Computer Application

Compiled by: Yubraj Chaudhary

Unit 1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

The word computer comes from the word compute which means to calculate. Hence, a computer is normally considered to be a calculating device which can perform arithmetic operations. A computer is an electronic device which can accept data in a specified sequence and process the data according to the set of instructions fed into it and produce output results by executing programmed instructions. Computers are used to perform complex series of mathematical calculations at very high speed and are used for a variety of purposes such as routine office calculations, control of industrial processes, control of air traffics and multimedia editing and producing etc. Today computers have entered in every sphere of life. Some of the fields are business, medicine, education, engineering, architecture, manufacturing, government, military, entertainment, communication and so on

Characteristics of computer
Computers are being very popular these days due to the following characteristics of computer. 1. Automatic: Computer is an automatic machine because once a job is started, it carry on until the job is finished, normally without any human assistance. However, computers being machines, cannot start themselves, they have to be instructed. That is a computer works from a program of coded instructions, which specify exactly how a particular work is to be done. 2. Speed: A computer is a very fast device. It can perform numbers of arithmetic and logical calculations in few seconds, which a man would take his entire lifetime to perform it. The speed of computer now days is talked in microseconds, nanoseconds or even in picoseconds.. 3. Accuracy: In addition to being very fast the computers are accurate. The accuracy of computer is consistently high, it can perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Errors can occur in the computer, but these are due to the human rather than technological weaknesses. 4. Diligence: Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and lack of concentration. It can continuously work for hours with same accuracy. If billions of calculations are to be performed, a computer will perform the last calculation with exactly the same speed and accuracy as the first one. 5. Versatility: A computer is a very versatile device. It can perform any sort of jobs. One moment it is preparing results of examination, very next moment it is busy preparing bills, in the mean time it can play the music for you. All that is required to change its talent is to slip in a new program (a sequence of
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Introduction to Computers

Compiled by: Yubraj Chaudhary

instructions for the computer) into it. In brief, a computer is capable of performing almost any task. 6. Storage: A computer can store and recall any amount of information because of its secondary storage capability. It can retain information as long as a user desires and the user can recall information whenever required. Even after several years, a user can recall exactly the same information that he/she had stored in the computer several years ago. A computer forgets or looses certain information only when a user asks it to do so. Hence, it is entirely up to the user to make a computer retain or forget some information.

History of computer
The history of computer began with an analog machine. In 1623 A.D. German scientist Wilhelm Shickhard invented the first mechanical calculator. His machine did not become popular. A popular mechanical calculator was developed in 1642 A.D. by the great French philosopher and scientist Blaise Pascal. His machine was capable of performing addition and subtraction automatically. Later, in the year 1671 A.D. German scientist Gottfried Leibniz designed a special gearing system to enable multiplication and division on Pascal s machine. Keyboard machines originated in US around 1880 and we use them even today. Around the same period, Herman Hollerith came up with the concept of punched cards that were extensively used as input medium in computers even in late 1970s. Business machines and calculators made their appearance in Europe and America towards the end of the 19th century. Charles Babbage, a nineteenth century professor at Cambridge University, is considered the father of modern digital computers. He designed a Difference Engine in the year 1922 A.D. that could produce reliable tables. In 1942, Babbage came out with his new idea of a completely automatic Analytical Engine for performing basic arithmetic functions for any mathematical problem at an average speed of 60 additions per second. But, he was unable to produce a working model of this machine because of precision engineering required to manufacture the machine was not available during that period. However, his efforts established number of principles that are fundamental to design of any digital computer. To have a better idea of the evolution of computers lets discuss some of the well-known early computers. 1. The Mark I computer (1937-1944): This was the first fully automatic calculating machine designed by Howard Aiken, build by IBM (International Business Machine). This machine was also known as Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator and was an electro-mechanical device. Although this machine proved to be extremely reliable, it was very complex in design and huge in size. It took 0.3 second to add two numbers and 4.5 seconds for multiplication of two numbers.
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Computer Application

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2. The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1939-1942): Dr. John Atanasoff and his assistant Clifford Berry developed an electronic machine to solve certain mathematical equations. It used 45 vacuum tubes for internal logic and capacitors for storage. 3. The ENIAC (1943-1946): Presper Eckert and John Mauchly developed the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC) which was the first allelectronic computer. It was very large in size taking 20 x 40 square feet room and using 18000 vacuum tubes. It could add two numbers in 200 microseconds and multiply them in 2000 microseconds. 4. The EDVAC (1946-1952): A major drawback of ENIAC was that its programs were wired on boards that made it difficult to change the programs. Dr. John Von Neumann later introduced the stored program concept that helped in overcoming this problem. The basic idea behind this concept is that a sequence of instructions and data can be stored in the memory of a computer for automatically directing the flow of operations. The Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) used the stored program concept in its design. Even today s digital computers use the same stored program concept. 5. The EDSAC (1947-1949): Almost simultaneously with EDVAC of USA, the British Professor Maurice Wilkes at the Cambridge University developed Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC). This machine could add two numbers in 1500 microseconds and multiply in 4000 microseconds. 6. The UNIVAC (1951): The Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) was the first digital computer that was not one of a kind . Many UNIVAC machines were produced, the first of which was installed in the Census Bureau in 1951 and was used continuously for 10 years. The first business use of a computer, a NUIVAC I, was by General Electric Corporation in 1954. In 1952, the IBM Corporation introduced the IBM-701 commercial computer. In rapid succession, improved models of UNIVAC I and other 700-series machines were introduced. In 1953, IBM produced the IBM-650, and sold over 1000 of these computers. UNIVAC marked the arrival of commercially available digital computers for business and scientific applications.

Generation of computer:
Generation

(Period) First (19421955)

Key Hardware Technologies

Key Software Technologies

 Vacuum tubes  Machine and  Electromagnetic assembly languages relay memory  Stored program  Punched cards concept secondary storage  Mostly scientific applications
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Some Key Characteristics Representat ive Systems  Bulky in size  ENIAC  Highly unreliable  EDVAC  Limited  EDSAC commercial use  UNIVAC I and costly  IBM 701  Difficult commercial

Introduction to Computers

Compiled by: Yubraj Chaudhary

Generation

(Period)

Key Hardware Technologies

Key Software Technologies

Key Characteristics production  Difficult to use

Some Representat ive Systems

Second (19551964)

 Transistors  Batch operating  Magnetic cores system memory  High-level  Magnetic tapes programming  Disks for languages secondary storage  Scientific and commercial applications

Third (19641975)

 ICs with SSI and  Time sharing MSI technologies operating system  Larger magnetic  Standardization cores memories of high-level  Larger capacity programming disks and languages magnetic tapes  Unbundling of secondary storage software from  Minicomputers hardware affordable by small companies

 Faster, smaller, more reliable and easier to program than previous generation systems  Commercial production was still difficult and costly  Faster, smaller, more reliable, easier and cheaper to produce  Commercially easier to use and upgrade than previous generation systems  Scientific, commercial and interactive online applications  Small, affordable, reliable and easy to use PCs  More powerful and reliable mainframe systems and super computers  Totally general purpose machines  Easier to produce commercially  Easier to upgrade  Rapid software development possible

 Honeywell 400  IBM 7030  CDC 1604  UNIVAC LARC

 IBM 360  IBM 370  PDP-8  PDP-11  CDC 6600

Fourth (19751989)

 ICs with VLSI technology  Microprocessors, semiconductor memory  Larger capacity hard disks as inbuilt secondary storage  Magnetic tapes and floppy disks as portable storage media  Personal computers  Super computers based on multiprocessing and parallel

 Operating system for PCs with GUI and multiple windows on a single terminal screen  Multiprocessing OS with concurrent programming languages  UNIX operating system with C programming language  PC based applications, network based applications
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 IBM PCs and its clones  Apple II  TRS 80  VAX 9000  CRAY-1  CRAY-2  CRAYX/MP

Computer Application

Compiled by: Yubraj Chaudhary

Generation

(Period)

Key Hardware Technologies processing technologies Spread of high speed computer networks ICs with ULSI technology Larger capacity main memory Larger capacity hard disks Optical disks as portable read-only storage media Notebooks, powerful desktop PCs and workstations Powerful servers , super computers Internet

Key Software Technologies

Key Characteristics

Some Representat ive Systems

 Fifth  (1989Present)    

 Multithreading, distributed OS  Parallel programming  JAVA  World Wide Web  Multimedia, internet applications  More complex supercomputing applications

 

 Portable computers  Powerful, cheaper, reliable and easier to use desktop machines  Powerful super computers  High uptime due to hot-pluggable components  Totally general purpose machines  Easier to produce commercially  Easier to upgrade  Rapid software development possible

 IBM Notebooks  Pentium PCs  SUN workstatio ns  IBM SP/2  SGI Origin 2000  PARAM 10000

Classification of computer
Computers are classified in various manners as given below.

According to operation (Working Principle)

a. Analog computer: The computer which process analog quantities is called analog computer. Analog computer accepts analog data (data which is represented by continuous variation in some physical property; e.g. voltage, frequency etc). These are the machines designed to perform arithmetical functions upon numbers where the numbers are represented by physical quantity. Today analog computers are rarely used. Earlier, analog computers were used to simulate certain systems and to solve differential equations. b. Digital computer: A digital computer operates in the form of binary digits 0 and 1 i.e. its input must be discrete rather than continuous. Digital computer accepts digital data, processes it and produces digital data. The digital data may be the combination of numbers, alphabets and special symbols. The digital computer can perform the logical operation easily. These are very accurate machines.
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Introduction to Computers

Compiled by: Yubraj Chaudhary

c. Hybrid computer: Hybrid computer is the integration of both analog and digital computers together. It processes the digital signal. So for the analog input it uses analog to digital converter and converts it into digital signal, which is processed by the processor and the digital signal output is then converted into analog signal by digital to analog converter. General purpose computation such as text manipulation, information storage, retrieval or transmission is done digitally. Processing of analog quantities is usually encountered in industrial control and instrumentation.

According to uses:
a. General purpose computer: It is also known as all purpose digital computer. It can perform any computational task as can be used for any type of applications e.g. computers that are used for payroll, graphs, analysis, entertainment etc. A PC is a general purpose computer. b. Special purpose computer: These type of computers are designed to be specially efficient for specific purposes e.g. computer installed in washing machine, microwave oven, AC etc.

According to capacity/size/power:
a. Supercomputer: Supercomputers are most powerful and expensive computers that can operate at speed measured in nanoseconds and even in picoseconds (one thousand to one million times faster than microcomputers). Supercomputers are used for processing complex scientific application, which require enormous processing power. They use multiprocessing and parallel processing technologies to solve complex problems. E.g. PARAM series by Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (CDAC), Anupam series by Bhabha Atomic research Centre (BARC), PACE series by Defense Research and Development Organization (DRDO). b. Mainframe computer: Mainframe computers are step down from super computers in terms of speed and storage capacity. Their operating systems usually handle multiple applications within a time sharing environment. This provides many users with the ability to perform different processing tasks at the same time. Mainframe computers are designed to handle tremendous amount of input, output and storage. Mainframe computers often act as host computers (servers). E.g. IBM 4300, IBM 2090, VAX 8842, S/390 c. Minicomputer: Minicomputers are step down from mainframe computers in terms of speed and storage capacity. Minicomputers are floor standing or desktop devices, frequently connected to mainframe computers to perform subsidiary operations. Minicomputers might be uniprocessor or multiprocessor system. They have operating system with multitasking and network capabilities enabling them to serve more than one user. A minicomputer can support more than 100 terminals. It serves as a
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Computer Application

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centralize store house for group of workstations or as a network server. E.g. VAX by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) with UNIX OS. d. Microcomputer (Personal computer): Microcomputer is a digital computer whose processing unit consists of one or more microprocessors, one or more input/output units and sufficient memory to execute instructions. Personal computers are usually desktop or portable devices with a display, a keyboard, a CPU containing processor and memories. They are designed primarily for standalone operation, but can be used as work station. These machines run comparatively easy-to-use application software such as word processor, spreadsheet etc. they are mostly user friendly and more affordable. E.g. IBM, Apple, Dell, Hewlett-Packard etc. e. Notebook/Laptop: Laptop PCs (also known as notebook computers) are portable computers weighing around 2 KG. They contain a processor, hard disk, optical disk drive, modem, LAN card, keyboard, touch pad and LCD screen. Colour displays are available. They consume less power and use batteries for their operation. They are used for word processing, spreadsheet computing, presentation slides preparation, entertainment, internet surfing etc. while a person is travelling. They can be connected to computer network. These days wireless connection is provided to laptops so that they can get information from large stationary computers without connecting wires. As laptops are miniature components which have to consume low power and have to be packaged in small volumes they cost more than the desktop PCs of the same capacity. f. Palmtop/PDA (Personal Digital Assistant): These are the smallest computers available. They can be held in palms and hence called palmtop computers. They can easily be kept in shirt pockets. They are used for tracking appointments, maintaining lists, jotting notes etc. They use tiny keyboard and have small disk memory. They can be connected to wireless networks. Some palmtops use touch screen. A palmtop can be used as a mobile phone, fax and email. These days, most of the modern mobile phones incorporate the palmtop features. Palmtop can swap data with PC as well.

Computer hardware and software:

Hardware The physical components of a computer are called hardware. A physical component may be electronic, electrical, magnetic, mechanical or optical. Hardware is any part of the computer that can be touched. A computer s hardware consists of interconnected electronic devices that are used to control the computers operation, input and output. E.g. monitor, CPU, keyboard, mouse, speaker, printer etc.

Introduction to Computers

Compiled by: Yubraj Chaudhary

Software A computer cannot do anything on its own. It must be instructed to do a job desired by us. Hence, it is necessary to specify a set of instructions that a computer must perform to solve a problem. Such a set of instructions written in a language understood by a computer is called computer program. Software refers to the set of programs that makes computer perform tasks. For a computer to produce useful output its hardware and software must work together. Nothing useful can be done with the hardware alone, and software is nothing without supporting hardware.

Types of Software:
Practical computer systems divide software systems into three major classes: System software, programming software and application software. System software: System software is a set of programs that provides the basic functions for computer usage and helps to run the computer hardware and system. It includes a combination of the following: y Device drivers y Operating systems System software is responsible for managing a variety of independent hardware components, so that they can work together harmoniously. Its purpose is to unburden the application software programmer from the often complex details of the particular computer being used, including such accessories as communications devices, printers, device readers, displays and keyboards, and also to partition the computer's resources such as memory and processor time in a safe and stable manner. Programming software: Programming software usually provides tools to assist a programmer in writing computer programs and software using different programming languages in a more convenient way. The tools include: y Compilers a computer program that transforms the source code written in a programming language into another computer language (assembly language or machine language). y Debuggers a computer program used to test and debug other programs. y Interpreters normally means a computer program that executes instructions. y Linkers a program that takes one or more objects generated by a compiler and combines them into a single executable program. Application software: Application software is a set of one or more programs designed to solve a specific problem, or to do a specific job. It is a broad category, and includes software of many kinds, such as: y Business software
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Computer Application

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y y y y y y y y y y y y

Computer-aided design Databases Educational software Image editing Industrial automation Mathematical software Medical software Simulation software Spreadsheets Telecommunications (i.e., the Internet and everything that flows on it) Video games Word processing etc