= INTRO= Maybe sounds weird but the computer can only do two logical operations accumilating (+) and

producting (x). These are enough for the computer to do any kind of task, from processing to printing and executing any sort of programm. This also might sound weird but the computer doesn't work in decimal arithmetic system but in binary, (0,1). To be more specific : 0 : it doesn't pass any electric stream in the circuits and cells of the computer. 1 : it pass continiously electric stream in the circuits and cells of the computer. So now it's obvious that all these stuff of software and programms it is made by us and for us so that we can communicate with the computer without typing countless zeros and ones in order to write or execute a programm, because despight the language of programming we use every computer only the binary machine code understands!!! 1.) WHY ASSEMBLY ??? First of all you need to know that assembly is the ancient language of programming and still in use !!! Assembly is little more higher than the machine language. It represents symbolically the basic processes that are done in CPU (central proccesing unit) From many programmers it is considered as the lowest level language. May be the higher level languages ( such as Pascal, Python, algol) are nearer to our natural language but none of them has the efficiency and immediateness of assembly. That's why it is still in use today for C- programming,crucial debugging processes etc. IF YOU DO ANY PROGRAMMING YOU WILL FIND ASSEMBLY MOST NECCESARY !! 2.) THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE COMPUTER

- page 1 of 4-

In the diagramm above we can see the basical structure of a computer . The CPU is divided in three major parts more specifically : The hard disc memory C : where all the necesssary programms are stored for the start of the computer till the display of the results in the computer screen. The cheking unit : where all the procedures which are executed in CPU are checked in order that the user won't be forced to do any debugging. ALU : in this unit all the logical operations and most of the programms and other kind of procedures which are done in the computer -- are executed. Only if all these units work together the computer can function. 3.) ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE ON CPU 8086 Every CPU has a serie of registers. These are like RAM when we turn off the computer all the stored data in there is lost. The major difference is that RAM has much more space than the registers. Because CPU's are countless we will focus only on one CPU 8086.All the registers in 8086 have length 16 bits.
GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTERS

AX BX CX DX BP SP SI DI

Accumulator register. It is seperated in AH and AL. Base adress register. It is seperated in BH and BL. Count register It is seperated in CH and CL. Data register. It is seperated in DH and DL. Base pointer Stack pointer Source index register Destination index register

The above registers store temporarily values on the binary code system. The first 4 registers are divided in two parts with equal amount of numbers the high nibble ( _H) and the low nibble ( _ L).For example CX= 1010111000101000 so CH= 10101110 and CL=00101000
SEGMENT REGISTERS

CS DS ES SS

Code segment Data segment Extra segment Stack segment

The above registers are used for refering in blocks of the memory C. The memory C is divided in segments.

-page 2 of 4 -

SPECIAL PURPOSE REGISTERS

IP instruction pointer flags register IP combined with CS gives the running directive Flags register shows or determines the running state of the computer. These registers are controlled automatically by CPU. CPU 8086 INSTRUCTION SET Data Transfer Instructions MOV Move byte or word to register or memory IN, OUT Input byte or word from port, output word to port LEA Load effective address LDS, LES Load pointer using data segment, extra segment PUSH, POP Push word onto stack, pop word off stack XCHG Exchange byte or word XLAT Translate byte using look-up table Logical Instructions NOT Logical NOT of byte or word (one's complement) AND Logical AND of byte or word OR Logical OR of byte or word XOR Logical exclusive-OR of byte or word TEST Test byte or word (AND without storing) Shift and Rotate Instructions SHL, SHR Logical shift left, right byte or word? by 1 or CL SAL, SAR Arithmetic shift left, right byte or word? by 1 or CL ROL, ROR Rotate left, right byte or word? by 1 or CL RCL, RCR Rotate left, right through carry byte or word? by 1 or CL Arithmetic Instructions ADD, SUB Add, subtract byte or word ADC, SBB Add, subtract byte or word and carry (borrow) INC, DEC Increment, decrement byte or word NEG Negate byte or word (two's complement) CMP Compare byte or word (subtract without storing) MUL, DIV Multiply, divide byte or word (unsigned) IMUL, IDIV Integer multiply, divide byte or word (signed) CBW, CWD Convert byte to word, word to double word (useful before multiply/divide) Adjustments after arithmetic operations: AAA, AAS, AAM, AAD ASCII adjust for addition, subtraction, multiplication, division (ASCII codes 30-39) DAA, DAS Decimal adjust for addition, subtraction (binary coded decimal numbers) - page 3 of 4-

Transfer Instructions JMP Unconditional jump (short ?127/8, near ?32K, far between segments) Conditional jumps: JA (JNBE) Jump if above (not below or equal)? +127, -128 range only JAE (JNB) Jump if above or equal(not below)? +127, -128 range only JB (JNAE) Jump if below (not above or equal)? +127, -128 range only JBE (JNA) Jump if below or equal (not above)? +127, -128 range only JE (JZ) Jump if equal (zero)? +127, -128 range only JG (JNLE) Jump if greater (not less or equal)? +127, -128 range only JGE (JNL) Jump if greater or equal (not less)? +127, -128 range only JL (JNGE) Jump if less (not greater nor equal)? +127, -128 range only JLE (JNG) Jump if less or equal (not greater)? +127, -128 range only JC, JNC Jump if carry set, carry not set? +127, -128 range only JO, JNO Jump if overflow, no overflow? +127, -128 range only JS, JNS Jump if sign, no sign? +127, -128 range only JNP (JPO) Jump if no parity (parity odd)? +127, -128 range only JP (JPE) Jump if parity (parity even)? +127, -128 range only Loop control: LOOP Loop unconditional, count in CX, short jump to target address LOOPE (LOOPZ) Loop if equal (zero), count in CX, short jump to target address LOOPNE (LOOPNZ) Loop if not equal (not zero), count in CX, short jump to target address JCXZ Jump if CX equals zero (used to skip code in loop) Subroutine and Interrupt Instructions CALL, RET Call, return from procedure (inside or outside current segment) INT, INTO Software interrupt, interrupt if overflow IRET Return from interrupt String Instructions MOVS Move byte or word string MOVSB, MOVSW Move byte, word string CMPS Compare byte or word string SCAS Scan byte or word string (comparing to A or AX) LODS, STOS Load, store byte or word string to AL or AX Repeat instructions (placed in front of other string operations): REP Repeat REPE, REPZ Repeat while equal, zero REPNE, REPNZ Repeat while not equal (zero) Processor Control Instructions Flag manipulation: STC, CLC, CMC Set, clear, complement carry flag STD, CLD Set, clear direction flag STI, CLI Set, clear interrupt enable flag LAHF, SAHF Load AH from flags, store AH into flags PUSHF, POPF Push flags onto stack, pop flags off stack Coprocessor, multiprocessor interface: ESC Escape to external processor interface LOCK Lock bus during next instruction -page 4 of 5 -

Inactive states: NOP No operation WAIT Wait for TEST pin activity HLT Halt processor

LINKS 1.) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_language 2.) en. wikipedia.org/.../Intel_8086 3.) www.emu8086.com 4.) courses.ece.ilinois.edu?nasm_dierctive.html 5.) w3.usfm.br/rmbranco/cefet_files/.../8086%20 6.) www.es.uregina.ca/.../7_Assembly.html 7.) www.cpu-world.com/.../8086.html 8.) www.assembly.mag.com 9.) assembly.state.ny.us/10.)www.it.uom.gr/.../assembly/contents.htm

- page 5 of 5-