A. Endocrine system: Hormones 1.

Definition

Hormones are chemical released by an endocrine gland and transported by blood to its target organs. An endocrine gland is ductless gland which hormones are secreted into the blood. . The glands of the endocrine system include the pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroids, thymus, pancreas, adrenals, and ovaries or testes.

2. Mechanism of Hormones

Hormones travel throughout the body, either in the blood stream or in the fluid around cells, looking for target cells. Once hormones find a target cell, they bind with specific protein receptors inside or on the surface of the cell and specifically change the cell's activities. The protein receptor reads the hormone's message and carries out the instructions by either influencing gene expression or altering cellular protein activity. These actions produce a variety of rapid responses and long-term effects.

The travelling of hormones

As shown above, hormones released into the bloodstream from endocrine gland cells and special cells in the hypothalamus (neurosecretory cells) travel throughout the body looking for target cells.

These hormones are similar to a television signal in that they are broadcast everywhere but can only be picked up and read by a cell with the right hormone receptor or antenna. B. Endocrine Glands
Endocrine Gland Main Hormones Growth hormone (GH) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Pituitary gland Luteinizing hormone (LH) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Thyroid gland Function Stimulates the growth of bones, muscles, and other organs by promoting protein synthesis Stimulates the thyroid to secrete thyroid hormone. Increase the metabolic rate Brings about ovulation Stimulates the formation of egg follicles in the ovary and formation of sperms in testes. Reabsorption of water in the kidney which function in osmoregulation to prevent too much of loss of water through urine. Regulate the body's metabolism Control growth Prepare the body to face an emergency or a critical situation Stimulates the body to generate heat when the environmental temperature is low. Lowers the glucose level in blood (Glucose Glycogen) Increase the glucose level in blood (Glycogen Glucose) The development of the breasts Distribution of fat evidenced in the hips, legs, and breast Maturation of reproductive organs such as the uterus and vagina. Maintains the thickening of uterine wall in preparation for pregnancy The growth and development of the male

Thyroxine

Adrenal gland

Adrenaline

Insulin (beta islet cells) Pancreas Glucagon (alpha islet cells)

Estrogens Ovary

Progesterone Androgens

Testes

reproductive structures Growth and distribution of body hair Increased male sexual drive

Important Hormones in human body 1. Melatonin This hormone is produced in the pineal gland and functions as an antioxidant and sleep control. Although this hormone is produced naturally by the body, but excess or lack of these hormones can be bad for the body.

Excess of melatonin hormone can cause sluggish, liver disorders, eye disorders, fatigue, disorientation, psychotic thoughts and behavior, confusion, drowsiness, impaired speaking, shaking, headache and dizziness. While the melatonin hormone deficiency will cause difficulty in sleeping or insomnia, prostate enlargement, depression, fatigue, irregular menstrual cycles, anxiety, pre-menstruation syndrome (PMS), cataracts, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, arrhythmia.

2. Serotonin The serotonin hormone is produced in the digestive tract. This hormone serves to control mood, appetite and sleep.

Excessive serotonin hormone can cause anxiety, confusion, increase heart rate, widened pupils, loss of muscle coordination, sweating, diarrhea, headache, chills, nausea, vomiting, convulsions, high fever, irregular heartbeat, uncontrolled movements and loss of consciousness. Deficiency of serotonin hormone can cause anxiety, depression, phobias, pessimistic, insecure, lack confidence, irritability, sleep disturbances, PMS, headache and backache.

3. Thyroid

Thyroid hormones are produced in the thyroid gland. This hormone functions to increase the basal metabolic rate and affect protein synthesis.

Excessive thyroid hormone can cause diarrhea, irregular heartbeat, headache, chills, nervousness, stomach cramps, fever, chest pain, or difficulty sleeping. While deficiency of thyroid hormone can cause fatigue, weakness, constipation, sore joints and muscles, ramput or thin, brittle nails, lack of sex drive, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, slow heartbeat, impaired concentration and memory. Even a few can cause depression and other mental disorders.

4. Gastrin This hormone is produced in the duodenum (intestine 12 fingers), which functions for gastric acid secretion by parietal cells. Excess of gastrin can cause gastrinoma disease.

5. Adrenalin Adrenal hormones are produced in the adrenal medulla. This hormone functions to increase the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles (by increasing heart rate), increasing catalysis of glycogen in the liver, damage to lipids in fat cells, and suppresses the immune system.

Lack of adrenal hormones may cause dizziness, headache, fatigue, weight loss. Some experience intestinal disturbances, increased pigmentation of the skin, depression, muscle pain and acute back pain.

6. Dopamine This hormone is produced in the kidney and hypothalamus. This hormone functions to raise your heart rate and blood pressure, inhibiting the release of prolactin and TRH from anterior pituitary.

Excess of dopamine may cause nausea, vomiting, headache, irregular heartbeat, chest pain, difficulty breathing, changes in the amount of urine, skin discoloration, pain in legs and arms. Hormone dopamine deficiency can cause depression, low motivation, difficulty paying attention and concentrating, slow thinking, low libido and impotence, tiredness, rapid weight increase, and sleep disturbance.

7. Growth hormone (HGH) This hormone is produced in the anterior pituitary, and serves to stimulate the growth and reproduction of cells, release of insulin-like growth factor 1 from liver.

Excessive growth hormone can cause pituitary tumors which are benign and grow slowly. Also can cause headaches, visual disturbances, optic nerve pressure, excess jaw, fingers and toes, muscle weakness, insulin resistance. It could even lead to diabetes type 2 and decreased sexual function. deficiency of this hormone in children can cause growth failure and short body and delayed sexual maturity. Whereas in adult growth hormone deficiency is rare, but in some cases can lead to obesity, decreased muscle mass and energy reduction and quality of life.

8. Insulin This hormone is produced in the pancreas and functions to capture glucose, glikogenesis and glycolysis in liver and muscle from the blood.

Excessive insulin can cause low blood sugar levels, irregular heartbeat, sweating, tremor, nausea, severe hunger and anxiety. Sometimes also cause hypoglycemia (low blood sugar). Insulin deficiency can cause hyperglycemia (elevated blood sugar levels) that leads to diabetes mellitus.

9. Testosterone This hormone is produced in the testes and serves as the male sex hormone.

This hormone stimulates the maturation of male sex organs, scrotum, beard growth, the growth of muscle mass and strength, and increase bone density.

Excess of this hormone can cause increased libido, and excessive irritability. Lack of testosterone can cause disease or damage to the hypothalamus (pituitary) or testicles that inhibits hormone secretion and production of testosterone (hypogonadism). Testoreton deficiency can also create wrinkles in the face, loss of muscle tone, large waist, chronic fatigue, decreased libido, erectile dysfunction and difficulty reaching orgasm can occur in men as women.

10. Progesterone This hormone is produced in the ovary, adrenal gland and placenta (when pregnant). Progesterone serves to increase epidermal growth factor, increases core temperature during ovulation, reduces spasms and to relax smooth muscle (widen bronchi and regulate mucus), anti-inflammatory, reduces gallbladder activity, normalization of clotting blood and blood vessels.

Progesterone hormone also helps thyroid function and bone growth by osteoblasts Relsilience in bone, teeth, gums, joints, tendons, ligaments and skin. Healing by regulating collagen nerve function and healing by regulating myelin, and to prevent endometrial cancer by regulating effects of estrogen. Lack of progesterone can create anxiety, insomnia, difficulty resting, panic, anxiety, lack of fluids and breast swelling.

C. Hormones actions

Negative feedback

Hormone regulation is mostly done by negative feedback. In negative feedback, a hormone causes an effect. The cells that make the hormone detect this effect. Upon detection of the hormone, its production ceases. A good example of negative feedback is with the hormone, insulin. Insulin is produced by the pancreas. Insulin is released by the pancreas in response to consumption of glucose. The amount of glucose in the blood rises and the pancreas detects this increase. It then secretes insulin into the blood. Insulin increases glucose uptake in target cells. Some glucose is used by the cells but some is also converted to and stored in the form of glycogen. Glucose uptake by cells decreases blood glucose levels - this decrease is detected by the pancreas and in response, it stops secreting insulin in to the bloodstream. As insulin levels in the blood decrease, as does glucose uptake by cells. This negative feedback therefore helps to maintain normal blood glucose levels and prevents extreme changes. There are two main types of hormones: steroid hormones - these are non-polar and do not need a receptor. The other is peptide hormones.

Positive feedback

Most important things in an organism are kept in homeostasis by negative feedback and counter-regulatory hormones. However a few things are controlled in different ways. One rare way is positive feedback. In negative feedback, the hormone's effect makes a gland stop making hormones. In positive feedback the opposite happens. The effect of the hormone tells the gland to make even more hormones. An example of positive feedback is the hormone that causes childbirth (when babies are born.) The hormone that causes this is oxytocin. This hormone is made by the pituitary gland. When the baby starts coming out, it stretches the muscle in the cervix (the bottom of the womb.) Nerves in the cervix send a message to the pituitary. This message makes the pituitary release more oxytocin. The oxytocin then causes the muscles of the womb to contract, or squeeze. This causes more stretching in the cervix. This stretching then tells the pituitary to make even more oxytocin. So levels of oxytocin keep rising until the squeezing or contractions of the womb force the baby out. (The womb is also called the uterus.)

Plant Hormones
. Hormones Found in Plant Major Functions

Auxin Shoot meristem and root meristem

Stimulates cell elongation; Stimualtes fruit development Stimulates ethylene synthesis Stimulates cell division Involved in shoot growth Used together with auxins to promote germination and growth

Cytokinins

Synthesized in roots and transported to other organs

Ethylene

Tissues of ripening fruits, nodes of stems, senescent leaves and flowers

Responsible for the ripening of fruits. (Produce ethylene gas which stimulates nearby apples to ripen and eventually spoil because of over ripening). Leaf abscission (Dead damaged or infected leaves drop to the ground rather than sheding healthy leaves or spreading disease).

Abscisic Acid Leaves, stems, green fruit

Dormancy in a plant's buds and maintains dormancy in its seeds. Stimulates stomatal closure (Water stressed leaves produce large amounts of ABA, which triggers potassium ions to be transported out of the guard cells. This causes stomata to close, and water is held in the leaf)

Gibberellin

Meristems of apical buds and roots, young leaves, embryo

Elongation growth (Spraying a plant with gibberellins will usually cause the plant to grow to a larger than expected height) Increase the size of the fruit and the distance between fruits on the stems.

Auxins

Although there are numerous plant responses to the auxins, one of the primary functions of this group of hormones is to cause increases in cell length by loosening cell walls and increasing the synthesis of cell wall material and protein. In order for plants to grow, cells produced at the stem or root meristems must undergo this process of elongation. No cell elongation can take place in the absence of auxin. The cell elongation promoted by auxins results in regular growth, and it is also responsible for various tropisms. For example, phototropism causes plants to grow toward a source of light. Gravitropism is a response to gravity and causes the roots to grow downward. Besides cell elongation, auxins will initiate root growth at the base of the stem. Auxins inhibit growth of the lateral buds; as long as auxins are being transported down the stem from the apical bud, the lateral buds will not develop.

Cytokinins Cytokinins are referred to as the cell division hormones, and while cell division will take place only in the presence of one of these hormones, the cytokinins stimulate a number of other plant responses as well. These hormones have been shown to retard senescence in detached leaves and to create metabolic sinks, areas within a tissue where increased metabolism takes place. As a result, there is an increase in transport of metabolites to the area. For example, amino acids will be transported to a site where the presence of cytokinins has increased protein synthesis. In many plants, these hormones stimulate the production of larger, greener leaves by causing leaf cells to expand and by promoting both chloroplast development and chlorophyll synthesis. A number of naturally occurring substances that exhibit cytokinin activity have been identified. Of these, ribosyl zeatin is one of the most abundant in plants.

Gibberellins Many dwarf plants exhibit a decrease in height because they contain low levels of the stem elongation hormones called gibberellins. These hormones, of which more than thirty have been identified, increase the amount of water taken up by the cells of stems. As the individual cells swell from the increased water content, the stem grows longer. In addition to stem elongation, the gibberellins elicit a number of other plant responses. The seeds of numerous plant species exhibit dormancy, which can be broken by gibberellins. The length of the daylight period (photoperiod) is crucial to the flowering response inmany plants. Fall- and winter-flowering plants require short days, while the plants that flower in the spring and summer must be exposed to long days. Some plants must also be subjected to a prolonged period of cold before flowering can occur.

The gibberellins can substitute for the long day or the cold requirement in many plants. Additionally, the gibberellins can produce thicker stem growth in certain woody plants and increase the number of fruits that develop in some species.

Ethylene One of the most important functions of ethylene is fruit ripening. Some fruits produce almost no ethylene until a few days before ripening and then release large amounts. Such fruits are said to be climacteric. Nonclimacteric fruits continuously produce more moderate amounts of the hormone throughout the ripening period. In all types of fruit, ethylene must be present before ripening can occur. Ethylene also causes ripened fruit to abscise (separate from the parent plant) and is even involved in dehiscence (removal of the husk) of some types of fruit, such as pecans and walnuts. In addition to its role in fruiting, ethylene can initiate root development, cause leaves to droop, inhibit plant motion, and increase metabolic activity in some plants. Because ethylene inhibits auxin transport, it will also release apical dominance.

Abscisic Acid The name abscisic acid was chosen because one of the major activities of this compound is to promote leaf abscission. During the autumn of the year, the concentration of this hormone increases in many plants. This high concentration causes the leaves to senesce, turn yellow, and abscise. Abscisic acid also inhibits growth and promotes both bud and seed dormancy.