AVIATION ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

AVIMA 2010

Table of Contents
1

Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 3

Problem description ........................................................................................................................ 4

Procedure ........................................................................................................................................ 5

3.1

Air speed ................................................................................................................................. 5

3.2

Lift coefficient ......................................................................................................................... 5

3.3

Drag coefficient ....................................................................................................................... 5

3.4

Drag forces .............................................................................................................................. 5

3.5

Thrust ...................................................................................................................................... 5

Calculating drag and thrust for each height ................................................................................... 6

4.1

For H=0 .................................................................................................................................... 6

4.2

For H= 4 km ............................................................................................................................. 7

4.3

For H=6 Km .............................................................................................................................. 8

4.4

For H=8 Km .............................................................................................................................. 9

4.5

For H=10 km .......................................................................................................................... 10

4.6

For H=11 km .......................................................................................................................... 11

Drag and thrust curves .................................................................................................................. 12

Calculating minimum drag ............................................................................................................ 14

Calculating speed limits ................................................................................................................ 15

Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 16

List of tables
Table 1-1, Airbus A300B2 Specifications .......................................................................................3
Table 2-1, Technical data of Airbus A300B2 ......................................................................................... 4
Table 2-2, values dependent to height for H= 0 to 11 km .................................................................... 4
Table 4-1, values for H=0 ...................................................................................................................... 6
Table 4-2, values for H=4 ...................................................................................................................... 7
Table 4-3, values for H=6 ...................................................................................................................... 8
Table 4-4, values for H=8 ...................................................................................................................... 9
Table 4-5, values for H=10 ................................................................................................................... 10
Table 4-6, values for H=11 ................................................................................................................... 11

AVIATION ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

AVIMA 2010

Table 6-1, Minimum drag and the correspondence speed for H=0 to 11 km ..................................... 15
Table 7-1, Maximum and minimum speeds for positive and negative amounts near to T-D=0 ......... 15

List of figures
Figure 5-1, Induced and parasite drag for H=0 .................................................................................... 12
Figure 5-2, drag curves for H=0 to 11 km ............................................................................................ 12
Figure 5-3, Thrust curves for H=0 to 11 km ......................................................................................... 13
Figure 5-4, Pnauds diagram for H=0 to 11 km .................................................................................. 14
Figure 7-2, speed limits for H=0 to 11 km ............................................................................................ 16

Symbols and mathematical signs

CD

Drag Coefficient

CD0

Zero Drag Coefficient

CL

Lift Coefficient

CTP

Static thrust load coefficient

Drag Force

Acceleration due to gravity

Height

Induced Drag Coefficient

K1

Engine parameter

Mass

Ma

Mach number

nF

Engine parameter

Wing Area

ST

Engine area

Thrust

Air Speed

Air Density

AVIATION ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

AVIMA 2010

1 Introduction
In this case study a uncelebrated and level flight of Airbus A300B2 will be investigated. The
most important assumption for a horizontal flight is that all horizontal and vertical forces
are in balance:

=
=

In addition the thrust vector is in the same direction as airflow and the flight is in no-wind
condition.
The first step is to calculating drag and thrust for different height from sea level to 11 km
and shows them in separate diagrams. Also minimum drag surplus will be calculated and
maximum thrust will be demonstrated in the tables. Both drag and thrust curves (thrust
required and thrust available) will be plotted in Pnauds diagram, for each height. Finally,
the speed limits will be demonstrated in tables and will be plotted as two curves for the
most nearest negative and positive values to the T=D, where the intersections of the both
curves and the so-called speed limits are.

Engines
High Cruise
speed
Max range
Operating
weight
Max takeoff
weight
Wing span
Length
Height

Airbus A300B4
Two 227kN General Electric CF650Cs / 236kN Pratt & Whitney
JT9D-9 turbofans
917 km/h
3430 km
85,910 kg
142,000 kg
44.48 m
53.62 m
16.53 m
Table 1-1, Airbus A300B2 Specifications

AVIATION ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

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2 Problem description

Calculating the following values for height 0, 4, 6, 8, 10, 11 Km and for Mach number
between 0.1 to 1.0:
1. Air speed (V)
2. Lift coefficient (CL)
3. Drag coefficient (CD)
4. Drag (D)
5. Static thrust load coefficient (CTp)
6. Thrust (T)
7. Thrust surplus (T-D)

Show the results for drag and thrust in a common diagram (Pnauds diagram).

Determine the maximum thrust surplus for each height.

Determine the minimum drag for each height.

Determine speed limits for each height and show them in a common diagram H = f(Ma).
Technical data needed for calculating the above mentioned values are as follow:
Parameter

Sign

Value

Mass

127,6 t

Wing area

260 m

Drag coefficient at zero lift

CD0

0,0175

Parameter for induced drag

0,0510

Engine reference area

ST

4,52 m

Number of engines

Engine parameter (from 0 to 11 km)

K1

= 0,192 + 0,015 H[km]

Engine parameter (from 0 to 11 km)

nF

= -0,292 + 0,020 H[km]

Acceleration of gravity

9,80665 m/s2

Table 2-1, Technical data of Airbus A300B2

As the values should be calculated for different height, values, which are dependent to
height, are selected from normal atmosphere table:
H (km)

P(N/m2)

(kg/m3)

A (m/s)

K1

nF

101325

1.225

340

0.192

-0.292

61640.2

0.819

324.58

0.252

-0.212

47181

0.659697

316.43

0.282

-0.172

35599.8

0.5251

308.06

0.312

-0.132

10

26436.2

0.412706

299.46

0.342

-0.092

11

22632

0.3629

295.07

0.357

-0.072

Table 2-2, values dependent to height for H= 0 to 11 km

AVIATION ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

AVIMA 2010

3 Procedure
All the calculations are based on a function of Mach number. Therefore, in diagrams the Mach
number are represented is a speed measure instead of air speed. The Mach number varies from 0.1
to 1.0 and other data will be calculated based on these mach numbers in each demanded height.
The change in elevation results in change of density, pressure and speed of sound, which are
demonstrated in table 1.

3.1 Air speed

The first step is to calculate the air speed as a function of Mach number:
 =   (Eq. 1 1)

3.2 Lift coefficient

As described before, due to stationary horizontal flight with mentioned conditions:




= 
 = 
(Eq. 1 2)
=

 


3.3 Drag coefficient

 =  +  (Eq. 1 3)

3.4 Drag forces

Having calculated drag coefficient and air speed, the drag force is equal to:

 (!) =   


"
"
"
"

 =    =   ( +  ) =    +   #"
$ (%&. 1 4)
2
2
2
2
 
2

3.5 Thrust

For calculating the thrust the following parameters should be calculated:

Static thrust load coefficient:
() = *  +, (Eq. 1 5)
* =  + * . (Eq. 1 6)
01 = 2 + 2* . (Eq. 1 7)

Therefore, the thrust is equal:

4 = () 5( , 7 = 0892:; <= 9<><;? (Eq. 1 8)

A = 7
4 (Eq. 1 9)

AVIATION ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

AVIMA 2010

4 Calculating drag and thrust for each height

Based on the procedure from 3-1 to 3-5, the corresponding values of drag, thrust, maximum
thrust surplus and the speed limits (Ma) for negative thrust surplus for Mach number
between 0.1 and 1.0 is as follow:

4.1 For H=0

Ma

CL

CD

CTP

TG

T-D

0.1
0.125
0.15
0.175
0.2
0.225
0.25
0.275
0.3
0.325
0.35
0.375
0.4
0.425
0.45
0.475
0.5
0.525
0.55
0.575
0.6
0.625
0.65
0.675
0.7
0.725
0.75
0.775
0.8
0.825
0.85
0.875
0.9

34
42.5
51
59.5
68
76.5
85
93.5
102
110.5
119
127.5
136
144.5
153
161.5
170
178.5
187
195.5
204
212.5
221
229.5
238
246.5
255
263.5
272
280.5
289
297.5
306

6.797
4.350
3.021
2.220
1.699
1.343
1.088
0.899
0.755
0.644
0.555
0.483
0.425
0.376
0.336
0.301
0.272
0.247
0.225
0.206
0.189
0.174
0.161
0.149
0.139
0.129
0.121
0.113
0.106
0.100
0.094
0.089
0.084

2.3738
0.9827
0.4830
0.2687
0.1648
0.1094
0.0778
0.0587
0.0466
0.0386
0.0332
0.0294
0.0267
0.0247
0.0232
0.0221
0.0213
0.0206
0.0201
0.0197
0.0193
0.0190
0.0188
0.0186
0.0185
0.0184
0.0182
0.0182
0.0181
0.0180
0.0180
0.0179
0.0179

437008
282657
200042
151511
121333
101996
89541
81724
77193
75097
74876
76151
78658
82206
86659
91914
97892
104534
111794
119635
128028
136950
146381
156306
166713
177590
188928
200721
212962
225645
238767
252322
266307

0.376
0.352
0.334
0.319
0.307
0.297
0.288
0.280
0.273
0.267
0.261
0.256
0.251
0.246
0.242
0.239
0.235
0.232
0.229
0.226
0.223
0.220
0.218
0.215
0.213
0.211
0.209
0.207
0.205
0.203
0.201
0.200
0.198

172248.8
161383.3
153016.3
146281.4
140687.5
135931.1
131812.9
128195
124978.9
122091.8
119478.1
117095.2
114909.2
112892.9
111024.3
109285.3
107660.7
106137.7
104705.7
103355.4
102078.9
100869.4
99720.76
98627.85
97586.03
96591.2
95639.74
94728.39
93854.26
93014.73
92207.44
91430.25
90681.24

344497.7
322766.6
306032.6
292562.8
281375
271862.3
263625.7
256390
249957.9
244183.5
238956.3
234190.4
229818.4
225785.8
222048.7
218570.6
215321.3
212275.4
209411.4
206710.8
204157.9
201738.7
199441.5
197255.7
195172.1
193182.4
191279.5
189456.8
187708.5
186029.5
184414.9
182860.5
181362.5

-92510
40110
105990
141052
160042
169867
174085

174666
172765
169087
164080
158039
151161
143579
135389
126657
117429
107741
97617
87076
76130
64789
53061
40950
28460
15593
2351
-11264
-25254
-39616
-54352
-69461
-84945

Table 4-1, values for H=0

AVIATION ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

AVIMA 2010

4.2 For H= 4 km
Ma

CL

CD

CTP

TG

T-D

0.1

32.46

10.054

5.173

580241

0.411

114394

228788

-351453

0.125 40.57

6.435

2.129

373165

0.392

109108

218217

-154948

0.15

48.69

4.469

1.036

261429

0.377

104972

209943

-51486

0.175

56.8

3.283

0.567

194837

0.365

101597

203193

8356

0.2

64.92

2.514

0.340

152421

0.354

98761

197522

45100

0.225 73.03

1.986

0.219

124165

0.346

96325

192651

68485

0.25

81.15

1.609

0.149

104793

0.338

94198

188395

83602

0.275 89.26

1.329

0.108

91311

0.331

92313

184627

93315

97.37

1.117

0.081

81920

0.325

90626

181252

99333

0.325 105.5

0.952

0.064

75482

0.320

89101

178202

102721

0.35

113.6

0.821

0.052

71252

0.315

87712

175425

104172

0.375 121.7

0.715

0.044

68726

0.310

86439

172877

104152

129.8

0.628

0.038

67550

0.306

85264

170528

102979

0.425 137.9

0.557

0.033

67471

0.302

84175

168351

100879

0.45

146.1

0.497

0.030

68307

0.298

83161

166323

98016

0.475 154.2

0.446

0.028

69919

0.295

82214

164427

94508

162.3

0.402

0.026

72205

0.292

81324

162649

90444

0.525 170.4

0.365

0.024

75084

0.289

80488

160975

85891

0.55

178.5

0.332

0.023

78496

0.286

79698

159396

80900

0.575 186.6

0.304

0.022

82390

0.283

78950

157900

75510

194.7

0.279

0.021

86729

0.281

78241

156482

69753

0.625 202.9

0.257

0.021

91482

0.278

77567

155134

63652

0.65

0.238

0.020

96622

0.276

76925

153849

57228

0.221

0.020

102129

0.274

76312

152623

50494

227.2

0.205

0.020

107986

0.272

75726

151451

43465

0.725 235.3

0.191

0.019

114179

0.270

75164

150329

36149

0.75

243.4

0.179

0.019

120696

0.268

74626

149252

28556

0.775 251.5

0.167

0.019

127528

0.266

74109

148218

20691

259.7

0.157

0.019

134664

0.264

73612

147224

12560

0.825 267.8

0.148

0.019

142099

0.262

73133

146266

4167

0.85

275.9

0.139

0.018

149827

0.261

72672

145344

-4483

0.875

284

0.131

0.018

157841

0.259

72227

144453

-13388

0.9

292.1

0.124

0.018

166138

0.258

71797

143593

-22545

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

211

0.675 219.1
0.7

0.8

Table 4-2, values for H=4

AVIATION ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

AVIMA 2010

4.3 For H=6 Km

Ma

CL

CD

CTP

TG

T-D

0.1

31.64

14.574

10.851

931611

0.419

89362

178725

-752886

0.125 39.55

9.328

4.455

597617

0.403

85998

171995

-425622

0.15

47.46

6.478

2.157

416762

0.391

83343

166685

-250077

0.175 55.38

4.759

1.173

308310

0.381

81162

162324

-145987

0.2

63.29

3.644

0.695

238537

0.372

79319

158638

-79899

0.225

71.2

2.879

0.440

191332

0.364

77728

155457

-35875

0.25

79.11

2.332

0.295

158208

0.358

76332

152665

-5543

0.275 87.02

1.927

0.207

134352

0.352

75091

150183

15830

94.93

1.619

0.151

116868

0.347

73976

147952

31084

0.325 102.8

1.380

0.115

103928

0.342

72964

145929

42001

0.35

110.8

1.190

0.090

94333

0.338

72040

144080

49747

0.375 118.7

1.036

0.072

87270

0.334

71190

142381

55111

126.6

0.911

0.060

82172

0.330

70404

140809

58637

0.425 134.5

0.807

0.051

78633

0.327

69674

139348

60715

0.45

142.4

0.720

0.044

76357

0.324

68993

137985

61628

0.475 150.3

0.646

0.039

75124

0.321

68354

136708

61584

158.2

0.583

0.035

74767

0.318

67754

135507

60740

0.525 166.1

0.529

0.032

75158

0.315

67187

134375

59216

0.55

0.482

0.029

76198

0.313

66652

133304

57105

0.441

0.027

77809

0.310

66144

132288

54480

189.9

0.405

0.026

79927

0.308

65662

131324

51397

0.625 197.8

0.373

0.025

82503

0.306

65202

130405

47902

0.65

205.7

0.345

0.024

85495

0.304

64764

129528

44033

0.675 213.6

0.320

0.023

88872

0.302

64345

128690

39818

221.5

0.297

0.022

92605

0.300

63944

127887

35283

0.725 229.4

0.277

0.021

96671

0.298

63559

127118

30447

0.75

237.3

0.259

0.021

101051

0.296

63189

126379

25327

0.775 245.2

0.243

0.021

105730

0.295

62834

125668

19938

253.1

0.228

0.020

110694

0.293

62492

124984

14290

0.825 261.1

0.214

0.020

115930

0.291

62162

124324

8394

0.85

0.202

0.020

121430

0.290

61844

123687

2257

0.190

0.019

127184

0.289

61536

123072

-4112

0.180

0.019

133186

0.287

61239

122477

-10709

0.3

0.4

0.5

174

0.575 181.9
0.6

0.7

0.8

269

0.875 276.9
0.9

284.8

Table 4-3, values for H=6

AVIATION ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

AVIMA 2010

4.4 For H=8 Km

Ma

CL

CD

CTP

TG

T-D

0.1

30.81

19.316

19.046

1233832

0.4228

68036

136073

-1097760

0.125 38.51

12.362

7.812

790698

0.4105

66062

132123

-658575

0.15

46.21

8.585

3.776

550417

0.4008

64491

128981

-421436

0.175 53.91

6.307

2.046

405986

0.3927

63192

126383

-279602

61.61

4.829

1.207

312709

0.3859

62088

124175

-188534

0.225 69.31

3.815

0.760

249235

0.3799

61130

122259

-126976

0.25

77.02

3.091

0.505

204317

0.3747

60285

120571

-83746

0.275 84.72

2.554

0.350

171575

0.37

59532

119064

-52511

92.42

2.146

0.252

147170

0.3657

58852

117704

-29466

0.325 100.1

1.829

0.188

128680

0.3619

58233

116467

-12213

0.35

107.8

1.577

0.144

114516

0.3584

57667

115333

817

0.375 115.5

1.374

0.114

103601

0.3551

57144

114287

10686

123.2

1.207

0.092

95183

0.3521

56659

113318

18135

0.425 130.9

1.069

0.076

88724

0.3493

56207

112415

23691

0.45

138.6

0.954

0.064

83831

0.3467

55785

111570

27739

0.475 146.3

0.856

0.055

80214

0.3442

55388

110776

30563

0.773

0.048

77650

0.3419

55014

110029

32379

0.525 161.7

0.701

0.043

75971

0.3397

54661

109322

33351

0.55

169.4

0.639

0.038

75044

0.3376

54327

108653

33609

0.575 177.1

0.584

0.035

74766

0.3356

54009

108018

33251

184.8

0.537

0.032

75054

0.3338

53706

107412

32358

0.625 192.5

0.494

0.030

75842

0.332

53418

106835

30993

0.65

200.2

0.457

0.028

77075

0.3303

53142

106284

29209

0.675 207.9

0.424

0.027

78709

0.3286

52878

105755

27047

215.6

0.394

0.025

80708

0.327

52624

105249

24541

0.725 223.3

0.367

0.024

83042

0.3255

52381

104763

21721

0.75

0.343

0.024

85685

0.3241

52147

104295

18610

0.322

0.023

88616

0.3227

51922

103844

15229

246.4

0.302

0.022

91817

0.3213

51705

103410

11593

0.825 254.1

0.284

0.022

95273

0.32

51495

102991

7718

0.85

261.9

0.267

0.021

98971

0.3188

51293

102586

3615

0.875 269.6

0.252

0.021

102899

0.3175

51097

102194

-705

0.238

0.020

107047

0.3164

50907

101815

-5233

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

154

231

0.775 238.7
0.8

0.9

277.3

Table 4-4, values for H=8

AVIATION ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

AVIMA 2010

4.5 For H=10 km

Ma

CL

CD

CTP

TG

T-D

0.1

29.95

26.009

34.516

1660648

0.423

50508

101017

-1559631

0.125 37.43

16.645

14.148

1063592

0.414

49482

98964

-964627

0.15

44.92

11.559

6.832

739586

0.407

48659

97318

-642268

0.175 52.41

8.493

3.696

544556

0.401

47974

95948

-448609

59.89

6.502

2.174

418319

0.397

47388

94776

-323543

0.225 67.38

5.137

1.364

332125

0.392

46877

93755

-238371

0.25

74.87

4.161

0.901

270831

0.389

46425

92850

-177981

0.275 82.35

3.439

0.621

225846

0.385

46020

92040

-133806

89.84

2.890

0.443

192001

0.382

45653

91306

-100695

0.325 97.32

2.462

0.327

166035

0.379

45318

90636

-75399

0.35

104.8

2.123

0.247

145808

0.377

45010

90020

-55788

0.375 112.3

1.849

0.192

129871

0.374

44725

89450

-40420

119.8

1.626

0.152

117209

0.372

44460

88921

-28288

0.425 127.3

1.440

0.123

107100

0.370

44213

88426

-18674

0.45

134.8

1.284

0.102

99016

0.368

43981

87963

-11053

0.475 142.2

1.153

0.085

92562

0.366

43763

87526

-5035

149.7

1.040

0.073

87441

0.365

43557

87114

-327

0.525 157.2

0.944

0.063

83426

0.363

43362

86724

3298

0.55

164.7

0.860

0.055

80339

0.361

43177

86354

6015

0.575 172.2

0.787

0.049

78040

0.360

43001

86001

7962

179.7

0.722

0.044

76416

0.358

42833

85665

9249

0.625 187.2

0.666

0.040

75380

0.357

42672

85344

9964

0.65

194.6

0.616

0.037

74858

0.356

42518

85037

10178

0.675 202.1

0.571

0.034

74791

0.355

42371

84742

9951

209.6

0.531

0.032

75130

0.353

42229

84459

9329

0.725 217.1

0.495

0.030

75833

0.352

42093

84187

8353

0.75

224.6

0.462

0.028

76868

0.351

41962

83924

7056

0.775 232.1

0.433

0.027

78205

0.350

41836

83672

5466

239.6

0.406

0.026

79820

0.349

41714

83428

3607

0.825 247.1

0.382

0.025

81693

0.348

41596

83192

1499

0.85

254.5

0.360

0.024

83805

0.347

41482

82963

-842

0.875

262

0.340

0.023

86142

0.346

41371

82743

-3399

0.9

269.5

0.321

0.023

88691

0.345

41264

82528

-6162

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

Table 4-5, values for H=10

10

AVIATION ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

AVIMA 2010

4.6 For H=11 km

Ma

CL

CD

CTP

TG

T-D

0.1

29.51

30.381

47.089

1939540

0.421

43105

86210

-1853330

0.125 36.88

19.444

19.298

1241971

0.415

42418

84836

-1157134

0.15

44.26

13.502

9.316

863319

0.409

41865

83730

-779589

0.175 51.64

9.920

5.036

635291

0.405

41403

82806

-552486

59.01

7.595

2.959

487588

0.401

41007

82014

-405575

0.225 66.39

6.001

1.854

386626

0.397

40660

81321

-305305

0.25

73.77

4.861

1.223

314716

0.394

40353

80706

-234010

0.275 81.14

4.017

0.841

261824

0.392

40077

80154

-181669

0.2

0.3

88.52

3.376

0.599

221912

0.389

39827

79654

-142258

0.325

95.9

2.876

0.439

191170

0.387

39598

79196

-111974

0.35

103.3

2.480

0.331

167101

0.385

39387

78775

-88326

0.375 110.7

2.160

0.256

148008

0.383

39192

78384

-69623

1.899

0.201

132709

0.381

39010

78021

-54688

0.425 125.4

1.682

0.162

120359

0.380

38841

77681

-42678

0.45

132.8

1.500

0.132

110340

0.378

38681

77362

-32978

0.475 140.2

1.347

0.110

102194

0.377

38531

77062

-25133

147.5

1.215

0.093

95573

0.375

38389

76777

-18795

0.525 154.9

1.102

0.079

90210

0.374

38254

76508

-13701

0.55

162.3

1.004

0.069

85897

0.373

38126

76252

-9645

0.575 169.7

0.919

0.061

82472

0.372

38004

76009

-6464

0.844

0.054

79805

0.370

37888

75776

-4029

0.625 184.4

0.778

0.048

77790

0.369

37777

75554

-2236

0.65

191.8

0.719

0.044

76343

0.368

37670

75341

-1002

0.675 199.2

0.667

0.040

75394

0.367

37568

75136

-258

206.5

0.620

0.037

74887

0.366

37470

74940

53

0.725 213.9

0.578

0.035

74773

0.365

37375

74751

-22

0.75

221.3

0.540

0.032

75013

0.364

37284

74568

-444

0.775 228.7

0.506

0.031

75573

0.364

37196

74393

-1180

236.1

0.475

0.029

76425

0.363

37111

74223

-2202

0.825 243.4

0.446

0.028

77545

0.362

37029

74058

-3487

0.85

250.8

0.420

0.027

78913

0.361

36950

73899

-5013

0.875 258.2

0.397

0.026

80509

0.360

36873

73745

-6764

0.375

0.025

82321

0.360

36798

73596

-8725

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

118

177

265.6

Table 4-6, values for H=11

11

AVIATION ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

AVIMA 2010

5 Drag and thrust curves


D
Based on
n the equation in 1
1-4,, drag is consisted of two parts: 1)) 
   0C 2)
E . The


FG

first part is called parasite drag and the second part is induced drag, which the drag curved
is formed from sum of these parts:
parts

Induced drag, parasite drag and drag curves in H=0 km

450000
400000
350000

Drag (D) {N}

300000
250000
Parasite Drag

200000

Induced darg
150000

Drag

100000
50000
0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Mach number (Ma) {{-}

Figure 5--1,
1, Induced and parasite drag for H=0

Drag diagram
350000
300000

Drag (D), {N}

250000

D, H=0
D, H=4

200000

D, H=6
D, H=8

150000

D, H=10
D, H=11

100000
50000
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

Mach Number, (Ma) {{-}

Figure 5-2,
2, drag curves for H=0 to 11 km

0.9

AVIATION ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

AVIMA 2010

So, by increasing the Mach number in each altitude, the first part, parasite drag, increases
proportional to   and the induced drag is reduced, since it is proportional to

GE

. Therefore,
Therefore

the drag decreases to its minimum point (minimum drag speed). As the altitude increase
increase,
the density reduces and therefore, the speed should increases in the same time to maintain
the dynamic pressure (   ) constant. As it will be discussed in part 6, minimum drag for



each height will be the same

same,, but the minimum drag speed increases with altitude increase.
Therefore, for each higher altitude, the curve is almost the same, but only just shifted to the
right side. Only at higher altitude, the increasing rate of parasite drag is decreased, since the
density has a direct influence on parasite drag. The result for all drag curves are shown in
figure 5-2.
2.
The curves
ves for thrust in each altitude also show that with increasing the altitude, the thrust
available is decreased and also remain almost constant with increasing the Mach number.
Thrust available is dependent on pressure and two engine parameters, which vary in
different altitude. Thrust coefficient, () = * +, , is almost remains constant in higher
altitude than sea
se level, since the nF has a negative amount and is decreased to zero, then:
+,
 1.. In addition the pressure decreases as the altitude increases and therefore, the
amounts of trust available in higher altitude is lower than those near the sea level. The
results for thrust curves are also demonstrated in figure 5
5-3.

Thrust diagram
350000

300000

Thrust (T) {N}

250000
T, H=0
T, H=4

200000

T, H=6
T, H=8
150000

T, H=10
T, H=11

100000

50000
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Mach Number, (Ma) {{-}

Figure 5-3,, Thrust curves for H=0 to 11 km

As a result, the combination of all drag (thrust required) and thrust available for each
altitude are plotted and demonstrated in one diagram, Pnauds diagram.

AVIATION ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

AVIMA 2010

Pnauds diagram
350000

D, H=0

300000

Drag (D), Thrust (T) {N}

T, H=0
D, H=4

250000

T, H=4
D, H=6

200000

T, H=6
D, H=8
150000

T, H=8
D, H=10

100000

T, H=10
D, H=11

50000

T, H=11
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Mach Number, (Ma) {{-}

Figure 5-4,
5 Pnauds diagram for H=0 to 11 km

6 Calculating minimum drag

Minimum drag in each height is, the minimum thrust required
required to for a steady and level
flight. The minimum drag remains constant in each altitude, but the speed, in
in which the
minimum drag, occurs, increases as the altitude increase, since as the Eq. 1
1-10,
10, it depends
on density:


" 
" 
"
"


 = 
  = 
 ( + 
  ) = 
  #"
$ (%&. 1 9)
  + 
2
2
2
2
 
2
For obtain the minimum drag, its derivation should be equal to the zero:
4 
4
C = " 
=0
" I
"
4
H =
(Eq
Eq. 1 10)
 "  

The results for each altitude and the equivalent drag are gathered in the table .. As it clear
from the results, the amount of minimum drag rem
remains
ains the same for each altitude. Also, the
amounts, which are highlighted in the above table as minimum drag (without calculations)
are
re almost equal in each height.

AVIATION ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

AVIMA 2010

Vmd

Dmin

1.225

109.9519

67383.35

0.819

134.471

67383.35

0.6596

149.8409

67383.35

0.5251

167.9382

67383.35

10

0.4127

189.432

67383.35

11

0.3639

201.7342

67383.35

Table 6-1, Minimum drag and the correspondence speed for H=0 to 11 km

7 Calculating speed limits

For each drag and thrust curves in each height there are two intersection points, where T=D,
or thrust required is equal thrust available. That is for satisfying the level flight condition
T=D, two speed limitations are defined, which flying beyond these limits leads to an
unsteady flight:
1. Lift limit: The aircraft in each altitude cannot fly below stall speed. Stall speed
happens when lift coefficient increases till it reaches the stall amount. KLM
decreases the speed to KLM .
2. Mach limit: The second limit is the highest speed, where the thrust required and
thrust available are the same. Again here flying with a speed more than this amount
leads to unsteady flight.
Based on the data in the above table for each altitude, the maximum and minimum speed
for the 2 nearest positive and negative thrust surpluses to T-D=0 are shown in the following
table:

Negative amount
Vmin
Vmax

Positive amount
Vmin
Vmax

0
4
6
8
10
11

0.1
0.15
0.25
0.325
0.5
0.675

0.125
0.175
0.275
0.35
0.525
0.725

0.775
0.85
0.875
0.875
0.85
0.7

0.75
0.825
0.85
0.85
0.825
0.7

Table 7-1, Maximum and minimum speeds for positive and negative amounts near to T-D=0,
For H=0 to 11 km

15

AVIATION ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

AVIMA 2010

Based on the values of the table 7-1, the diagram of height vs. Mach number, is as follow:

Speed limits
12

Buffet limit

Stall limit

10

Height (km)

Q-Corner
6

Flight envelope
4

0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Speed (m/s)

Figure 7-2, speed limits for H=0 to 11 km

The curves for values T=D should be between the dark and light blue / red curves. In the
figure on area outside of the level-flight envelope is the area in which the aircraft cannot fly
in that region in straight and level flight.

8 Conclusion
Based on the above discussed issues, it can be summarized that for a level horizontal flight
without acceleration, with no wind situation and thrust vector in airspeed direction, the
following situation happens with changes in altitude and Mach speed:
1. The drag curves, consists of two parasites and induced parts. With increasing the
Mach number, the drag first reaches its minimum value at speed for minimum drag.
That is, the pilot needs by flying in this speed minimum required drag. After that the
drag curve has an increasing trend. But the steep in each higher altitude decreases,
since it is proportional to V and speed also varies with changing by altitude, eq.1-1.
2. The thrust values in low altitude decrease with increasing the Mach number but for
higher altitudes the values remain constant for different speed. Also, the thrust
values are decreasing for higher altitude, since the thrust is proportional mainly with
pressure, which decreases as the altitude increases.
3. In the Pnauds diagram, drag and thrust curves in each altitude have two
intersection points, which denotes is the speed limits points. The flight envelope
diagram shows these speed limits for different altitudes. If a pilot flies with speed
lower than minimum speed (stall speed) and maximum speed, the flight would be
not stable and horizontal anymore. At high altitude the margin for stable and level
flying is too small and the curves meet each other at Q-point.

16