7B 7C 7D 7E 7F 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 91 92 93 94
EBCDIC code
01000000 01001011 01001100 01001101 01001110 01001111 01010000 01011010 01011011 01011100 01011101 01011110 01011111 01100000 01101011 01101100 01101101 01101110 01101111 01111001 01111010 01111011 01111100 01111101 01111110 01111111 10000001 10000010 10000011 10000100 10000101 10000110 10000111 10001000 10001001 10010001 10010010 10010011 10010100
Appendix
299
n o p q r ~ s t u v w x y z { A B C D E F G H I } J K L M N O P Q R \ S T U V W X
149 150 151 152 153 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 224 226 227 228 229 230 231
95 96 97 98 99 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 C0 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 D8 D9 E0 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E7
10010101 10010110 10010111 10011000 10011001 10100001 10100010 10100011 10100100 10100101 10100110 10100111 10101000 10101001 11000000 11000001 11000010 11000011 11000100 11000101 11000110 11000111 11001000 11001001 11001001 11001010 11001011 11001100 11001101 11001110 11001111 11010000 11010001 11010010 11100000 11100010 11100011 11100100 11100101 11100110 11100111
Functio
300
Appendix
Function
Y Z 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
232 233 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249
E8 E9 F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9
11101000 11101001 11110000 11110001 11110010 11110011 11110100 11110101 11110110 11110111 11111000 11111001
Appendix
301
Glossary
absolute referencing Copying a formula in a spreadsheet where the contents of the formula in the source cell do not change. The cell references are indicated by a $ sign (e.g $B$5). aliasing A staircase pattern created when a bitmapped graphic is enlarged. alignment The process of positioning the text in vertical alignments. analysing The information process that involves the interpretation of data, transforming it into information. analysis report A report containing details of the new system with recommendations for design, implementation and maintenance. animation The movement of a graphic as in a cartoon. application software A computer program used for a specific task. arithmetic logic unit (ALU) Part of the CPU that carries out all the arithmetical and logical calculations. ascending order Data arranged from smallest to largest (09) or from first to last (AZ). ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) A code that changes letters, numbers and symbols into a binary code. asynchronous transmission Serial transfer that sends one byte at a time with special start and stop bits. attachment A file sent with the email message. audio Sound that has been digitised. authoring software Software used to combine text, graphics, animation, audio and video into a multimedia product. backup A copy of data or software for the purpose of safety. barcode reader An input device that enters product identification at a point of sale terminal. baud rate A measure of the maximum number of data symbols or electrical signals that can be sent per second over the communication link. binary system A number system to the base two. biometric device A device that uses personal characteristics such as fingerprints, hand size, signature, eye and voice to gain access to the information system. bit (binary digit) The smallest unit of data stored in a computer.
Glossary
bit-mapping The relationship between the image and the bits in memory. bit-mapped graphic A graphic that treats each pixel (dot) on the screen individually and represents this by bits in memory. bits per second (bps) A unit of measurement for the speed of data transfer. block A section of text such as a word, phrase, sentence or paragraph. booting The start-up process of a computer in which it first reads instructions from ROM and loads the operating system. bullet A symbol used at the beginning of an item in a list. bus A pathway of wires and connectors that provides the link between input, storage, process and output devices. byte The basic unit of measurement for storage. It represents a single character, such as a letter, a number, a punctuation mark or a space. cache A temporary storage area used to store frequently requested data and instructions. callout A label that describes an area of a picture or a short piece of text quoted from the main article. CD-ROM (compact disc read only memory) A 12 centimetre wide compact disc that is capable of storing 650 Mb. cell The intersection of a row and column in a spreadsheet. cell reference The position of the cell in the spreadsheet. cell-based animation Animation that involves drawing and displaying individual frames or cells. central processing unit (CPU) A set of electrical circuits responsible for controlling and processing data within the computer. centralised processing A type of processing controlled by a central computer. character The smallest unit of data that people can handle. It is a single letter, number, punctuation mark or special symbol that can be displayed on the screen. character spacing The spacing between individual letters. character user interface (CUI) Communication with the computer, using only characters on the screen rather than icons and windows.
Functio
302
Function
chart A graphical representation of numerical data. Types of charts typically include: bar (histogram), column (stacked bar), line (continuous) and pie (sector). circular reference A formula in a spreadsheet that refers to itself, either directly or indirectly. clip art Prepared pictures that are grouped into topics and can be copied into an application. clipboard A temporary storage area for data to allow easy transfer between documents and applications. clock speed The number of electrical pulses per second. Clock speed indicates the speed of the CPU and is measured in hertz (Hz). collecting The information process that involves deciding what to collect, locating it and collecting it. column A series of cells in a spreadsheet that run vertically down the screen. It also refers to a vertical area reserved for text. communications software Software that manages the transfer of data, files and commands between computers. compact disc (CD) A storage medium in which data is read and written using laser technology. compression A method that reduces the number of bits required to represent information. compression ratio The amount a file is compressed. computer An electronic device that can process data according to a stored sequence of instructions. computer graphic A graphic created, displayed or stored using a computer. computer operator A person who performs tasks on computer equipment such as monitoring performance, starting up, running jobs and backing up. context diagram A graphical method of representing a system using a single process together with inputs and outputs (external entities). control Coordinates the operations of the input, processing, output and storage. control unit Part of the CPU directs and coordinates the entire computer system. copy and paste The actions required to copy a block of text or graphic to another place in a document or to another document. copyright The right to use, copy or control the work of authors and artists, including software developers.
CPU utilisation The amount of time the CPU is working. crop A graphic tool that removes or hides unwanted parts of a graphic. cursor A marker on the screen indicated by a flashing vertical bar where the next information will appear. custom software Application software written by programmers using the exact specifications for the new system. cut and paste The actions required to move a block of text or graphic to another place in a document or to another document. data The raw material entered into the information system. data compression The compacting of a file so that it takes up less room. data encryption A method used to prevent data from being intercept during transmission. data flow diagrams (DFD) A graphical method of representing a system using a number of processes together with inputs, outputs and storage. data integrity The quality of the data. data security A series of safeguards to protect data. data type The kind of data such as image, audio, video, text or numbers. data validation The checking the accuracy of the data before it is processed into information. database An organised collection of data that may be accessed by a database management system. database management system (DBMS) A software package that builds, maintain and provides access to a database. descending order Data arranged from largest to smallest (90) or from last to first (ZA). desktop publishing (DTP) The use of specialised software to combine text and graphics to create a publication. digital Data represented in the form of digits or numbers. digital camera An input device that captures and stores images in digital form rather than on film. digital video camera An input device that captures video in a compressed digital format. digitising The process of generating digits or numbers. direct access A method of retrieving data that allows data to be found directly, without accessing all the previous data.
Glossary
303
direct conversion The immediate change to the new system. disk drive A device on which a magnetic disk is mounted. displaying The information process that involves the output from an information system to meet a purpose. distorting A graphic tool to alter the appearance and balance of a graphic. distributed processing A type of processing consisting of workstations connected to share data and resources at a local site. documentation A written description to explain the development and operation of an information system. domain name The address of a specific computer on the Internet. dot matrix printer A printer that prints characters or images by using dots. downloading The action of receiving a file from another computer. drag and drop An easy way to move or copy a block of text a short distance. drop cap An enlarged initial letter that extends above or below the baseline in the first line of body text. DVD (digital versatile disk) A compact disc format that can store large amounts of data. dynamic RAM (DRAM) Memory chip that must be constantly refreshed. EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) A code used on large IBM computers that changes letters, numbers and symbols into an 8-bit binary code. editing The process of changing or deleting data. electronic mail Communication service that allows the sending and receiving electronic messages using a computer. environment Everything that influences or is influenced by an information system and its purpose. erasable programmable ROM (EPROM) Silicon chips that can be erased and reprogrammed by the manufacturers. ergonomics The relationship between people and their work environment. evaluation Determines whether the system is working as expected or if changes are required. expansion slot An opening where a circuit board can be inserted into motherboard to extend the capabilities of the computer.
Glossary
Functio
facsimile (fax) A device used to send and receive data in the form of documents over a telephone line. feasibility study A short report that analyses potential solutions and makes a recommendation. fetch-execute cycle A cycle of events on a single instruction carried out by the CPU to process data. field A specific category of data. field name The name of the field in a database. field size The number of characters in each field in a database. file A collection of information stored on a computer system and given a name. A file in a database is made up of records, fields and characters. filter A tool to limit the records viewed in a database. firewall A method used on the Internet or any network to check all incoming data for the purpose of verification and authentication. firmware The software that is stored in ROM. flash memory A non-volatile memory device that retains its data when the power is removed. flat file database A database that organises data into a single table. floppy disk A magnetic disk made of flexible plastic and covered with magnetic material used to store data. font A set of characters in one typeface with a particular type size, type style and stroke weight. footer Text repeated at the bottom of each page. form In a database to view, enter and change data in a table. In often displays a single record. format The process that prepares a disk to accept data by organising it into tracks and sectors. Format also refers to changing the appearance of a document. formula An instruction to perform a calculation in a spreadsheet. frame A single drawing in animation or a space or box that holds text or a graphic. full duplex mode The transmission of data in both directions at the same time. function A predefined set of operations in a spreadsheet to perform simple or complex calculations. Gantt chart A chart to determine if the project is on schedule. grammar checker A tool used to examine the basic aspects of grammar.
304
Function
graphic A picture such as a drawing, painting or photograph. graphical user interface (GUI) Communicating with the computer using a mouse and clicking on icons and menus. graphics tablet An input device that consists of a special electronic pad and a pen called a stylus. gutter The amount of extra space added to the margin for binding in a document. hacker A person who gains illegal access to information systems. half duplex mode The transmission of data in both directions but not at the same time. hard copy Paper containing data and information. hard disk A magnetic disk made of metal or glass and covered with magnetic material used to store data. hardware The physical equipment involved in processing information, such as a computer, network tools and data storage devices. header Text repeated at the top of each page. hexadecimal A number system to the base sixteen. human-centred system A system that makes participants work as effective and satisfying as possible. hypertext Highlighted text or graphics that 'links' to other pages or places. Used in multimedia and on the Web. hypertext markup language (HTML) A set of special instructions (called tags) that indicate how parts of a document will be displayed. hyphenation The process of breaking words at certain points and inserting a hyphen. image Data in the form of a picture such as drawing, painting or photograph. indenting Movement of text a certain distance from a margin. information Data that has been ordered and given some meaning by people. information processes The steps taken to change data into information: collecting, organising, analysing, storing/retrieving, processing, transmitting/receiving and displaying. information processing The creation of information by processing data using information technology. information system A set of information processes requiring participants, data/information and information technology. It performs the seven information processes.
information technology The hardware and software used by an information system. inkjet printer A printer that produces characters by spraying very fine drops of ink onto the paper. input The entering of data into the computer for processing into information. integrated circuit A silicon chip containing transistors that store and process information. Internet A global collection of computer networks that speak the same language and are hooked together to share information.. Internet relay chat (IRC) A service that allows you to have online typed 'conversations' with one or more other Internet users in 'real time'. Internet service provider (ISP) An organisation that provides access to the Internet for a fee. joystick A pointing device consisting of a small base unit with a rod that can be tilted in all directions to move the pointer on the screen. kerning The process of reducing the spacing between certain pairs of characters. key A field in a database that is used to sort and retrieve information. keyboard An input device consisting of series of keys.
label Text entered into a cell of a spreadsheet to provide some explanation of the spreadsheet. landscape The horizontal orientation of a page. laser printer A printer that uses a rotating disk to reflect laser beams onto the paper. layout guide Non-printing vertical and horizontal lines in a desktop publishing program that are used to position text and other objects on a page. light pen A pointing device consisting of a small rod that looks like a pen. line spacing The spacing between lines of text. liquid crystal display (LCD) The most common type of technology used in flat screens. local area network (LAN) A network that connects computers (or terminals) within a building or group of buildings on one site. logical operator A series of characters or a symbol used to combine simple queries. lossless compression A type of compression that works by replacing repeated data with something that takes up less room. lossy compression A type of compression that removes a number of data bytes from the file.
Glossary
305
Functio
machine-centred system A system designed to simplify what the computer must do at the expense of participants. macro A series of commands stored in a file that can be executed by pressing a few keys. magnetic disk A circular piece of metal or plastic whose surface has been coated with a thin layer of magnetic material. It is used to store data. magnetic tape A very long, thin strip of plastic, coated with a thin layer of magnetic material. It is used to store data. mail merge A tool that combines a letter written on a word processor with data from another document. mainframe A powerful central computer for a large number of users. maintenance The modification of the system by making minor improvements. margin The distance between the edge of the paper and the text. master page A layout showing the relative size and position of design elements in desktop publishing. memory Part of the computer that holds data and programs before and after it has been processed by the CPU. microcomputer See personal computer. microphone An input device that captures sound. microprocessor A CPU contained on one integrated circuit. midrange A central computer that performs the processing for a number of users working at a terminal. minicomputer See midrange computer. model A representation of some aspect of the real world and a simulation is the use of that model. modem A device that enables the transmission of data from one computer to another. monitor A screen that can display text and graphics. morphing Animation technique that involves the smooth change between two different images. motherboard A flat printed circuit board inside the computer that is covered with electrical components. mouse A small hand-held input device that is moved over a flat surface to control the movement of a pointer. multimedia The presentation of information using text, graphics, animation, audio and video.
Glossary
netiquette The way people communicate with each other on the Internet. network licence A licence that allows people to use a program on a network. network When a number of computers (or terminals) and their peripheral devices are connected over a distance. newsgroup A discussion group where people can read messages and join in discussions by sending or posting messages. non-volatile memory Memory that does not lose its contents when the power to the computer is turned off. number Data consisting of predefined characters usually numbers whose meaning and format is specified. operating system The software that supervises and controls the hardware. It is the link between the hardware and the application software. optical character recognition (OCR) Software that uses a light source to read and recognise text. organising The information process that involves the modification of data by arranging, representing and formatting data. output The presentation or display of information to a person, or data to another computer. output device Hardware used for displaying. It includes screens, printers, speakers and plotters. page layout The arrangement of text and graphics on a page. paging A common method used by operating systems to perform virtual memory. parallel conversion Conversion to a new system involving the old and new system both working together at the same time. parallel port A type of port that transmits eight bits (one byte) at a time using a cable along eight parallel lines. parallel processing A type of processing where instructions are processed simultaneous using multiple processors or CPUs. parallel transmission The transmission of data more than one bit at a time simultaneously using separate lines. parity bit An additional bit attached to the binary code for each transmitted character whose purpose is to check the accuracy of the received character. participant A person who carries out the information processes within the information system.
306
Function
password A secret word or number that are typed on the keyboard to gain access to the system. path-based animation Animation that involves displaying the movement of objects onto a fixed background in a particular sequence or path. personal computer A single-user computer that sits on a desktop. peripheral device An input or output device that connects to the CPU. phased conversion Conversion to a new system involving the gradual implementation of the new system. pilot conversion Conversion to a new system involving trialing the new system with a small portion of the organisation. pixel The smallest part of the screen that can be controlled by the computer. plotter An output device used to produce highquality drawings. pointing device An input device that controls an on-screen symbol called a pointer. pointing stick A pointing device shaped like a pencil eraser. port A socket used to connect peripheral devices. portrait The vertical orientation of a page. Postscript A page description language that uses special commands to describe how an image will be printed on the page. presentation software Software used to make a professional presentation to a group of people. primary source Data that is collected first hand. privacy The ability of an individual to control personal data. process Changes data to produce information by following a series of instructions. processing The information process that involves the manipulation of data and information. programmable ROM (PROM) Silicon chips that allow data and instructions to be entered only once and cannot be reprogrammed. project management software A tool to efficiently plan, manage and communicate information in a large project. project plan A plan that organises a project by specifying who, what, how and when. protocol A set of rules that govern the transmission of data between computer devices. public domain software Software that has no copyright and can be freely distributed. query A search of a database for records that meet a certain condition.
query language (QL) A specialised language designed to allow users to access information from the database. Qwerty The most common keyboard layout for personal computers.
RAM (random access memory) Memory where data and instructions are held temporarily. It is volatile memory. random access A method of accessing data allows data to be found directly without accessing all the previous data. range A group of cells in a single row or column of a spreadsheet or in several adjacent rows and columns. record A collection of facts about one specific entry in a database. register A temporary storage area for small amounts of data or instructions needed for processing. relational operator A series of characters or a symbol indicating the relationship between two expressions. relative referencing Copying a formula where the cell references change so that they relate to the destination. removable cartridge A hard disk encased in a metal or plastic cartridge that are removed like a floppy disk. It is used to store data. report A tool in a database to organise and present data to be printed. requirement report A statement about the needs of a new system. resizing Making a graphic smaller or bigger. resolution A measurement of the detail of an image produced on a screen or output to a printer. response time The amount of time taken for the computer to respond to a command. ROM (read only memory) Memory that holds data and instructions that are fixed at the time of production and cannot be changed by the user or the computer. row A series of cells in a spreadsheet that run horizontally across the screen. sample size The number of bits per sample. sampling The method used to digitise a sound wave. sampling rate The number of times a sample (slice) is taken from the sound wave. sans serif typeface A typeface with characters going straight up and down.
Glossary
307
Functio
scanner An input device that converts an image or text into digital data that can be processed by the computer. screen A display surface that provides immediate feedback about what the computer is doing. scrolling A method of moving within a document. search engine A database of indexed Web sites that allow a keyword search. searching The process of retrieving data and information. secondary source Data that is collected or created by someone else. sector A section of a track that can store data. sequential access A method of accessing data that starts at the beginning of the tape and reads all of the data until the required item is found. serial port A type of port that transmits data one bit at a time using only one communication line. serial transmission The transmission of data one bit at a time through a single line. serif typeface A typeface with little tails (serifs) at the ends of their characters. shareware Software that can be copied and distributed but people must be honest and pay for the shareware they use. simplex mode The transmission of data in one direction only, from the sender to the receiver. site licence A licence that permits an organisation to make copies (limited) of the software for use on the same site. software The detailed instructions (computer programs) used to direct the hardware to perform a particular task. software package Application software bought to cover most requirements. software piracy The illegal copying of software. sorting The process of arranging data in a particular order. sound card A devices that transforms the sounds from a microphone into audio. spell checker A tool used to check the spelling of words and suggests the correct spelling. spreadsheet A rectangular grid made up of rows and columns to organise and store data that requires some type of calculation. static RAM (SRAM) Memory that does not have to be updated or refreshed. storage Receiving and retaining data over a period of time.
storing and retrieving The information process that involves saving data and information for later use (storing data) and obtaining data and information that has been previously saved (retrieving data). storyboard A series of frames each representing a different action or screen image. stroke weight A measure of the thickness of the lines used to construct the characters. style A text elements that are defined in a document. supercomputer The fastest, most powerful and expensive type of computer. survey Collecting sample characteristics, attitudes, behaviours and opinions. synchronous transmission Serial transfer where data is sent at the same rate. system A group of elements that work together to achieve a purpose. system development cycle A traditional method for developing a new information system. system flow chart A graphical method of representing both the flow of data and the logic of a system. system software Software that manages and controls the hardware so that the application software can perform the required task. system unit The collection of hardware components that includes a central processing unit, memory and associated electronics. table Rows and columns of cells in a document that are filled with text and graphics. A table in a database is the organisation of data into columns (fields) and rows (records). technical support staff People who assist participants of a system. template A document created for repeated use. terminal A device used to send data to a computer system or receive data from a processor. test data A range of values to see if the solution deals with unexpected data. text Data in the form of letters, numbers and other characters whose meaning and format is not specified. thesaurus A tool used to provides synonyms and antonyms to improve writing. top-down design A large complicated problem is divided into a series of smaller, easier to solve problems.
308
Glossary
Function
touch screen An input device where data entered by detecting the touch of a finger. touchpad An input device consisting of a flat rectangular surface that senses the movement of a finger. track A band formed by concentric circles on a disk. trackball A pointing device that is similar to a mouse except that the ball is on top of the device instead of the bottom. training specialist A person who teaches participants how to operate their system. transmitting and receiving The information process that involves the transfer of data and information from within and between information systems. tweening The process of taking two images of an animation and producing intermediate images so that the animation is smoother. type size A measure of the physical size of a typeface. type style Describes the general shape of the typeface. typeface The design of a set of characters. uploading The action of transferring a file from the user's computer to another computer. URL (uniform resource locator) The address of a file or resource on the Web. Usenet A collection of discussion groups where people with common interests can exchange information. user See participant. value A number stored in a spreadsheet on which calculations are carried out. vector graphic A graphic made up of objects such as a straight line, a curve or shape. Each object is defined by its characteristics such as position, line width and pattern. video Data that combines pictures and sounds displayed over time.
virtual memory A technique used by the operating system to increase the amount of memory. voice recognition A technique that converts voice signals into digital data. voice synthesis The artificial production of human speech. volatile memory Memory that loses its contents when the power to the computer is turned off.
warping Animation technique that involves transforming or distorting a portion of the image. watermark A lightly shaded object behind everything else on a page. Web browser A software program stored on your computer that allows access to the Web. Web page A single document on a web site usually in HTML format. Web site A linked collection of Web pages by the same organisation or person. 'what if' prediction The process of making changes to the data and observing their effects. white space Blank space on a page. wide area network (WAN) A network that connects computers (or terminals) over hundreds or thousands of kilometres. wildcard A character that represents one or more unknown characters. word processor A software application that allows characters to be entered and documents to be created. word size The number of bits processed by the CPU at one time. wordwrap The automatic movement of words to the next line when a line is full. World Wide Web (WWW or Web) Part of the Internet and the most user-friendly way to access the Net. WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) A document that is displayed on the screen, as it would be printed.
Glossary
309
Acknowledgments
The author and publisher would like to thank the following for granting permission to reproduce the copyright material in this book: Canon Australia, pp. 41 (top right), 81 (bottom); Malcolm Cross, pp. 42, 49, 57 (top), 58, 63, 66, 72, 73, 105, 108; Epson, p. 40 (both); Randy Glasbergen, pp. 3, 116 (top), 122, 147; Great Southern Stock, p. 131; IBM, p. 9; Susannah Jamieson, p. 21; Logitech, p. 38; Andrew Meredith Photography, p. 53; Moore Music, p. 41 (bottom); Olympus Optical Company, p. 41 (top left); Mark Parisi, pp. 61, 81 (top), 91, 169, 191, 220, 230, 269, 277; PhotoDisc, pp. 11, 13 (both), 16 (top), 39, 43, 45, 67, 109, 116, 127; The Age, pp. 4, 82; Bill Thomas, pp. 5, 97. Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright. The author and publisher would welcome any information from people who believe they own copyright to material in this book.
Functio
310
Acknowledgments
Function
Index
accuracy, data 312, 46, 76 acknowledgment of sources 77 analysing 978 data 14, 525, 534 analysis report 98 animation 263, 2656, 270 arithmetic logic unit (ALU) 64 ASCII 278, 48, 2968 asynchronous transmissions 70 audio, data 19, 44, 48, 68, 263, 2668, 270 backing up 122 backup, data 55 bad sector 56 bar charts 2034 barcode readers 43 baud rate 71 beta test 105 bias, data 46, 69 binary digits (bits) 48 system 26 bit-mapping 48, 212, 21921 bits per second 71 borders 156, 199, 250 bullets 150 bus 71 business and Internet 77 byte 25 cache 66 callouts 250 cameras digital 40, 41, 212 digital video 40, 41 video 40 CD-R disks 58 CD-ROM disks 58 CD-RW disks 58 cells 185, 1901, 194, 1979 central processing unit (CPU) 15, 52, 624, 71 centralised processing 67 character spacing 84, 1467, 238 text 139, 1467 charts 53, 84, 2025, 211 check digit 32 clip art 156, 211 clipboard 140 collecting data 13, 3846 column charts 204 columns 155, 197, 237 communication concepts 701 software 75 compression 75 computer crime 30 graphics 210 operators 109 computers defined 89 mainframe 9 midrange 9 personal (PC) 9 supercomputer 9 condensing 238 context diagrams 101 control unit 8, 63 conversion 1078 direct 107 parallel 107 phased 1078 pilot 108 copyright 324, 46 CPU utilisation 65 crime, computer 30 cursor 136 cyclical redundancy check (CRC) 56 DAT cartridges 58 data accuracy 312, 46, 76 bias 46, 69 collection 913 compression 27980 defined 10 encryption 75 entry 44 and information systems 1920 integrity 168 manually collected 45 ownership 689 privacy 54 security 301, 61, 76 storing and retrieving 5561 test 105 transmitting and receiving 707 unauthorised analysis 53, 61 validation 32 data flow diagrams (DFDs) 68 data dictionaries 164 databases creating 1645 defined 162 flat file 162 keys 1645 modifying 1689 operators 1734 query 173 reports 1778 searching 1723 software 4950 sorting 172 structure 163 tables and forms 165 database management system (DBMS) 60, 162, 172 desktop publishing 49, 2301 colour 23940 creating content 231 design elements 23540, 24952 principles 2434 draft copy 248 final copy 2489 graphics 239 page layout 2312, 2435 options 244 rules and guides 2445 tools 2445 planning and design 231 publication viewing and printing 232 templates and master pages 245 text 232, 2358 digital cameras 40, 41, 212 communication 3 data 256, 48 video cameras 40, 41, 212 digitising 48 trends 245 directories 59 disk cache 66 controller 56 drive 56 displaying of information 16 distributed processing 67 documents creating 136 editing text 13942 formatting text 14550, 1545 printing 137 saving and retrieving 136 documentation 68, 105 user 105 domain names 2812 dot pitch 79 downloading files 27980 draw objects 232
Index
311
software 489, 213 drawing elements 223 in word processors 156 drop caps 249 DVD disks 59 dynamic RAM (DRAM) 65 EBCDIC 278, 48, 299301 editing text 13942 EIDE 56 8 mm cartridges 58 electronic commerce 25 email 75, 2858 addresses 286 attachments 288 creating 2878 messages 2867 software 286 embedded objects 140 environment 7, 115 erasable programmable ROM (PROM) 67 ergonomics 46, 11314 ethical issues 46, 50, 534, 61, 689, 76, 845, 11317, 123 expanding 238 expansion bus 71 card 71 slot 71 fax machines 75 modems 74 feasibility study 967 fetch-execute cycle 64 file compression 259 formats 60, 2712 management 122 management software 59 menu 140 path 282 file allocation table (FAT) 56 flash memory 59 folders 59 fonts 1456, 199, 235 footers 1545, 251 forms 45 formatting 59, 834 characters 1457 document 1545 paragraphs 14750 spreadsheet 1979 text 14550, 2378 frame 232, 262 nudging 245 freeware 33 full duplex mode 70 furniture 114 Gantt charts 94 graphical user interface
(GUI) 44, 115 graphics anti-aliasing 220 bit-mapped 48, 212, 21921 capturing 212 computer 210 cropping 216, 239 distorting 217, 224 inserting 21112, 263 multimedia 263, 270 positioning 215 programs 21214 resizing 216, 239 tablet 39 tools 21314 vector 213, 2235 group information systems 128, 131 hackers 30 half duplex mode 70 hard copy 50, 80 hard disk 56 hardware analysing 52 collection devices 3843, 48 defined 89 output devices 7983 processing 628 storing and retrieving 559 technical specifications 105 transmitting and receiving 715 headers 1545, 251 headings 236 hexadecimal system 27 hyperlink 277 hypermedia 50 hypertext 256 hypertext Markup Language (HTML) 50 hyphenation 153, 238 images, data 19, 44, 46, 68 incorrect analysis of data 54 indenting 149, 238 information 10, 201 management software 934 systems 6, 68, 77, 901, 1068, 10910, 11317, 122, 124, 128 technology 3, 1045, 11415 input data 8 devices 38 pen 39 integrated circuits 3 interactivity 256
internal bus 71 Internet 445, 50, 767, 85 addresses 2812 banking 25 browser 60 connecting 2767 publishing 28993 shopping 25 Internet relay chat (IRC) 279 interviews 45 IP addresses 281 ISP 276 journal 123 joystick 39 kerning 238 keyboards 412, 114 leading 237 libraries 60 licence network 33 site 33 line charts 205 spacing 84, 148, 237 linked objects 140 liquid crystal display (LCD) 80 list checks 32 literature (printed text) 45 local area networks (LANs) 3, 74, 75 logical operators 174 logo 210 macros 199 magnetic disks 556 tape 578 mail 75 merge 84, 178 margins 154 master pages 245 memory flash 59 main 657 virtual 57 microfiche 60 microphones 41 microprocessor 63 modelling 523 modems 734, 276 monitor 79 morphing 266 motherboard 63 mouse 38, 114 multimedia colour 270 design 2578, 269 editing objects 264 file formats 2712 inserting objects 2634 planning 2589
Functio
312
Index
Function
production 256, 25760 software 49, 25960, 2614 text 263, 269 netiquette 76 network licence 33 networks defined 74 local area (LANs) 3, 74, 75 wide area (WANs) 74, 75 newsgroups 278 non-computer tools analysis 53 collection 45 data display 84 organisation 50 processing 68 storing and retrieving 60 transmitting and receiving 756 numbering lists 150 numbers, data 20, 44, 68, 198 operating systems 434 optical character recognition (OCR) 423 optical disks 589 recognition devices 423 organisational charts 97 organising data 14, 4850 output data 9 devices 9, 7984 page breaks 154 layout 2312, 2435 setup options 1545 paging 57 paint software 489 paper-based storage systems 60 parallel port 72 processing 67 transfer 70 parity bit 70 participants 1011 passwords 60 pen input 39 personal information systems 124 picture objects 232 pie charts 205 pipelining 64 piracy, software 33 pixel 79, 211 plotters 823 pointing devices 389 port 72 Postscript 248
preliminary investigation 913 presentation software 2614 printers 802 privacy 46, 54, 77 problem solving 1223 processing data 8, 15, 52, 629 speed 64 types of 67, 68 processor 15, 52 programmable ROM (PROM) 67 project management 122 management software 94 plan 934 protocol 75, 282 public domain software 33 Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) 745 QIC tapes 58 radio 76 RAM (random access memory) 65 random access 56 range checks 32 raster scan 79 receiving data 15, 707 refreshing 79 register 64 relational operators 173 removable cartridges 57 reporting 83, 1778 reports format, database 178 written 1234 requirement report 93 resolution 79, 211, 248 response time 65 retrieving data 14, 5562 ROM (read only memory) 667 ROM BIOS 67 rows 197 sampling 48 sans serif typeface 145, 2356 scanners 3940, 212 screens 7980, 114 scrolling 136 SCSI 56 SDRAM 65 search engines 2834 searching, data 52, 53 sectors 59 security, data 301, 61, 76 serial port 72 transfer 70 serif typeface 145, 2356 shading 156, 199
shareware 33 simplex mode 70 simulations 523 site licence 33 skills and information systems 116 slide presentation 2612 social issues 46, 50, 534, 61, 689, 76, 845, 11317, 123 software analysing 523 application 10, 4850, 83, 104 communications 75 custom 105 database 4950 desktop publishing 49 ergonomic 11415 file management 59 graphics 21214 hardware interface 59 information management 934 multimedia 49, 25960, 2614 operating systems 434 packages 104 paint and draw 49 piracy 33 presentation 2614 processing 68 project management 94 public domain 33 shareware 33 spreadsheet 49, 53 system 10, 124 transmitting and receiving 75 word processing 49, 135 sorting 52 sound card 41 spacing 84, 1467, 148 speakers 82 spell checker 141 spreadsheets 49, 53 absolute referencing 192 calculation area 187 cell 185, 1979 references 1901 charts 2025 circular reference 190 copy and moving 187 creating 186 formulas 1904 data editing 1867 entering 186 defined 184 fill down, fill right 187 formatting 1979 functions 192 input area 187 instruction area 187 layout 187
Index
313
mixed cell reference 194 names 190 operators 191 output area 187 parameter 187 relative referencing 192 rows and columns 197 search and replace 187 structure 1847 templates 194 static RAM (SRAM) 66 storage data 8, 14, 52, 5562 secondary 55 storyboard 84, 258 stroke weight 145 styles, word processing 1523 surveys 45 symbol 210 synchronous transmission 70 system design 1035 development cycle 91, 123 flow chart 68, 103, 104 tables database 165 ergonomic 84 word processing 155 tabs 1489 technical support staff 108 telecommuting 117 telephone 75 television 76 templates desktop publishing 245 multimedia 261 spreadsheet 194 terminals 74 text alignment 1478, 1989, 237 Autocorrect 141 block 139 body 236 character 139, 1467 copy and paste 140 correcting 139 cut and paste 13940 data 20, 44, 48, 68 drag and drop 140 deleting 139 editing 13942 effects 249 find and replace 1401 flow 232 formatting 14550, 2378 inserting 139 line spacing 148 moving 13940 objects 232 wrap 250 thesaurus 142
top-down design 100 touch screen 39 touchpad 38 track ball 38 tracking 238 tracks 59 training specialists 108 transmitting data 15, 707 type checks (data validation) 32 size and style 145, 2356 typeface 145, 2356 Ultra DMA 56 unauthorised analysis of data 534, 61 URL (Uniform Resource Locator) 282 Usenet 278 validation, data 32 vector graphics 213, 2235 video cameras 40, 212 data 19, 44, 68, 2634, 2668, 270 virtual memory 57 view 232 voice recognition 41 volatile data 55 warping 266 Web browser 212, 277, 2801 page 277, 28993 publishing 289 searching 2824 what-if predictions 53 white space 240 wide area networks (WANs) 74, 75 wildcard characters 174 word processing 49, 13556 size 65 wordwrap 136 work environment 11317 and information systems 77, 113 workstations 74 World Wide Web (WWW) 277 WORM disks 58 writing data 55 WYSIWYG 136
Functio
314
Index

IPTPrelim

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

IPTPrelim

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

H e i n e m a n n

Information Processes and Technology

Information Processes and Technology

Information processes and technology

4.1 4.2 4.3

Organisation of the text

Preliminary Course Outcomes Chapter(s)

Impact of information technology

Introduction to information skills and systems

Information processes and technology

Introduction to information skills and systems

1.2 Information systems in context

Information processes and technology

Introduction to information skills and systems

INPUT PROCESSING CONTROL OUTPUT

Figure 1.4 The basic functions of a computer.

Information processes and technology

Introduction to information skills and systems

Data and information

Introduction to information skills and systems

1.3 Information processes

Figure 1.8 Surveys are a primary source of data.

Introduction to information skills and systems

Storing and retrieving

Information processes and technology

Transmitting and receiving

Introduction to information skills and systems

Figure 1.10 A screen used to display a chart from a spreadsheet.

Figure 1.11 The POS system in use at a supermarket.

Information processes and technology

Introduction to information skills and systems

Information processes and technology

1.4 The nature of data and information

Table 1.1 Examples of different data types.

Figure 1.13 Web pages often combine different data types.

Figure 1.14 Customers browsing at Big V Video.

Introduction to information skills and systems

Saving Private Ryan 14-Jan-00

Shakespeare in Love 17-Jan-00

Information processes and technology

1.5 Digital representation of data

Traditional methods of representing data

Figure 1.16 Some examples of printed media.

Approximate value (bytes) Exact value (bytes)

Table 1.2 Units of measurement of digital data

The binary system

The hexadecimal system

ASCII and EBCDIC

2 Copy and complete the following table.

3 Copy and complete the following table.

Introduction to information skills and systems

4 Copy and complete the following table.

1.6 Social and ethical issues

Figure 1.18 Web sites must be correctly cited.

Information processes and technology

Introduction to information skills and systems

Information processes and technology

Figure 2.2 Touch screens are often used in information kiosks.

Figure 2.3 A flatbed scanner and a special type of hand-held scanner.

Information processes and technology

Figure 2.6 A Qwerty keyboard.

Optical recognition devices

Information processes and technology