Chapter 8.

Separation and Classification of Nanoparticles

8.1 Introduction
- Separation = recovery = collection
- Classification
Separation Mechanisms
- Sedimentation*: Settling chamber, centrifuge
- Inertial deposition: Cyclone*, scrubber, inertial impactor
- Brownian diffusion: Diffusion batteries
- Migration of charged particle in an electric field :
Electrostatic precipitator, dynamic mobility analyzer
- Thermophoresis: Thermal precipitator (thermopositor)
- Filters: particle collection by the combined mechanism.
* Generally not suitable for nanoparticle collection but used for precollector
Collection efficiency
- Fraction of particles fed in collected (deposited) on the interior wall of the collector
* Fractional (grade) efficiency
- based on number of particles
- based on mass of particles
cf. f(d
p
) vs. n(d
p
)
* Total efficiency
( )
) (
) ( ) (
) (
) ( ) (
p feed
p product p feed
p p feed
p p product p p feed
p N
d n
d n d n
dd d n
dd d n dd d n
d G

=

( )
) (
) ( ) (
,
, ,
p feed m
p product m p feed m
p M
d n
d n d n
d G

=
0
) ( ) (
p p p T
dd d n d G E
8.2 Separation by Mechanical Forces
(1) Gravitational settler
- For laminar or plug flow
By analysis of particle trajectory
- For turbulent Flow
Considering the particle trajectory in differential length analysis
* Cut size (diameter): d
p,50
: particle diameter at G(d
p
)=0.5
Turbulence
Laminar
sublayer
G
p
d
0
1.0
0.5
50 , p
d
G
p
d
0
1.0
*
p
d
( )
H U
L d U
H
y
d G
P t
p
) (
=

( )
( )
(

=
|
|

\
|
=
Q
d U A
UH
L d U
d G
p T C p T
p
) (
exp 1 exp 1
(2) Inertial Separator
* Particle trajectory from similitude analysis and thus for G(d
p
)
where L: characteristic length of the separator
U: characteristic velocity of the particle in the separator
where and
* For given inertial separator
Efficiency
Cut diameter
* Power requirement
where
- Similar similitude analysis gives
where
( ) ( ) L d St f d G
p p
/ Re, , =
L
U d
St
p P

18
2

UL
f
Re
p Q
( ) , , ,
f
L f p =
( ) Re f Eu =
2
2

f
p
Eu

( ) ( ) Re , St f d G
p
=
( ) ( ) Re Re , 5 . 0
1 50 50
f St St f = =
For given Re
Cyclone (hydrocyclone)
- Grade efficiency of practical cyclone
Based on fluid tangential velocity profile
where ,
Flow patterns in cyclones
) exp( 1 ) (
M
p p
d d G =
1
1
+
=
m
M
3 . 0
14 . 0
283
) 67 . 0 1 ( 1
|

\
|
=
T
D m
c
const r U
m
f
=
2 /
3
18
) 1 (
2
M
c
c p
D
m C KQ
(

+
=

where D
c
(m); d
p
(cm); (g/cm
3
) ; T(K); (g/c m s); Q(m
3
/s)

K: dimensionless geometric
parameter
- From both theoretical and actual analysis for given cyclone and
For wide range of Re,
~ constant
~ constant
* Standard Cyclone Design determination of dimension Stairmand design rule
- High efficiency Stairmand cyclone: St
50
=1.4x10
-4
and Eu=320
High flowrate Stairmand cyclone: St
50
=6x10
-3
and Eu=46
|
|

\
|

D
U d
St
p P

18
2
50

Q D d
p p
/
3
50 ,

|
|
|

\
|

2
2
U
P
Eu
f

4
2
D
Q
p

0.75 0.75 0.375 0.875 0.575 1.5 4.0 Stairmand, High

flowrate
0.5 0.5 0.2 0.5 0.375 1.5 4.0 Stairmand, High
efficiency
D
j
a b L D
s
h H Cyclone type
Impactor
- Separation by impact on the surface perpendicular to the flow
- From numerical and/or experimental analysis
- St
50
: also almost independent of Re and further independent of geometry
*For 500 < Re < 3000 and S/D
j
> 1.5
For circular nozzle, St
50
= 0.22
For rectangular nozzle, St
50
= 0.53
2 / 1
50
50
18
|
|

\
|
=
U
DSt
d
p
p

- To collect nanoparticles, D , U and C

c

Vacuum operation with supersonic velocity is required
hypersonic impactor
* Cascade impactor
- Overlapping of efficiency curve of one stage with neighboring plate: avoided
- Measurement of particle size distribution
- Used for classification of particles
* Andersen impactor
Venturi Scrubbers
- Collection of particles by use of water spray
- Scavenging of particles by water droplets
- Formation of slurry droplets by condensational growth
of particles in humid air
* Grade efficiency
Calvert(1984)
where W : water feed rate (m
3
/s)
G, U
g
: gas flow rate (m
3
/s) and gas velocity
d
d
:droplet diameter (m)
f: empirical parameter encountering mode other than
impaction, usually =0.5
(
(

= ) 2 (
55
1
exp 1 ) ( f St F
d U
G
W
d G
g
d l g
p

* Characteristics of venturi scrubber

- High efficient for particles smaller than 2 um
- The only choice for sticky, flammable or highly corrosive particles
- High gas velocity(~120 m/s)smaller-size equipment made of less corrosion-
resistant materials
- Liquid-to-gas volumetric flow rate ratio = 0.001~0.003
8.3 Separation by Filters
(1) Introduction
natural polymers
polysaccharides
polypeptides
rubbers
synthetic polymers
thermoplastics
rubbery polymers
soluble linear
insoluble crosslinked
ion-containing polymers
polysiloxanes
polyphosphazenes
glasses
ceramics
metals
polymers
Organic Inorganic - Organic Inorganic
Filter and membrane materials
extruded dense films (silicone films)
extruded and stretched dense film (teflon and
olefin microfilters)
cast or extruded films with phase inversion step
(cellulose acetate ultrafilters)
nuclear-particle track etched (polycarbonate
microfilters)
electrochemical deposition (homoporous
alumina microfilters)
sol-gel (ceramic
ultrafilters)
compression or sintering
(metal and glass filters
and frits)
extruded (alumina
microfilter monoliths)
wet-lay (many paper
filters)
dry-lay (spunbonded
olefins)
wound (glass filament
cartridges)
woven (polymeric and/or
metal filter meshes)
Films Particles Fibers
Formation Techniques
chemical composition
hydrophobicity -hydrophilicity
surface charges
solute-membrane affinity
surface texture
pore size distribution
pore shape
pore morphology gradient
through membrane thickness
solvent flow (hydraulic
permeability)
solute or particle rejection
(sieving coefficient)
solute diffusion
Surface properties Pore size characteristics Transport properties
Characteristics of filter and membranes
* Filter rating
- Speed: how fast you can process a specified volume of fluid.
-Q/A ratio
- Collection efficiency
- Pressure drop: power requirement
- Stability: life, depending on chemical and mechanical strength
* Asymmetric membrane
(2) Gas filtration
Filter materials cellulose (wood), glass, plastic fibers
* High-temperature filters - metal. graphite, quartz, ceramic
Air filters - depth filters
- Filter Types
- Low solid loading ~mg/m
3
e.g. air-conditioning filters
-
* HEPA (high efficiency particulate air) filter
- used in glove box, clean rooms, nuclear fuel industry
-
Fibrous filters
Membrane(porous) filters Capillary filters
Pa p s m U 1000 10 ~ , / 5 . 1 25 . 0 ~
Pa p s m U 200 ~ , / 1 . 0 ~
* Collection mechanisms of the fibrous filters
- Diffusion :
- Inertial impaction :
- Interception :
- Gravity:
- Electrostatic attraction :
* Grade efficiency of air filters
where Single fiber efficiency
d
f
: fiber diameter
Kuwabara number
: solid fraction(1- ), : void fraction
, T, U
0
: mean free path, viscosity, temperature, and approaching
velocity of the gas
m 3 . 0 <
m 1 3 . 0
m 10 1
m 10 >
m m 5 01 . 0
|
|

\
|

=
f
f
p
d
t E
d G

4
exp 1 ) (
9 / 1
10 4
0
4
5
1 1
44 . 1
(
(

|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
|

\
|

=
f
f
d U
kT
Ku
E

4 4
3
2
ln
2

+ = Ku

Particle diameter of minimum efficiency

Filter efficiency for individual mechanism and combined
mechanisms.
9 / 2
0
2
min ,
1
885 . 0
(
(

|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
|

\
|

=
U
d
kT Ku
d
f
p

Bag (fabric) filters - surface filters

- Filter media : cylindrical bag type
- L/D ratio ~ 20, D~ 120-150mm
- High solid loading ~ g/m
3
* Particle collection mechanisms
- Firstly, collection on individual fibers
- Secondly, filtration by particle cake
* Collection Efficiency
where W : Dust mass per unit bag surface area, Areal density, kg/m
2,
c : Inlet dust loading, kg/m
3
t : Operation time since last cleaning
V : Gas-to-cloth ratio,
: Cake penetration decay rate
( ) ) exp( 1 W d G
p
=
cVt W =
A
Q
V

* Permeation rate and pressure drop

where R
m
: resistance of filter media, reciprocal of permeance
R
c
: resistance of filter cake,
K: function of the properties of dust
- Constant-pressure operation: permeation rate decrease
* Regeneration (cleaning) of filters
- shaker (vibrator), reverse flow, pulse jet
- use of cleaning ring
) (
) (
t R R
t p
V
C m
+

=
( ) KcVt t R
c
=
(3) Liquid filtration See http://www.membranes.nist.gov/ACSchapter/pellePAGE.html
* Classification of liquid filtration
RO, GS, dialysis width < 0.35 nm Ultrapore
RO, GS, dialysis width < 0.7 nm Ultramicropore
RO, NF 0.7 nm < width < 2 nm Supermicropore
NF width < 2 nm Micropore
UF, NF 2 nm < width < 50 nm Mesopore
UF, MF, and filtration width > 50 nm Macropore
Pore Characteristics
(UF - ultrafiltration, MF -
microfiltration, NF - nanofiltration, RO
- reverse osmosis. GS - gas and
vapor separation)
Table . Table . Table . Table . Comparison of pressure-driven liquid (aqueous) phase membrane processes
* Permeation rate and pressure drop across filter membrane
where : osmotic pressure
- Constant- pressure operation
- Constant-flow rate operation
* Clean-up by back-flushing
( )
) (t R R
p
V
c m
+

=

* Equipments
- Plate-and-frame
- Spiral wounded
- Hollow fiber
8.4 Separation by Nonequilibrium Gas
(1) Thermal precipitators
- Collection efficiency for particles having
- Used in lab-scale particle collection for electron microscopes
- Volumetric flow rate ~ 4-5cm
3
/min
- T=50-200K with 1000-10000K/cm
* Wire-and-plate form
- Used for dust collection for British mines
- 0.25mm Nichrome wire
- Temperature gradient: 8000K/cm
- Gas flow rate: 7.2cm
3
/min
1 10 5 = m d
p

(2) Electrostatic precipitator
Particle Charging - Corona Discharge
For a cylindrical (wire-in-tube) ESP
As V, air electrical breakdown near the wire
Two zones in corona discharge
- Active zone active electrical breakdown
"Electron avalanche" - blue glow
- Passive zone particle charging
Single-zone ESP
Electron avalanche
* Positive corona vs. negative corona
*Diffusion charging vs. field charging
*Two-zone ESP
-More stable than positive corona
-Needs electron absorbing gas(SO
2
,
O
2
, H
2
O)
-Produces O
3
as byproduct
-Suitable for industrial applications
Suitable for domestic
application
Negative corona Positive corona
Collection Efficiency
where : electrical migration velocity
A
c
: cross sectional area of the ESP
P: Perimeter of the ESP wall (P=A/L)
|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|
= =
Q
d AU
Q
d PLU
n
n
d G
p e p e
in
out
p
) (
exp 1
) (
exp 1 1 ) (
p
c
e
d
qEC
U
3
=
Particles suitable for ESP collection
Electrical resistivity of particles
e.g. Fly ash : 10
6
~ 10
11
Carbon black : 10
-5
- If : fast charge transfer to electrodereentrainment of particles G
- If : slow charge transfer (charge: longer stay)reverse corona G
Optimum for ESP:
* ESP vs. fabric filter system
A
l
i iR V

= =
m
m
m
2
10
m
8
10 2
m m
8 6
10 10