IndefiniteIntegration06 10

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Maths / Indefinite Integration

Indefinite
Integration
01. Basic Rules and Formulae
02. Integration By Simple Rearrangements
03. Integration By Substitution
04. Expansion Using Partial Fractions
05. Integration By Parts
06. Miscellaneous Expressions / Substitutions
CONCEPT NO CONCEPT NO CONCEPT NO CONCEPT NO CONCEPT NOTES TES TES TES TES
Indefinite Integration
As mentioned in the unit Integration Basics, this chapter is devoted entirely to developing tools and techniques
to find out anti-derivatives of arbitrary functions. For readers who have not read Integration Basics, it is
advisable to go through that chapter first, before reading this.
The following is a set of straight forward rules pertaining to integration, that follow by definition:
(a) A constant is always included in the expression for the indefinite integral, i.e.,
if ( ) ( ) ' , g x f x then
( ) ( ) f x dx g x C +
This is because, as mentioned earlier, the derivative of a constant is 0.

(b) The integral of a derivative gives back the same function itself (with a constant):
( ) ( ) ' f x dx f x C +
The derivative of an integral also gives the same function:

( )
( )
( )
d
f x dx f x
dx

These two results are in agreement with the fact that differentiation and integration are inverse
operations.
(c) ( ) ( ) { } ( ) ( ) f x g x dx f x dx g x dx t +

(d) ( ) ( ) k f x dx k f x dx

(e) If ( ) ( ) , f x dx g x C +
then
( ) ( )
1
f ax b dx g ax b C
a
+ + +
... (i)
How is this true? Since g(x) is the anti-derivative of f(x), g'(x) = f(x).
Now we differentiate (i) :
( ) ( ) ( )
1 d
f ax b g ax b
a dx
+ +
( )
1
' g ax b a
a
+
( ) ' g ax b +
( ) f ax b +
This shows that (i) holds true.
This result is quite useful as well realise in the course of studying this chapter.
Section - 1 BASIC RULES AND FORMULAE
We now present a table of some basic integration formulae. You are urged to verify the truth of these formulae by
differentiating the right hand side of each formula and check whether the expression you obtain is equal to the one
inside the integral on the left hand side, or not:
BASIC INTEGRATION FORMULAE
01.
1
*
; 1
1
n
n
x
x dx C n
n
+
+
+
11. cot ln sin xdx x C +
02.
1
ln dx x C
x
+
12. tan ln cos xdx x C +
03.
x x
e dx e C +
13. sec ln sec tan xdx x x C + +
04.
ln
x
x
a
a dx C
a
+
14. cosec ln cosec cot xdx x x C +
05. sin cos xdx x C +
15.
1
2 2
1
sin
x
dx C
a
a x
06. cos sin xdx x C +
16.
1
1
2 2
1
sin
x
dx C
a
a x

1
2
cos
x
C
a
+
07.
2
sec tan xdx x C +
17.
1
2 2
1 1
tan
x
dx C
a x a a
+
+
08.
2
cosec cot xdx x C +
18.
1
1 2 2
1 1
tan
x
dx C
a x a a

+
+

1
2
1
cot
x
C
a a
+
09. sec tan sec x xdx x C +
19.
1
2 2
1 1
sec
x
dx C
a a
x x a
_
+

,
10. cosec cot cosec x xdx x C +
20.
1
1
2 2
1 1
sec
x
dx C
a a
x x a
1
2
1
cosec
x
C
a a
+
* In particular, dx x C +

For example, to prove that formula (17) is true, we differentiate the right side:
1 1
1 1
tan tan
d x d x
dx a a a dx a

_ _ _

, , ,
2
2
1 1 1
1
x a a
a

+
2
2 2 2
1 a
a x a

+
2 2
1
x a
+
Therefore,
1
2 2
1 1
tan
x
dx C
x a a a
+
+
Suppose that you now have to evaluate the following integral:

( )
2
2
1
dx
a bx c + +
We will use formula (17) and rule (e) stated earlier:

( )
1
2
2
1 1 1
tan
bx c
dx C
a a b
a bx c
+ _
+

, + +

1
1
tan
bx c
C
ab a
+ _
+

,
Observe carefully how we obtained the final expression.
There is a variety of methods in which we can evaluate indefinite integrals. We can broadly divide these methods
into five major categories:
(1) SIMPLE REARRANGEMENTS : We rearrange the given expression in such a way so that we
obtain a combination of the basic integrals that we have just
discussed.
(2) SUBSTITUTIONS : We use some substitution to convert the given
expression into a more conveniently integrable form.
(3) EXPANSION USING : This method is applicable to rational algebraic
PARTIAL FRACTIONS functions; we use a partial fractions expansion to split
such a function into more elementary functions that can
easily be integrated.
(4) INTEGRATION BY PARTS : This powerful method can be applied to the product of any
two arbitrary functions.
(5) REDUCTION FORMULAE : These formulae make it possible to reduce an integral
depending on the index n > 0, called the order of the integral,
to an integral of the same type but with a smaller index.
All these methods will now be discussed in detail.
A word of advice: make it a point to practice as much questions as possible for integration; only then can you get
the hang of it. You should even attempt the solved examples on your own before looking at the solutions.
A lot many functions that well encounter can be reduced to simpler forms by some rearrangement/algebraic
manipulation. These simpler forms are easily integrable because they correspond to one of the standard basic
integrals that we discussed in the previous section.
The rearrangement technique is best illustrated through examples.
Evaluate
cos cos 2
1 cos
x x
dx
x
.
Solution: We can try expanding cos 2x by the half angle formula:
( )
2
cos 2cos 1
cos cos 2
1 cos 1 cos
x x
x x
dx dx
x x

( )( )
( )
2cos 1 1 cos
1 cos
x x
dx
x
+
( ) 2cos 1 x dx +

2sin . x x C + +

Observe how the rearrangement we used led to a simpler expression that was easily integrable.
Evaluate
( ) ( )
1
sin cos
dx
x a x b
.
Solution: The denominator is of the form sin P cos Q, where P and Q are variable; but notice an important fact:
P Q is a constant. This should give us the required hint:

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
cos 1 1
sin cos cos sin cos
a b
dx dx
x a x b a b x a x b

( )
( ) ( ) { }
( ) ( )
cos
1
cos sin cos
x b x a
dx
a b x a x b

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
cos cos sin sin
1
cos sin cos
x b x a x b x a
dx
a b x a x b
+
Section - 2 INTEGRATION BY SIMPLE REARRANGEMENTS

Example 1
Example 2
( )
( ) ( ) { }
1
cot tan
cos
x a x b dx
a b
+

( )
( ) ( ) { }
1
ln sin ln cos
cos
x a x b C
a b
+
( )
( )
( )
sin
1
ln
cos cos
x a
C
a b x b
+

What we had to do in this question was therefore to realise that since P Q is a constant, an introduction
of the term cos (P Q) in the numerator would lead to cancellations and simple cot and tan terms
which can easily be integrated.
Evaluate
( )
3
2
1
x
dx
x +
.
Solution: The numerator has a degree higher then the denominator which hints that some reduction of this
rational expression is possible. This reduction can be accomplished if we somehow rearrange the
numerator in such a way that it leads to a cancellation of common factors with the denominator; since
the denominator is (x + 1)
2
, we try to rearrange the numerator in terms of (x + 1):

( )
( )
( )
3
3
2 2
1 1
1 1
x
x
dx dx
x x
+
+ +

( )( )
( ) ( )
2
2 2
1 1
1
1 1
x x x
dx
x x

+ +

' ;
+ +

( )
( )
2
2
1 1
1
1
x x
dx
x
x

+

' ;
+
+

( )
2
2
2 3 1
1
1
x x
dx
x
x

+

' ;
+
+

( )( )
( )
( )
2
1 2 3
1
1
1
x x
dx
x
x

+ +

' ;
+
+

( )
( )
2
3 1
2
1
1
x dx
x
x

+
' ;
+
+

( )
2
1
2 3ln 1
2 1
x
x x C
x
+ + + +
+

Example 3
Evaluate
x
dx
x a x b + + +
.
Solution: The form of the expression in the denominator clearly hints that a reduction is possible by rationalization
which would lead to a constant term in the denominator:
{ }
( ) ( )
x x a x b
x
dx dx
x a x b x a x b
+ +
+ + + + +

( )
{ }
1
x x a x x b dx
a b
+ +

( ) ( )
{ }
1
x a a x a x b b x b dx
a b
+ + + +

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
{ }
3 3 1 1
2 2 2 2
1
x a x b a x a b x b dx
a b
+ + + + +

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
5 5 3 3
2 2 2 2
1
5 5 3 3
2 2 2 2
x a x b a x a b x b
C
a b

+ + + +

+ +
' ;

The first simplification by rationalization led to an expression which involved two terms of the form
; x x a +
to integrate these terms, we wrote the x outside the root as (x + a a) so that a final
expression is obtained which contains only terms of the form
( ) ;
n
x k + these could then be integrated
easily.
Evaluate
1 cos 4
cot tan
x
dx
x x
+
.
Solution: We simply both the numerator and the denominator separately :
2
1 cos 4 2cos 2
cos sin
cot tan
sin cos
x x
dx dx
x x
x x
x x
+

2
2 2
2sin cos cos 2
cos sin
x x x
dx
x x

2
sin 2 cos 2
cos 2
x x
dx
x
sin 2 cos 2 x x dx

1
sin 4
2
x dx

1
cos 4
8
x C +

Example 4
Example 5
Evaluate tan tan 2 tan3 x x x dx
.
Solution: Notice that 3 2 , x x x + so that
( ) tan3 tan 2 x x x +
tan 2 tan
1 tan 2 tan
x x
x x
+
tan tan 2 tan 3 tan 3 tan 2 tan x x x x x x

The required integral is now easy to evaluate :
{ } tan tan 2 tan3 tan3 tan 2 tan x x x dx x x x dx

1 1
ln sec3 ln sec 2 ln sec
3 2
x x x C +

Evaluate
( )
( )
sin
sin
x a
dx
x b
.
Solution: Taking cue from Example-2, our aim should be to somehow get rid of the variable term sin (x b) in
the denominator; to do this, we write the numerator ( ) sin x a as ( ) ( ) { }
sin : x b a b
( )
( )
( ) ( ) { }
( )
sin sin
sin sin
x b a b x a
dx dx
x b x b

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
sin cos cos sin
sin
x b a b x b a b
dx
x b

( ) ( ) ( ) { }
cos sin cot a b a b x b dx
( ) ( ) ( ) cos sin ln sin x a b a b x b C +

Evaluate
ax b
dx
cx d
+
+
.
Solution: As in Ex-2 and Ex-7, we try to express the numerator in terms of the denominator, so that a cancellation
is possible and we can get rid of the variable term ( ) cx d + in the denominator:
Example 6
Example 7
Example 8
b
ax b a x
a
_
+ +

,
a bc
cx
c a
_
+

,
a bc
cx d d
c a
_
+ +

,
( )
a ad
cx d b
c c
_
+ +

,
( )
a ad
cx d b
ax b c c
dx dx
cx d cx d
_
+ +

+
,

+ +

ad
b
a c
dx
c cx d
_

,
+
' ;
+

( )
1
ln
ax ad
b cx d C
c c c
_
+ + +

,
( )
2
ln
ax bc ad
cx d C
c c
_
+ + +

,

Evaluate
sin 4
sin
x
dx
x
.
Solution: The expression can be simplified by a straight forward expansion of the numerator :

sin 4 2sin 2 cos 2
sin sin
x x x
dx dx
x x

sin cos cos 2
4
sin
x x x
dx
x
4 cos cos 2 x x dx
{ } 2 cos3 cos x x dx +
2
sin3 2sin
3
x x C + +

Example 9
Evaluate the following integrals:
(a)
3
cos x dx
(b)
4
cos x dx
(c) sin 2 cos 4 cos5 x x x dx
(d)
3 3
sin cos x x dx
Solution: (a) We know the integral of cos x; we must express the cubic cos term (cos
3
x) in terms of linear cos
terms; this can be done using the triple angle formula :
3
cos3 4cos 3cos x x x
{ }
3
1
cos 3cos cos3
4
x x x +

3
3 1
cos sin sin3
4 12
x dx x x C + +

(b) Here again, we need to express the fourth degree cos term ( )
4
cos x in terms of linear cos terms:
( )
2
4 2
cos cos x x

2
1 cos 2
2
x + _

,

2
1 cos 2 1
cos 2
4 4 2
x
x + +

( ) 1 cos 4
1 1
cos 2
4 8 2
x
x
+
+ +

3 1 1
cos 2 cos 4
8 2 8
x x + +

4
3 sin 2 sin 4
cos
8 4 32
x x x
x dx C + + +

Example 10
(c) ( )
1
sin 2 cos 4 cos5 2sin 2 cos 4 cos5
2
x x x x x x
( )
1
sin 6 sin 2 cos5
2
x x x
( ) ( ) { }
1
2sin 6 cos5 2sin 2 cos5
4
x x x x
{ }
1
sin11 sin sin 7 sin3
4
x x x x + +
{ }
1
sin sin3 sin 7 sin11
4
x x x x + +

cos cos3 cos 7 cos11
sin 2 cos 4 cos5
4 12 28 44
x x x x
x x x dx C
+ +

(d)
( )
3
3 3
sin cos sin cos x x x x
( )
3
2sin cos
8
x x
3
sin 2
8
x
1 3sin 2 sin 6
8 4
x x
' ;

Triple angle
formula
_

,
3 1
sin 2 sin 6
32 32
x x
3 3
3 1
sin cos cos 2 cos 6
64 192
x x dx x x C
+ +

A lot many times, we will encounter functions whose integrals cannot be obtained from their original expressions;
however, an appropriate substitution might reduce the given function to another function whose integral is obtainable.
This method of integration by substitution is used extensively to evaluate integrals. As we progress along this
section we will develop certain rules of thumb that will tell us what substitutions to use where. Also, multiple
substitutions might be possible for the same function. Therefore, integration by substitution is more of an art and
you can develop the knack of it only by extensive practice (and of course, some thinking !)
Evaluate
3
2
cos
sin sin
x
dx
x x +
Section - 3 INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION

Example 11
Solution: The general approach while substitution is as follows:
Suppose we have to obtain ( ) f x dx
. We find some function ( ) x (and put it equal to a variable y)

such that ( ) ' x dx dy is some part of f(x)dx. This will let us express ( ) f x dx
in terms of another
integral which contains only y.
This approach will become quite clear when we apply it on the given example:
( )
2
3
2 2
1 sin cos
cos
sin sin sin sin
x x
x
I dx dx
x x x x

+ +

Observe carefully why we wrote
2
cos x in the numerator of I as ( )
2
1 sin ; x if we now substitute
sin , x y well get cos , x dx dy so that the entire expression of I can be reduced to another
integral which contains only y:
sin x y
cos x dx dy
( )
2
2
1 y
I dy
y y

( ) 1 y
dy
y

1
1 dy
y
_

,
ln y y C +
We see that the modified integral (the integral in terms of y) was easily integrable; to obtain the integral
in terms of x, we now simply substitution y = sin x:
ln sin sin I x x C +
Evaluate
( )
7
5
2
1
x
dx
x
Solution: This example will serve to show that multiple substitutions are possible for the same function.
(a) Notice that the numerator ,
7
, x dx can be written as
6
x xdx . If we substitute
2
, x y well obtain
2
dy
xdx
so that the entire integral can be expressed in terms of y. However, the integral will
become
( )
3
5
1
2
1
y
dy
y
Example 12
which still cannot be integrated directly because of the denominator
( )
5
1 y . What we therefore do
is substitute (1 x
2
) = y instead of x
2
= y, because then the denominator will be reduced further
directly:

2
1 x y
2
dy
xdx

( ) ( )
7 6
5 5
2 2
1 1
x x x
I dx dx
x x

( )
3
5
1
1
2
y
dy
y

3 2
5
1 1 3 3
2
y y y
dy
y
+
' ;

{ }
2 3 4 5
1
3 3
2
y y y y dy

+
2 3 4
1 1 3 1 1
2 2 4
C
y y y y

+ + +
' ;

2 3
4
1 4 6 4
8
y y y
C
y
+
+

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2 3
2 2 2
2
2
1 4 1 6 1 4 1
1
8 1
x x x
C
x
+
+

(b) The denominator contains the term (1 x
2
). Think of a substitution that could cause the denominator
to reduce to a single term: this substitution should be trignometric:
sin x
cos dx d
( ) ( )
7 7
5 5
2 2
sin cos
1 1 sin
x
I dx d
x

7
10
sin cos
cos
d

7 2
tan sec d

Notice now that the simple substitution tan y will reduce I to a simple integrable form:
tan y
2
sec d dy
7 2 7
tan sec I d y dy

8
8
y
C +

8
tan
8
C
+

( )
( )
8
4
2
sin
8 1
x
C x
x
+

There is one last point to be observed. The answers obtained by methods (a) and (b) might seem
to be different from each other. However, verify that they are not! The answer obtained by (a) can
be converted into the answer obtained by (b) by just a simple splitting of the constant of integration.
Evaluate
( )
2
2
1
2 2
dx
x x + +
.
Solution:
( )
2
2
1
2 2
I dx
x x
+ +

( )
( )
2
2
1
1 1
dx
x
+ +
The denominator can be reduced by the substitution

1 tan x +
( )
2
2 2
1 1 tan 1 sec x + + +
Also,
2
sec dx d

2
4
sec
sec
I d

2
cos d
( )
1
1 cos 2
2
d +

1 sin 2
2 2
C
_
+ +

,

( )
1
sin cos
2
C + +
Example 13
To express the integral in terms of x, we use

1 tan x +
( )
1
tan 1 x

+
( )
( )
2
1
sin
1 1
x
x
+ +
and
( )
2
1
cos
1 1 x

+ +
( )
1
2
1 1
tan 1
2 2 2
x
I x C
x x
+
+ + +
' ;
+ +

Evaluate
1 1
.
1
x
dx
x x
Solution: A slight thought on the form of this expression will hint that a trignometric substitution might help; recall
that both ( ) 1 cos and ( ) 1 cos + can be reduced to single terms. Therefore, we use the substitution
cos x
2
cos x
2sin cos dx d
( )
2
1 1 1 cos 1
. .
2sin cos
1 cos cos 1
x
I dx d
x x

+ +

( )
( )
2
2
2sin
2
2 tan
2cos
2
d

2 tan . tan
2
d

_

,

( )
2
sin
2
4
cos
d

1 cos
2
cos
d
( ) 2 sec 1 d
{ }
2 ln sec tan C + +

1 sin
2ln 2
cos
C
+
+ +

1
1 1
2ln 2cos
x
x C
x
_
+
+ +

,

Example 14
Evaluate
4
1
1
dx
x x
.
Solution: One possible way to reduce the term
4
1 x
is to use a trignometric substitution:
2
sec x
4 2 2
1 sec 1 tan x
2 sec tan xdx d

4 2 4
1
1 1
x
I dx dx
x x x x

1 sec tan
2 sec tan
d

1
2
d

2
C
+
( )
1 2
1
sec
2
x C
+

Notice that for the five preceding examples, different substitution have been used in all the five. This shows that
there is no hard-and-fast rule to do substitutions; you have to judge the most appropriate substitution by analyzing
the expression of the function to be integrated.
Evaluate
2
tan
tan
x
dx
a b x +
Solution: We first reduce this expression to another form involving sin and cos terms:
2 2
sin cos
cos sin
x x
I dx
a x b x
If you observe the expression for I carefully, you will realise that a simple substitution in now possible:
2 2
cos sin a x b x y +
( 2 sin cos 2 sin cos ) a x x b x x dx dy +
sin cos
2 2
dy
x xdx
b a
Thus we have obtained the numerator in terms of the derivative of the denominator:
1
2( )
dy
I
b a y

ln | |
2( )
y
C
b a
+
2 2
ln | cos sin |
2( )
a x b x
C
b a
+
+
Example 15
Example 16

Evaluate 3
1
sin sin( )
dx
x x a +
Solution: As in the previous example, we again have to modify the expression given to us, so that some substitution
is possible. The first step that we could take is expand sin( ) x a + :
3
1
sin sin( )
I dx
x x a
3
1
sin (sin cos cos sin )
dx
x x a x a
To proceed further, notice that there is a

3
sin x term in the denominator. What we now do is take out
a common factor of sin x from the (inner) brackets so that sin
3
x becomes sin
4
x:
( )
4
1
sin cos cot sin
I dx
x a x a

2
1
sin cos cot sin
dx
x a x a

2
cosec
cos cot sin
x
dx
a x a
This is a form in which the numerator can be expressed as the derivative of the expression in the
denominator.
Substitute cos cot sin a x a t +
2
sin cosec a x dx dt
1
sin
dt
I
a t

(
2
sin
t C
a
+
2 cos cot sin
sin
a x a
C
a
+
+
(a)
2 2
1
dx
a x
(b)
2 2
1
dx
a x +
(c)
2 2
1
dx
x x a
(d)
2 2
1
dx
x a
(e)
2 2
1
dx
x a +
(f)
2 2
1
dx
x a
Example 17
Example 18
Solution: This example is very important in the sense that the techniques subsequently described to evaluate
these integrals can be used anywhere where such expressions are encountered.
Recall that the results to parts-(a), (b) and (c) have already been mentioned in the table titled
Basic integration formulae on page -2. Also we have already seen (in examples 12, 13, 15),
some of the integrals of these forms. Before starting with the solutions, consider the following table
carefully which describes certain substitutions that can be used whenever expressions of the forms
above are encountered.
2 2
2 2
2 2
expression can be reduced by the substitution
(1) sin or cos
(2) tan or cot
(3) sec or cosec
a x x a x a
a x x a x a
x a x a x a

+

Verify that these substitutions will reduce the corresponding algebraic expressions to simpler trignometric
expressions. We now proceed with the solutions:
(a)
2 2
1
I dx
a x
Substitute
sin x a
cos dx a d
and
2 2 2 2 2
sin a x a a
2 2
cos a
cos
cos
a
I d
a
C +
1
sin
x
C
a
+

Notice how convenient the integral became with the mentioned substitution.
(b)
2 2
1
I dx
a x
Substitute
tan x a
2
sec dx a d
and
2 2 2 2 2
tan a x a a + +

2 2
sec a
2
2 2
sec
sec
a
I d
a
1
d
a

C
a
+
1
1
tan
x
C
a a
+

(c)
2 2
1
I dx
x x a
Substitute
sec x a
sec tan dx a d
and
2 2 2 2 2
sec x a a a
2 2
tan a
2 2
sec tan
sec tan
a
I d
a a

1
d
a

C
a
+
1
1
sec
x
C
a a
+

(d)
2 2
1
I dx
x a
Substitute
sec x a
sec tan dx a d
and
2 2 2 2
tan x a a
2 2
sec tan
tan
a
I d
a

1
cosec d
a

1
ln cosec cot C
a
+
2 2 2 2
1
ln
x a
C
a
x a x a
+

1
ln
x a
C
a x a
+
+
1
ln
2
x a
C
a x a
+
+

Instead of the substitution technique as described above, this integral could have alternatively been
evaluate much more simply by a straightforward rearrangement of the expression:
2 2
1
I dx
x a
1 1 1
2
dx
a x a x a
_

+
,
( )
1
ln( ) ln( )
2
x a x a C
a
+ +
1
ln
2
x a
C
a x a
_
+

+
,

This again shows that there is no set rule to integration. You have to use your intuition to figure out
the shortest possible route to the final answer.
(e)
2 2
1
I dx
x a
Substitute
tan x a
2
sec dx a d
and
2 2 2 2 2
tan x a a a + +
2 2
sec a
2
2 2
sec
sec
a
I d
a
sec d
ln sec tan C + +
2
ln 1 tan tan C + + +
2 2
ln
x a x
C
a a
+
+ +
2 2
ln ln x x a a C + + +
2 2
ln x x a C + + +

(f)
2 2
1
I dx
x a
Substitute
sec x a
sec tan dx a d
and
2 2 2 2 2
sec x a a a
2 2
tan a
2 2
sec tan
tan
a
I d
a

sec d
ln sec tan C + +
2
ln sec sec 1 C + +
2 2
ln x x a C + +

The expressions encountered in these six examples will widely be found elsewhere in this chapter
too and therefore, you are advised to commit these six results to memory. If memorization is not
possible for you, you should at least understand the techniques involved carefully so that you are
quickly able to reproduce the answers whenever the need arises.
Evaluate the following integrals
(a)
2
1
4 3
dx
x x
(b)
2
1
2 2
dx
x x + +
(c)
2
1
( 2) 4 3
dx
x x x + + +
(d)
2
1
6 8
dx
x x + +
(e)
2
1
4 12 10
dx
x x + +
(f)
2
1
25 20 3
dx
x x + +
Solution: If you observe the forms of the expressions to be integrated carefully, you will realise that each part
corresponds to a part in the previous example. Hence well use the results obtained in the previous
part directly:
(a)
2
1
4 3
I dx
x x
2
1
1 ( 2)
dx
x
1
sin ( 2) x C
+

(b)
2
1
2 2
I dx
x x
+ +
2
1
( 1) 1
dx
x
+ +
1
tan ( 1) x C
+ +

(c)
2
1
( 2) 4 3
I dx
x x x
+ + +
2
1
( 2) ( 2) 1
dx
x x
+ +
1
sec ( 2) x C
+ +

(d)
2
1
6 8
I dx
x x
+ +
2
1
( 3) 1
dx
x
1 2
ln
2 4
x
C
x
+
+
+

Example 19
(e)
2
1
4 12 10
I dx
x x
+ +
2
1
(2 3) 1
dx
x
+ +
2
1
ln (2 3) 4 12 10
2
x x x C + + + + +

(f)
2
1
25 20 3
I dx
x x
+ +
2
1
(5 2) 1
dx
x
2
1
ln (5 2) 25 20 3
5
x x x C + + + + +

(a)
a x
dx
a x
(b)
x a
dx
b x
Solution: We saw in example-14, a particular example of the general expression in part -(a) above.
As in example-18, we will mention here the appropriate substitutions to be used whenever expressions
of the forms above are encountered.
2 2
Expression Can be reduced by the substitution
(1) or cos 2
(2) or ( )( ) cos sin
a x a x
x a
a x a x
x a
x a b x x a b
b x
It is straightforward to see why these substitutions are appropriate

(a) Substitute
cos 2 x a

2 sin 2 dx a d
and ( ) (1 cos 2 ) a x a

2
2 sin a
and ( ) (1 cos 2 ) a x a + +

2
2 cos a
Example 20

2
2
2 sin
2 sin 2
2 cos
a
I a d
a
2 tan sin 2 a d
...(1)

2
4 sin a d

{ }
2
4 cos 1 a d
1 cos 2
4 1
2
a d
+

' ;

2 (cos 2 1) a d
sin 2 2 a a C +
2
1
2
1 cos
x x
a a C
a a
+
2 2 1
cos
x
a x a C
a
+

(b) Substitute
2 2
cos sin x a b +
( ) sin 2 dx b a d
and
2
( ) ( ) sin x a b a
and
2
( ) ( ) cos b x b a
2
2
( ) sin
( ) sin 2
( ) cos
b a
I b a d
b a
( ) tan sin 2 b a d
You can proceed further as we did from (1) above.

Evaluate
sin cos
9 16sin 2
x x
dx
x
+
+
Solution: In our search for an appropriate substitution, we must look into how we can express the numerator
(sin cos ) x x dx + in terms of the differential of the denominator (or some part of the denominator).
Notice that (sin cos ) x x + is the derivative of ( cos sin ). x x + What if we could express the
denominator in terms of ( cos sin ) x x + . We could then use the substitution ( cos sin ) x x + = y.
This is what we proceed to do:

9 16sin 2x +
9 16( 1 1 sin 2 ) x +
{ }
2
9 16 1 (sin cos ) x x +

2
25 16( cos sin ) x x +
Example 21
Thus, we have succeded in expressing the denominator in terms of ( cos sin ) x x + :
Substituted cos sin x x y +
(sin cos ) x x dx dy +
2
25 16
dy
I
y
( )
2
1
16 25/16
dy
y
This integral is of the form discussed in Example -18 part (d). You can proceed from here based on
the discussion done previously in that example. Verify that the answer is :
1 5 4cos 4sin
ln
40 5 4cos 4sin
x x
I C
x x
+
+
+

(a)
3 4
sin cos x xdx
(b)
2 5
sin cos x x dx
(c)
3 5
sin cos x x dx
(d)
5
cos xdx
(e)
4 3 5
1
sin cos
dx
x x
(e)
4 2
sin cos x x dx
(g)
8
cos x dx
(h)
4 2
sec cosec x x dx
.
Solution: (a)
3 4
sin cos I x x dx
Notice that the power of

sin x
is odd while that of cos x is even. What substitution can we
possibly use? If we use sin , x t we will get cos . x dx dt Thus, well be left with
3 3
cos , t x dt
which contains
3
cos ; x
this will be tedious to express in terms of (sin ). t x We therefore use the
substitution cos ; x t you will soon see that this is an appropriate substitution.
cos x t
sin x dx dt
3 4
sin cos I x x dx
2 4
sin x t dt
2 4
(1 ) t t dt
6 4
( ) t t dt
7 5
7 5
t t
C +
7 5
cos cos
7 5
x x
C +
Example 22
(b)
2 5
sin cos I x x dx
If you compare this integral with the one in part-(a), youll see that the roles have been reversed.
sin x has an even power while the power of cos x is odd. We therefore use the substitution
sin x t
cos x dx dt
2 4
cos I t x dt
2 2 2
(1 ) t t dt
2 4 2
( 2 1) t t t dt +
6 4 2
( 2 ) t t t dt +
7 5 3
2
7 5 3
t t t
C + +
7 5 3
sin 2sin sin
7 5 3
x x x
C + +
(c)
3 5
sin cos I x x dx
Here, the powers of sin x and cos x are both odd. This suggests that we can substitute either
sin x
or cos x as a new variable. We use sin . x t
cos x dx dt
3 4
cos I t x dt
3 2 2
(1 ) t t dt
3 4 2
( 2 1) t t t dt +
7 5 3
( 2 ) t t t dt +
8 6 4
8 3 4
t t t
C + +
8 6 4
sin sin sin
8 3 4
x x x
C + +

(d)
5
cos I x dx
The power of cos xis odd. As in part-(b), we use the substitution sin x t
cos x dx dt
4
cos I x dt
2 2
(1 ) t dt
4 2
( 2 1) t t dt +
5 3
2
5 3
t t
t C + +
5 3
sin 2sin
sin
5 3
x x
x C + +
(e)
4 3 5
1
sin cos
I dx
x x
Observe that neither the substitution on sin x t or cos x t would help. Some rearrangement
needs to be done before we can substitute for something
4 3 5
1
sin cos
I dx
x x

3
8
4
3
How did we hit upon this rearrangement?
Answer: We are trying to rearrange the
expression so that it contains tan and
sec terms
1
sin
cos
cos
x
x
dx
x
x
x

' ;

4 2 3
1
cos tan
dx
x x

2
4 3
sec
tan
x
dx
x
Now we use the substitution tan x t

2
sec x dx dt

3/4
dt
I
t

1/4
4t C +

1/4
4(tan ) x C +
This example is one where the powers of sin x and cos x add up to a negative integer
3 5
in this question, 2
4 4
_ _
+
' ;

, ,
(f)
4 2
sin cos I x x dx
Both the powers are even. Observe that neither of the substitutions
sin x t
or
cos x t
would
help. Therefore, we again try to convert this expression into another form which contains
tan x
and sec x terms, as in the previous examples.
4 2
sin cos I x x dx
4
6
4
sin
cos
cos
x
x dx
x

4
6
tan
sec
x
dx
x
Not much headway! What do we do now?

Neither the substitution tan x t or sec x t would help much in the final integral above.
We now follow an alternative approach. We use multiple angle formulae to reduce the non-linear
trignometric terms in the integral expression to linear trignometric terms.

4 2 2
sin (sin ) x x

2
1 cos 2
2
x _

,
( )
2
1
1 2cos 2 cos 2
4
x x +

1 1 cos 4
1 2cos 2
4 2
x
x
+ _
+

,
( )
1
3 4cos 2 cos 4
8
x x +
Similarly,
2
1 cos 2
cos
2
x
x
+
1
(1 cos 2 )(3 4cos 2 cos 4 )
16
I x x x dx + +
{ }
2
1
3 cos 2 cos 4 4cos 2 cos 2 cos 4
16
x x x x x dx + +
1 4(1 cos 4 ) cos 6 cos 2

3 cos 2 cos 4
16 2 2
x x x
x x dx
+ +
+ +
' ;

1 1 1
1 cos 2 cos 4 cos 6
16 2 2
x x x dx

+
' ;

1 sin 2 sin 4 sin 6

16 4 4 12
x x x
x C
_
+ +

,

(g)
8
cos I x dx
The power of cos x is even . As in the previous example, we use multiple angle formulae to reduce
the non-linear trignometric term
8
(cos ) x to (a combination of) linear trignometric terms.

8
cos I x dx

4
1 cos 2
2
x
dx
+ _
( )
2
2
1
(1 cos 2 )
16
x dx +

( )
2
2
1
1 2cos 2 cos 2
16
x x dx + +

2
1 1 cos 4
1 2cos 2
16 2
x
x dx
+ _
+ +

,
( )
2 1
3 4cos 2 cos 4
64
x x dx + +
{ }
2 2
1
9 16cos 2 cos 4 24cos 2 6cos 4 8cos 2 cos 4
64
x x x x x x + + + + +
1 1 cos 4 1 cos8
9 16 24cos 2 6cos 4 4cos 6 4cos 2
64 2 2
x x
x x x x dx
+ +
+ + + + + +
_
' ;

,
1 35 1
28cos 2 14cos 4 4cos 6 cos8
64 2 2
x x x x dx

+ + + +
' ;

This expression involves purely linear trignometric terms and can easily be integrated. Thus,
35 7 7 1 1
sin 2 sin 4 sin 6 sin8
128 32 128 96 1024
I x x x x x C + + + + +

You may rest assured that youll never encounter such a lengthy question in an actual exam. This
example was just included to illustrate the techniques involved.
(h)
4 2
2 4
1
sec cosec
sin cos
I x x dx dx
x x

Again, neither the substitution
sin x t
or cos x t would help. We also cannot use multiple
angle formulae as weve done in the previous two examples. However, as in part -(e), we can
convert this expression into one involving
tan x
and sec x terms.
2 4
1
sin cos
I dx
x x
2 6
1
tan cos
dx
x x
6
2
sec
tan
x
dx
x
Now, we use the substitution

tan x t
. Thus,
2
sec x dx dt
4
2
sec x
I dt
t
2 2
2
(1 tan ) x
dt
t
+

2 2
2
(1 t )
dt
t
+
4 2
2
t 2 1 t
dt
t
_ + +
2 2
( 2 ) t t dt
+ +
3
1
2
3
t
t C
t
+ +
3
tan 1
2tan
3 tan
x
x C
x
+ +

Note that like part -(e), this example is also one where the powers of sin x and cos x and up to a
negative integer.
From these eight examples, we can make certain generalizations as to how to solve integrals of the
form sin cos
m n
I x x dx
, where , m n Q .

Condition Substitution /Action
(1) is an odd integer, is an even integer
(2) is an odd integer, is an even integer
(3) Both , are odd integers
(4) Both , are even integers
(5) , add up to a negat
m n
n m
m n
m n
m n
cos
sin
sin or cos
Use multiple-angle formulae to convert the given expression
into one involving only linear trignometric terms.
ive integer Convert the given expression into one involving tan
x t
x t
x t x t
x

and
sec terms and then use the substitution tan = x x t
You are urged to draw up a similar table for integrals of the form tan sec ,
m n
I x x dx
where
, m n Q .
(a)
2
4
1
1
x
dx
x
+
+
(b)
2
4
1
1
x
dx
x
(c)
2
4 2
1
1
x
dx
x x
+
+ +
(d)
4
1
1
dx
x +
Example 23
Solution: (a)
2
4
1
1
x
I dx
x
+
A slight algebraic manipulation of the given expression will lead us to a possible substitution; we
divide the numerator and denominator by
2
x
.
2
2
2
1
1
1
x
I dx
x
x
+
We now need to express the numerator as a differential of some term occurring in the denomina-
tor. The denominator
2
2
1
x
x
+
can be written
2
1
2 x
x
_
+

,
. The derivative of
1
x
x
is
2
1
x
x
+
.
Thus, we substitute
1
x t
x
. The integral reduces to
2
2
dt
I
t
.
This is of the form encountered in Example-18 part-b. (Refer to that example for elaboration).
The value of the integral is

1
1
tan
2 2
t
I C
_
+

,

2
1
1 1
tan
2 2
x
C
x
_
+

,

(b)
2
4
1
1
x
I dx
x
We follow the same approach as we did in the previous part:

2
2
2
1
1
1
x
I dx
x
x
However, this time we write the denominator

2
2
1
x
x
_
+

,
as
2
1
2 x
x
_
+

,
and substitute
1
x t
x
_
+

,
; this is because the numerator
2
1
1
x
_

,
, is a derivative of
1
x
x
_
+

,
, while in the
previous example, the numerator was
2
1
1
x
_
+

,
, which was a derivative of
1
x
x
_

,
.
Thus, we have,
1
x t
x
+
2
2
dt
I
t
This is of the form encountered in Example - 18 part (d)
1 2
ln
2 2 2
t
I C
t
+
+
2
2
1 2 1
ln
2 2 2 1
x x
C
x x
+
+
+ +

(c)
2
2
4 2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
x
x
I dx dx
x x
x
x
+
+

+ +
+ +

2
2
1
1
1
3
x
dx
x
x
+
_
+

,
The substitution
1
x t
x
reduces I to an integrable form:

2
3
dt
I
t

1
1
tan
3 3
t
C
_
+

,

2
1
1 1
tan
3 3
x
C
x
_
+

,

(d)
4
1
1
I dx
x
This integral can easily be obtained from the integrals weve already evaluated in parts (a) and (b):
2 2
4 4 4
1 1 1 1
1 2 1 1
x x
I dx dx dx
x x x
+

' ;
+ + +

Evaluate tan d
.
Solution: To get rid of the square-root and convert this expression into a purely rational one, we use the substi-
tution
2
tan x
Thus,
2
sec 2 d x dx

2
2
sec
x dx
d

4
2
1
x
dx
x
+

2
4
2
1
x
I x dx
x

+

2
4
2
1
x
dx
x

2 2
4 4
1 1
1 1
x x
dx dx
x x
+
+
+ +

We have already evaluated both these integrals in the previous examples.
Evaluate
8
12
1
x
dx
x
Solution: To simplify this integral, we need to make an appropriate substitution, such as

n
x t
where
12 n <
,
n should of course be a factor of 12 and the numerator
8
( ) x dx should be expressible in terms of t and
the differential of t. A little though will show that
3
x t
is the appropriate substitution possible here:
3
x t

2
3x dx dt

8
12
1
x
I dx
x

3 2 2
3 4
( )
( ) 1
x x
dx
x
Example 24
Example 25
2
4
1
3 1
t
dt
t
2
2 2
1
3 ( 1)( 1)
t
dt
t t
2 2
2 2
1 ( 1) ( 1)
6 ( 1)( 1)
t t
dt
t t
+ +
The numerator was written like this so

that the two factors in the denominator
get separated into different fractions
_

,
2 2
1 1 1
=
6 1 1
dt dt
t t

+
' ;
+

1
1 1 1
= tan ln
6 2 1
t
t C
t
_
+ +

+
,
3
1 3
3
1 1 1
= tan ln
6 12 1
x
x C
x

+ +
+

In the preceding examples, we have seem a lot many integrals, which could be evaluated using the general results
derived in Example-18. In fact, these results are very important and many integrals that well encounter can be
reduced by appropriate manipulations to one of these general forms.
The following table extends Table-1 on Page-2 and includes these general forms as standard integral forms.
(This table is being presented here for your convenience and easy reference-the results are from Example-18)
Table - 1 Continued
Standard integrals
Integrals Substitution used Result
15.
2 2
1
dx
a x
sin x a
1
sin
x
C
a
+
17.
2 2
1
dx
a x +
tan x a
1
1
tan
x
C
a a
+
19.
2 2
1
dx
x x a
sec x a
1
1
sec
x
C
a a
+
21.
2 2
1
dx
x a
( )
Alternatively, the expression
can be split in to separate fractions
sec x a
1
ln
2
x a
C
a x a
+
+
22.
2 2
1
dx
x a +
tan x a
2 2
ln x x a C + + +
23.
2 2
1
dx
x a
sec x a
2 2
ln x x a C + +
24.*
a x
dx
a x
cos 2 x a
2 2 1
cos
x
a x a C
a
+
25.*
x a
dx
b x
2 2
cos sin x a b +

1 1
1 2 2
( ) cos
2 2
x
b a a x C
a a
+

' ;

* need not be memorizedn
We will extend this table further as we progress through the rest of this chapter.
As stated earlier, many integrals can be converted to these standard forms and thats where lies the use in commit-
ting these results to memory.
We saw in example-19 some questions based on these general forms. We will now discuss in more detail how to
convert a given integral into one of these standard forms, if possible.
Suppose that we have a quadratic expression
2
( ) Q x ax bx c + + . It should be obvious that integrals of the form
1
( )
dx
Q x
can be evaluated using either (17) or (21) {depending on whether Q(x) takes the form of
2 2
X A + or
2 2
A X upon rearrangement ; X depends on x linearly; A is a constant}. Similarly, integrals of the form
1
( )
dx
Q x
can be evaluate using (15), (22), or (23) depending on what form Q(x) takes upon rearrangement. Let us go
through some examples related to these forms.
(a)
2
1
3 2
dt
x x + +
(b)
2
1
4 4 2
dt
x x + +
(c)
2
1
4 5 4
dt
x x + +
(d)
2
1
4 4
dt
x x
Solution: Our attempts in each of these questions will be to reduce (rearrange) the quadratic expressions so that
it resembles one of our standard forms of Table - 1
(a)
2
2
3 1
3 2
2 4
x x x
_
+ + +

,

2 2
3 1
2 2
x
_ _
+

, ,
Thus,
2 2
1
3 1
2 2
I dx
x
_ _
+

, ,
This is of the form (21) where

1
2
a
1
ln
2
x
I C
x
+ _
+

+
,

Example 26
(b) ( )
2 2
4 4 2 4 4 1 1 x x x x + + + + +

( )
2
2
2 1 1 x + +
Thus,
( )
2
2
1
2 1 1
I dx
x
+ +
This is of the form (17) which contains the expression

2 2
X A +
;
2 1 and 1 X x A +
Thus,
( )
1
We have to divide by the coefficient
of in ; refer to page1 property ( )
1
tan 2 +1 +
2
x e
I x C
"

(c)
2 2
5
4 5 4 4 1
4
x x x x
_
+ + + +

,

2 2
5 5
4 1
8 8
x
_
_ _
+ +

, ,
,

2
5 39
4
8 16
x
_
+ +

,

2
2
5 39
2
4 4
x
_
_
+ +

,
,
The integral is therefore of the form (22). The result is
2
again, division by the coeff of
1 5
ln 2 4 5 4
2 4
x
I x x x C
_
+ + + + +

,
"
(d) ( )
2 2
4 4 1 4 4 1 x x x x + +

( )
2
2
1 2 1 x +
The integral is therefore of the form (15).
The result is
( )
1
again, division by the coeff of
1
sin 2 1
2
x
I x C
+ +
"
Evaluate sec 1 x dx
Solution: sec 1 I x dx
1 cos
cos
x
dx
x
( )
2
1 cos
cos 1 cos
x
dx
x x
2
sin
cos cos
x
dx
x x
Now we use the substitution cos x = t. This will reduce the trignometric form above to an algebraic
form:
cos x t
sin xdx dt
2
dt
I
t t

+

2 2
Conversion to the
standard form(23)
1 1
2 2
dt
t

' ;

_ _
+

, ,

2
1
ln
2
t t t C
_
+ + + +

,

2
1
ln cos cos cos
2
x x x C
_
+ + + +

,

Now suppose that we have an integral of the form
( )
( )
L x
dx
Q x
or
( )
( )
,
L x
dx
Q x
where L(x) is a linear term of the

form (px + q) while Q(x) is a quadratic term of the form
2
. ax bx c + +
In such a scenario, we express the linear factor L(x) in terms of the derivative of the quadratic factor Q(x) , i.e in
terms of Q'(x). This means that we have to find constants and such that
( ) ( ) ' L x Q x +
or
( ) ( ) 2 px q ax b + + +
( ) 2a x b + + ... (1)
Example 27
Convince yourself from (1) above that we can always find the appropriate and . To actually determine
and , we compare both sides of (1). Thus,
2
p
a

2
pb
q b q
a

How does all this help?
Consider
( )
( )
.
L x
I dx
Q x
We find and such that ( ) ( ) ' . L x Q x + Thus,

( )
( )
' Q x
I dx
Q x
+

( )
( ) ( )
'
1
Q x
dx dx
Q x Q x
+

= I
1
+ I
2
I
1
can be solved using the substitution ( ) . Q x t This gives ( ) ' Q x dx dt and I
1
reduces to ln .
dt
t
t

I
2
can either be expressed in the form of (17) or (21) depending on Q(x) and can subsequently be evaluated
Similarly, consider
( )
( )
L x
I dx
Q x

( )
( )
' Q x
dx
Q x
+

( )
( ) ( )
' 1 Q x
dx dx
Q x Q x
+

= I
3
+ I
4
I
3
can be solved using the substitution ( ) Q x t which reduces
3/ 2
3
2
3
dt
I to t
t

while I
4
can be expressed
in the form of either (15), (22) or (23) depending on Q(x) and can therefore be evaluated.
Let us consider some examples of this type.
(a)
2
2
2 2
x
dx
x x
+
+ +
(b)
2
3 1
2 2
x
dx
x x
+ +
Solution: (a) We find constant and such that

( )
2
2 2 2 ' x x x + + + +
( ) 2 2 x + +
2 2 x + +
Thus
1
and 1
2

2
2
2 2
x
I dx
x x
+

+ +
2 2
1 2 2 1
2 2 2 2 2
x
dx dx
x x x x
+
+
+ + + +

2
(where 2 2)
1
2
t x x
dt
t
+ +
+
( )
2
1
1 1
dx
x + +
( )
1
1
ln tan 1
2
t x C
+ + +
( ) ( )
2 1
1
ln 2 2 tan 1
2
x x x C
+ + + + +

(b) Again, assume and such that
( )
2
3 1 2 2 ' x x x + + +
2 2 x + +
Thus,
3
and 4
2

2
3 1
2 2
x
I dx
x x

+ +

2 2
3 2 1 1
4
2
2 2 2 2
x
dx dx
x x x x
+

+ + + +

Example 28
( )
2
2
(where 2 2)
3 1
4
2
1 1
t x x
dt
dx
t
x
+ +

+ +

( )
1/ 2 2
3 4ln 1 2 2 t x x x C + + + + +
( )
2 2
3 2 2 4ln 1 2 2 x x x x x C + + + + + + +

Assume now that we have to integrate an expression of the form
( )
( )
P x
Q x
where Q(x) is a quadratic polynomial
while P(x) is a polynomial with degree
2. n
In such a case, we can divide ( ) ( ) by P x Q x to obtain a quotient
Z(x) and a remainder R(x) whose degree is less than 2:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
P x R x
Z x
Q x Q x
+
The right hand side can now be integrated easily.
Think about how we will integrate an expression of the form
( )
( )
P x
Q x
where P(x) and Q(x) have already been
described. You will find the answer to this question later in the chapter.
Let us now consider rational trignometric functions i.e., functions that involve rational expressions of trignometric
terms:
(a)
1
1 sin
dx
x +
(b)
1
1 sin cos
dx
x x + +
Solution: In both these examples, the substitutions that we have seen uptill now will not work. (You are urged to
try it for yourself).
For such functions, we use a new type of substitution. We use the following half - angle formulae:
2
2tan / 2
sin
1 tan / 2
x
x
x
+
2
2
1 tan / 2
cos
1 tan / 2
x
x
x
+
Example 29
Making these substitutions converts the given integrals into a form where the substitution t = tan
2
x
is possible. Lets apply it on the current example.
(a)
1
1 sin
I dx
x

2
1
2tan / 2
1
1 tan / 2
dx
x
x
+
+

2
2
1 tan / 2
1 2tan / 2 tan / 2
x
dx
x x
+
+ +

( )
2
2
sec / 2
1 tan / 2
x
dx
x
We now substitute
tan .
2
x
t
Thus,
2
1
sec
2 2
x
dx dt
( )
2
2
1
dt
I
t

+

2
1
C
t
+
+

2
1 tan / 2
C
x
+
+

(b)
1
1 sin cos
I dx
x x
+ +

2
2 2
1
2tan / 2 1 tan / 2
1
1 tan / 2 1 tan / 2
dx
x x
x x
+ +
+ +
2
sec / 2
2 2tan / 2
x
dx
x
Substitute tan .
2
x
t Thus,
2
sec 2
2
x
dx dt
1
dt
I
t

+
ln 1 t C + +

ln 1 tan
2
x
C + +

These two examples should make it clear that a general integral of the form
1
sin cos
I dx
a x b x c
+ +
can always be integrated using the mentioned substitutions. Let us

analyse the general case itself.
1
sin cos
I dx
a x b x c
+ +
... (1)

2
2 2
1
2 tan / 2 tan / 2
1 tan / 2 1 tan / 2
dx
a x b b x
c
x x
+ +
+ +

( ) ( )
2
2
sec / 2
tan / 2 2 tan / 2
x
dx
c b x a x c b
+ + +
The substitution
tan
2
x
t
reduces this integral to
( ) ( )
2
2
2
dt
I
c b t at c b
+ + +

2
2
dt
At Bt C
+ +
We have already evaluated integrals of this form. They correspond to either (17) or (21).

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2 2
1
2 2
In 1 above, if 0, can also be solved by writing sin cos sin
1
tan so that becomes cosec
c I a x b x a b x
b
I x dx
a
a b

+ + +

' ;

+
' ;

+


(a)
2 2
1
1 sin 2cos
dx
x x + +
(b)
( )
2
1
sin cos
dx
a x b x +
Solution: You are first urged to try out the same substitution that we used in the last example, and youll see how
lengthy the integrals become.
We can solve these integrals more easily by simply dividing the numerator and denominator by cos
2
x,
which converts the given expression into a modified form containing tan x and sec x terms:
Example 30
(a)
2 2
1
1 sin 2cos
I dx
x x
+ +

2
2
2 2
2
Now write the sec
sec
in the denominator
sec tan 2
as1 tan
x
x
dx
x x
x

' ;
+ +
+

2
2
sec
3 2tan
x
dx
x
Substituting tan x = t reduces this integral to

2
3 2
dt
I
t

2
2
1
2
3
2
dt
t
_
+

,
which is of the form (17)

(b)
( )
2
1
sin cos
I dx
a x b x

( )
2
2
sec
tan
x
dx
a x b

( )
{ }
2
Substituting tan
dt
x t
at b

+

( )
1
C
a at b
+
+

( )
1
tan
C
a a x b
+
+

All integrals of the general form
2 2
1
sin cos
I dx
a b x c x
+ +
or
( )
2
1
sin cos
I dx
a x b x
can therefore be solved using the approach described above.

We now finally consider another general form of rational trignometric functions.
sin cos
Evaluate
sin cos
a x b x c
dx
d x e x f
+ +
+ +
Example 31
Solution: First suppose that 0. c f In that case, we can find constants and such that the numerator
( ) sin cos a x b x + can be expressed as a linear combination of the denominator ( ) sin cos d x e x + and
its derivative, using the constants and , i.e:
( ) ( ) sin cos sin cos sin cos ' a x b x d x e x d x e x + + + +
( ) ( ) sin cos d e x e d x + +
(convince yourself that we can always find such constants and )
Comparing the coefficients of sin x and cos x on both sides will uniquely give us the constants and
d e a
e d b +
Having found these constants, our integral reduces to
( ) sin cos '
sin cos
d x e x
I dx dx
d x e x

+
+
+

1
x I +
I
1
can simply be solved by the substitution ( ) sin cos d x e x t + which reduces
1
ln ln sin cos
dt
I to t d x e x
t
+
Now suppose that at least one of c and f is non-zero. In this case, we can (always) find three constants
, and such that
( ) ( ) ( ) Numerator Denominator Denominator ' + +
or
( ) ( ) ( ) sin cos sin cos cos sin a x b x c d x e x f d x e x + + + + + +
( ) ( ) sin cos d e x e d x f + + + +
Thus, , and can be determined using
d e a
e d b +
f c +
Our integral now reduces to
cos sin
sin cos sin cos
d x e x
I dx dx dx
d x e x f d x e x f

1
+ +
+ + + +

2 3
x I I + +
I
2
can be evaluated by the simple substitution ( ) sin cos . d x e x f t + + To evaluate I
3
, we follow the
approach already described in example - 29
You should not feel confused by the wide variety of integrals that weve encountered upto this point. We would
strictly advise you against memorizing the solutions to all the different types of integrals. What you need to do is
remember the unifying technique of substitution and how it is applied to different cases. It is possible that in the
exam, you might encounter an integral of a form youve never seen before. Thus, it would be of no use memorizing
all the results (if at all, you are able to do so). You should instead, focus on learning the technique and not the
particular results.
The next few examples have integrals of the form weve not encountered upto now. But some manipulation can
always reduce such integrals to one of the standard forms You are urged to try out these examples on your own
before going through the solutions.
Evaluate
6 6
1
sin cos
dx
x +
.
Solution: One approach could be to convert this expression into one involving tan x and sec x terms:
6
6
sec
1 tan
x
I dx
x
We could now use the substitution tan x t so that

2
sec . xdx dt Thus,
4
6
sec
1
x
I dt
t

( )
2
2
6
1
1
t
dt
t
+

( )
( )( )
2
2
2 2 4
1
1 1
t
dt
t t t
+
+ +
(By factorizing t
6
+1 in the denominator)

2
2 4
1
1
t
dt
t t
+
... (1)

{ }
2
2
2
2
1
1
Division of the numerator and the
denominator by , as in example 23 1
1
t
dt
t
t
t
+

2
2
1
1
1
1
t
dt
t
t
+
_
+

,

2
1
1
dy
y
1
By the substitution t y
t

' ;

1
tan y C
+

1
1
tan t C
t
_
+

,
( )
1
tan tan cot x x C
+
Example 32
An alternative route could be to directly factorize the denominator in the original expression:
( )( )
6 6 2 2 4 2 2 4
sin cos sin cos sin sin cos cos x x x x x x x x + + +
4 2 2 4
sin sin cos cos x x x x +
( )
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
sin cos 2sin cos sin cos x x x x x x +
2 2
1 3sin cos x x

2 2
1
1 3sin cos
I dx
x x

+
{ }
4
4
4 2
sec
Division bycos
sec 3tan
x
dx x
x
( )
( )
2 2
2
2 2
1 tan sec
1 tan 3tan
x x
dx
x x
+
2
2 4
1
1
t
dt
t t
+
{By the substitution tan x = t}

This is of the same form as (1) above.
If you observe carefully, you will realise that the two approaches described are more or less equivalent.
Only the initial sequences of manipulations (upto(1)) are different.
For any natural number m, evaluate
( )( )
1/
3 2 2
2 3 6 , 0
m
m m m m m
x x x x x dx x + + + + >
Solution: This expression might seem very complicated at first. But if you observe it more carefully, you will
intuitively feel that the powers and coefficients of x in the two brackets are so adjusted such that one
bracket could be expressed as a derivative of the other. It now remains to determine which of the two
brackets can be expressed as a derivative of the other.
Observe that no matter what you do, you cannot express the second bracket ( )
{ }
1/
2
2 3 6
m
m m
x x + +
as a derivative of the bracket (or some part of the first bracket). Therefore, we must manipulate the
expressions so that the first bracket is expressible as a derivative of the expression inside the second
bracket.
Now observe the powers and coefficients of x in the second bracket carefully. If we differentiate the
expression inside the second bracket
( )
2
2 3 6
m m
x x + +
we get
( )
2 1 1
4 3
m m
mx mx

+
Example 33
which is not what we want. In the first bracket, the coefficients of x are equal. Thus we want the
expression inside the second bracket to be such that when we differentiate we get equal coefficients.
This is how we do it:
( )( )
1/
3 2 2
2 3 6
m
m m m m m
I x x x x x dx + + + +

( )
3 2
1/
2
2 3 6
m m m
m
m m
x x x
x x x dx
x
_ + +
+ +

,

{ }
Multiplication and
division by x

( ) ( )
1/
3 1 2 1 1 3 2
2 3 6
m
m m m m m m
x x x x x x dx

+ + + +
Now, if we differentiate the expression inside the second bracket, i.e

3 2
2 3 6
m m m
x x x + +
we get

3 1 2 1 1
6 6 6
m m m
mx mx mx

+ +
( )
3 1 2 1 1
6
m m m
m x x x

+ +
This is a multiple of the first bracket! A simple manipulation (multiplication and division by x) thus
led us to a form of the expression we wanted.
We now substitute
3 2
2 3 6
m m m
x x x t + +
Thus, ( )
3 1 2 1 1
6
dx
m m m
dt
x x x
m

+ +
1/
1
6
m
I t dt
m

1
1
1
1
6
1
m
t
C
m
m
+
+
+

( )
1
1
6 1
m
m
t C
m
+ _

,
+
+

( )
( )
1
3 2
1
2 3 6
6 1
m
m m m
m
x x x C
m
+
+ + +
+

This example should again prove to you that memorization is not of much use in integration!
Evaluate
cos 2
sin
x
dx
x
Solution:
2 2
cos sin
sin
x x
I dx
x

2
cot 1 x dx
Example 34
The substitution cot sec x can help us simplify this integral:

cot sec x
2
cosec sec tan xdx d
2
2
sec tan
sec 1
cosec
I d
x

2
2
sec tan
1 sec
d

{ }
Now convert this expression to one
involving sin and cos terms

2
3
sin
cos cos
d

( )
2
2
sin
cos 1 cos
d
2
2
Nowwrite sin
as 1 cos

' ;

( )
2
2
cos 1
cos 1 cos
d

( )
( )
2 2
2
cos 1 2cos
cos 1 cos
d

+

+

2
cos
sec 2
1 cos
d d
+
+

2
Now use the substitution sin
cos
ln sec tan 2
2 sin
t
d
+ +
#

( )
2
2
ln sec tan 2
2
dt
t
+ +

2 2
ln sec tan ln
2 2 2
t
C
t

+
+ + +
2
2
2
1 2 1 tan
ln cot cot 1 ln
2
2 1 tan
x
x x C
x
+
+ + +

Evaluate
1
2
2 2
sin
4 8 13
x
dx
x x
_
+

+ +
,
Example 35
Solution: We have to some how manipulate the expression inside the brackets so that it assumes the form
sin .
Why? Because that would lead to a cancellation of
1
' sin ' with ' sin'
and wed be left with only
.
The denominator is

2
4 8 13 x x + +

2
4 8 4 9 x x + + +

( )
2
2
2 2 3 x + +
We can use the substitution
2 2 3tan x +
to reduce the denominator to a (simpler) trignometric
term:

2 2 3tan x +
2
2 3sec dx d
1 2
2 2 2
3tan 3
sin sec
2
3 tan 3
I d
_
_

,
+
,

1 2
3 tan
sin sec
2 sec
d
( )
1 2
3
sin sin sec
2
d

2
3
sec
2
d
We will continue the solution in example 42 when weve studied integration by parts. This example
was included here to illustrate the substitution technique involved.
This section deals with the integration of general algebraic rational functions, of the form
( )
( )
f x
g x
, where
( ) and ( ) f x g x are both polynomials. We already have seen some examples of this form. For example, we know
how to integrate functions of the form
1 ( ) ( )
or or
( ) ( ) ( )
L x P x
Q x Q x Q x
where ( ) L x is a linear factor, ( ) Q x is a quadratic
factor and ( ) P x is a polynomial of degree
2 n
. We intend to generalise that previous discussion in this section.
We are assuming the scenario where ( ) g x (the denominator) is decomposible into linear or quadratic factors.
These are the only cases relevant to us right now. Any linear or quadratic factor in ( ) g x might also occur repeatedly.
Section - 4 EXPANSION USING PARTIAL FRACTIONS
Thus, ( ) g x could be of the following general forms.
*
1 2
( ) ( ) ( )... ( )
n
g x L x L x L x (n linear factors)
*
1
( ) ( )... ( )... ( )
k
r n
g x L x L x L x
th
linear factors; the
factor is repeated times
n r
k
_

,
*
1 2
1 2
( ) ( ) ( )... ( )
n
k k k
n
g x L x L x L x
th
i
linear factors, the factor
is repeated times
n i
k
_

,
*
1 2 1 2
( ) ( ) ( )... ( ) ( ) ( )... ( )
n m
g x L x L x L x Q x Q x Q x
linear factors and
quadratic factors
n
m
_

,
* ( ) ... ( )...
k
r
g x Q x
a particular quadratic factor
repeats more than once
_

,
* A combination of any of the above.
Suppose that the degree of ( ) is g x n and that of ( ) is f x m. If , m n we can always divide ( ) by ( ) f x g x to
obtain a quotient ( ) q x and a remainder ( ) r x whose degree would be less than n.
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
f x r x
q x
g x g x
+
... (1)
If
( )
,
( )
f x
m n
g x
< is termed a proper rational function.
The partial fraction expansion technique says that a proper rational function can be expressed as a sum of simpler
rational functions each possessing one of the factors of g(x). The simpler rational functions are called partial
fractions.
From now one, we consider only proper rational functions. If
( )
( )
f x
g x
is not proper, we make it proper
( )
( )
r x
g x
_

,
by
the procedure described in (1) above.
Let us consider a few examples.
Let ( ) g x be a product of non-repeated, linear factors:
1 2
( ) ( ) ( )... ( )
n
g x L x L x L x
Then, we can expand
( )
( )
f x
g x
in terms of partial fractions as
1 2
1 2
( )
...
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
n
n
A f x A A
g x L x L x L x
+ + +
where the
i
A s
are all constants that need to be determined

Suppose ( ) 1 f x x + and ( ) ( 1)( 2)( 3) g x x x x . Let us write down the partial fraction expansion of
( )
( )
f x
g x
:
( ) 1
( ) ( 1)( 2)( 3) 1 2 3
f x x A B C
g x x x x x x x
+
+ +

We need to determine A, B and C. Cross multiplying in the expression above, we obtain:
( 1) ( 2)( 3) ( 1)( 3) ( 1)( 2) x A x x B x x C x x + + +
A, B, C can now be determined by comparing coefficients on both sides. More simply since this relation that
weve obtained should held true for all x, we substitute those values of x that would straight way give us the
required values of A, B and C. These values are obviously the roots of g(x).
1 2 ( 1)( 2) (0) (0) x A B C + +
1 A
2 3 (0) (1)( 1) (0) x A B C + +
3 B
3 4 (0) (0) (2)(1) x A B C + +
2 C
Thus,
1, 3 and 2 A B C
.
We can therefore write
( )
( )
f x
g x
as a sum of partial fractions.
( ) 1 3 2
( ) 1 2 3
f x
g x x x x
+

Integrating
( )
( )
f x
g x
is now a simple matter of integrating the partial fractions. This was our sole motive in writing such
an expansion, so that integration could be carried out easily. In the example above:
( )
ln( 1) 3ln( 2) 2ln( 3)
( )
f x
dx x x x C
g x
+ +
Now, suppose that ( ) g x contains all linear factors, but a particular factor, say
1
( ) L x , is repeated k times. Thus,
1 2
( ) ( ) ( )... ( )
k
n
g x L x L x L x
( )
( )
f x
g x
can now be expanded into partial fractions as follows:
1
3 1 2 2
2 3
1 1 1 1 2
partial fractions corresponding to ( )
( )
... ...
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
k n
k
n
k L x
A A B f x A A B
g x L x L x L x L x L x L x
+ + + + + +
$%%%%%%&%%%%%%'
This means that we will have k terms corresponding to
1
( ) L x . The rest of the linear factors will have single
corresponding terms in the expansion. Here are some examples.
2 2
3 2 3
2 3 2 2 3
1
can be expanded as
( 1) ( 2) 1 ( 1) 2
1
can be expanded as
( 1) ( 2)( 3) 1 ( 1) ( 1) ( 2) ( 3)
1
can be expanded as
( 1) ( 5) 1 ( 1) ( 5) ( 5) ( 5)
A B C
x x x x x
A B C D C
x x x x x x x x
A B C D E
x x x x x x x
+ +

+ + + +

+ + + +
+ + + +
Expand the following using partial fractions:
(a)
2
3 2
3 4
6 11 6
x x
x x x

+
(b)
2
2
1
( 1) ( 2)( 3)
x x
x x x
+ +

Solution: (a) The denominator can be factorised:
3 2
6 11 6 ( 1)( 2)( 3) x x x x x x +
The partial fraction expansion is:
( 1)( 4)
( 1)( 2)( 3) 1 2 3
x x A B C
x x x x x x
+
+ +

Cross-multiplying, we obtain
( 1)( 4) ( 2)( 3) ( 1)( 3) ( 1)( 2) x x A x x B x x C x x + + +
(2) ( 3)
Put 1 3
( 1) ( 2)
(3) ( 2)
Put 2 6
(1) ( 1)
(4) ( 1)
Put 3 2
(2) (1)
x A
x B
x C

Thus, the partial fraction expansion is

3 6 2
1 2 3 x x x

+ +

*
*
*
Example 36
(b) As discussed previously, the partial fraction expansion of this expression would be of the form
2
2 2
1
( 1) ( 2)( 3) 1 ( 1) 2 3
x x A B C D
x x x x x x x
+ +
+ + +

2 2 2
1 ( 1)( 2)( 3) ( 2)( 3) ( 1) ( 3) ( 1) ( 2) x x A x x x B x x C x x D x x + + + + +
2
2
1 1 1 3
Put 1
( 1) ( 2) 2
4 2 1
Put 2 7
1 1
9 3 1 13
Put 3
2 1 4
x B
x C
x D
+ +

+ +

+ +

To obtain A, we compare the coefficients of

3
x
on both sides. Thus,
0 = A + C + D
( ) A C D +

13
7
4
_
+

,

15
4
The required partial fraction expansion is

2
15/ 4 3/ 2 7 13/ 4
1 ( 1) 2 3 x x x x
+ + +

Evaluate
2
2 2
8 7
( 5) ( 2)
x x
dx
x x
+
+
Solution: We first express this expression as a sum of partial fractions:

2 2 2 2
( 1)( 7)
( 5) ( 2) 5 ( 5) 2 ( 2)
x x A B C D
x x x x x x

+ + +
+ + +
2 2 2 2
( 1)( 7) ( 5)( 2) ( 2) ( 5) ( 2) ( 5) x x A x x B x C x x D x + + + + + +
2
2
4 2 8
Put 5
7 49
3 9 27
Put 2
7 49
x B
x D

Example 37
To obtain A and C, we can now compare coefficients on both sides.
Comparing the coefficients of
3
x
on both sides, we obtain
0 A C +
A C
...(1)
Comparing the constant terms on both sides, we obtain
7 20 4 50 25 A B C D + + +
...(2)
Using (1) in (2), we obtain

7 20 4 50 25 C B C D + + +
32 675
70
49 49
C +

400
70
49
C

40
343
C

40
343
A
Thus, the required integral is

40 8 40 27
ln 5 ln 2
343 49( 5) 343 49( 2)
I x x C
x x
+ + +
+

We now come to the case when ( ) g x has non-repeating quadratic factors. Let
2
1
( ) Q x ax bx c + + be such a
factor.
Our partial fraction expansion technique says that corresponding to
1
( ) Q x , there will be a term of the form
1
1
( )
( )
L x
Q x
where
1
( ) L x is a linear factor, i.e.
1
2
factor corresponding to ( )
( )
... ...
( )
Q x
f x px q
g x ax bx c
+
+ +
+ +
$%%&%%'
In the case that a quadratic factor, say
1
( ) Q x , is repeating, for instance k times, there will be k corresponding
partial fractions for
1
( ) Q x .
1
1 1 2 2
2 2 2 2
factors corresponding to ( )
( )
... ... ...
( ) ( ) ( )
k k
k
k Q x
p x q f x p x q p x q
g x ax bx c ax bx c ax bx c
+ + +
+ + + +
+ + + + + +
$%%%%%%%%%&%%%%%%%%%'
Here are a few examples:
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
1
can be expanded as
( 1)( 2 3) 1 ( 2 3)
1
can be expanded as
( 1)( 2 3) 1 2 3 ( 2 3)
A Bx C
x x x x x x
A Bx C Dx E
x x x x x x x x
+
+
+ + + + + +
+ +
+ +
+ + + + + + + +

etc.
(a)
( )
2 3
1
1
dx
x x x x + + +
(b)
( ) ( )
2
3
2
3 3
1 1
x x
dx
x x
+ +
+
Solution: (a)
( ) ( )
2
1
1 1
I dx
x x x x
+ + +

( )( )
2
1
1 1
dx
x x x
+ +
We find out the partial fraction expansion of this expression:

( )( )
2 2
1
1 1 1 1
A B Cx D
x x x x x x
+
+ +
+ + + +
( )( ) ( ) ( )( )( )
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 A x x Bx x Cx D x x + + + + + + +
Put
0 1 x A
Put
1
0
2
x B
Compare the coeffs of x
3
0 A B C + +
1
2
C
Compare the coeffs of x
2
0 A C D + +
1
2
D
The partial fraction expansion is
*
*
Example 38
( ) ( ) ( )
2
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
1
1 1
x
x x x
+
+ +
+ +
The integral is therefore:
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 2 1 2 1
x
I dx dx dx dx
x x x x
2

+ + +

( )
2 1
1 1 1
ln ln 1 ln 1 tan
2 4 2
x x x x C
+ + +

(b) We again find out the partial fraction expansion of the given expression:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
3 2 3 2
2
3 3
1 1
1 1 1 1
x x A B C Dx E
x x
x x x x
+ + +
+ + +
+
+
We cross multiply to obtain
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )( )
2 3
2 2 2 2
3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 x x A x x B x x C x Dx E x + + + + + + + + +
Put x = 1
7
2
C
... (1)
Compare the coeff of x
4
0 A D +
... (2)
3
0 2 3 A B D E + +
... (3)
2
3 2 3 3 A B C D E + +
... (4)
1 2 3 A B D E + +
... (5)
Adding (4) and (5), we obtain
4 2 C D +
1
4
D
(from (1))
1
4
A

(from (2))
Adding (3) and (4), we obtain
3 2 C E
1
4
E
(again, using (1))
Finally, from (5), B = 0
The partial fraction expansion is therefore,

( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
3 2
1/ 4 7 / 2 1/ 4 1/ 4
1 1
1
x
x x
x
+
+ +
+
The integral is
( )
3 2 2
1 1 7 1 1 1 1
4 1 2 4 1 4 1
1
x
I dx dx dx dx
x x x
x
+ + +
+ +

( )
( )
2 1
2
1 7 1 1
ln 1 ln 1 tan
2 8 4
4 1
x x x C
x
+ + + +

( )
2
1
2
1 7 1
tan ln
4 1
1
x
x C
x
x
_
+
+ +
' ;

,

Evaluate
( )
2
1
1
x
x
dx
x xe
+
+
Solution: Observe that the derivative of xe

x
is (x + 1)e
x
. Thus, we could substitute xe
x
for a new variable t if we
multiply the numerator and denominator of the expression above by e
x
:
( )
2
1
1
x
x
I dx
x xe
+

( )
( )
2
1
1
x
x x
x e
dx
xe xe
+
The substitution
x
xe t
now reduces I to:
( )
2
1
dt
I
t t
We can now expand this expression in t using partial fractions:

( ) ( )
2 2
1
1
1 1
A B C
t t
t t t
+ +
+
+ +
( ) ( )
2
1 1 1 A t B t t Ct + + + +
Put 0 t A = 1
Put t = 1 C = 1
Compare the coeff of t
2
0 = A + B
1 B
Example 39
The partial fraction expansion is
( )
2
1 1 1
1
1
t t
t

+
+
Therefore, I is
1
ln ln 1
1
I t t C
t
+ + +
+

1
ln ln 1
1
x x
x
xe xe C
xe
+ + +
+

Evaluate
( ) ( )
3
2
2
3 2
1 1
x x
dx
x x
+ +
+ +
Solution: Instead of directly expanding this expression using partial fractions, a first stage manipulation is possible
which will reduce this expression to a simpler form:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
3
2 2
2 2
1 2 1
3 2
1 1 1 1
x x x
x x
x x x x
+ + +
+ +
+ + + +
( )( )
( )
2 2
2
2
1 1
1
x
x x
x
+
+ +
+
= E
1
+ E
2
We first partially-expand E
1
:

( )( )
2 2
1 1 1 1
x A Bx C
x x x x
+
+
+ + + +
x = A(x
2
+1) + (Bx + C) (x + 1)
Put x = 1
1
2
A
Put x = 0 A + C = 0
1
2
C
2
+ 0
1
2
B
Example 40
The partial - expansion of E
1
therefore is:
( )
2
1/ 2 1/ 2
1/ 2
1 1
x
x x
+
+
+ +
The integral of E
1
is

1
2 2
1 1 1 1 1
2 1 2 1 2 1
x
I dx dx dx
x x x
+ +
+ + +

( )
2 1
1 1 1
ln 1 ln 1 tan
2 4 2
x x x C
+ + + + +
To integrate E
2
, we use the substitution
tan . x
Thus,
2
sec : dx d
( )
2
2 2
2
sec
sec
d
I

2
cos d
( )
1
1 cos 2
2
d +

1 sin 2
2 2
C
_
+ +

,

1
2
1 1
tan
2 2 1
x
x C
x
+ +
+
We have evaluated the integrals of both E
1
and E
2
and thus the integral of E
1
+ E
2

This section will introduce you to a very powerful concept in integration. Using integration by parts, we can
(theoretically) calculate the integral of the product of any two arbitrary functions. You should be very thorough with
the use of this technique, since it will be extensively required in solving integration problems.
Let f(x) and g(x) be two arbitrary functions. We need to evaluate ( ) ( ) f x g x dx
. The rule for integration by

parts says that :
{ }
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) f x g x dx f x g x dx f x g x dx dx

{ } ( ) represents the derivative of ( ) f x f x
Section - 5 INTEGRATION BY PARTS
Translated into words (which makes it easier to remember!), this rule says that:

The integral of the product of two functions =
(First func)(Integral of second func)integral
of {differential of first func integral of second func}
Theoretically, we can choose any of the two functions in the product as the first function and the other as the
second function. However, a little observation of the expression above will show you that since we need to deal
with the integral of the second function
( )
( ) above) g x dx
, we should choose the second function in such a way

so that it is easier to integrate; consequently, the first function should be the one that is more difficult to integrate out
of the two functions. We can thus define a priority list pertaining to the choice of the first function, corresponding to
the degree of difficulty in integration :
inverse trig. functions
log. function
algebraic functions
trig functions
exponen function
I
L
A
T
E

Decreasing order of difficulty in
carrying out integration.
For example, inverse trig. functions
are the most difficult to integrate
while exponential functions are the
easlist. Thus, we should choose the
first function in this order
The boxed letters should make it clear to you why this rule of thumb for the selection of the first function is referred
to as the ILATE rule.
It is important to realise that the ILATE rule is just a guide that serves to facilitate the process of integration by
parts; it is not a rule that always has to be followed; you can choose your first function contrary to the ILATE rule
also if you wish to (and if you are able to integrate successfully with your choice). However, the ILATE rule works
in most of the cases and is therefore widely used.
The integration by parts rule can be applied to the integral of a single function also, taking unity as the second
function :
first func. second func.
( ) ( ) 1 f x dx f x dx

(
( ) ( ) f x x f x x dx
For examples,
ln (ln ) 1 x dx x dx

1
(ln ) x x x dx
x

(ln ) x x dx

ln x x x C +
Before moving on to the examples, let us go through the justification of the integration by parts rule. Consider two
functions ( ) and ( ) u x v x :
( ( )) ( ( ))
( ( ) ( )) ( ) ( )
d d v x d u x
u x v x u x v x
dx dx dx
+
( ( ) ( )) ( ) ( ( )) ( ( )) ( ) d u x v x u x d v x d u x v x +
( ) ( ( )) ( ( ) ( )) ( ( )) ( ) u x d v x d u x v x d u x v x
Integration both sides, we obtain
( ) ( ( )) ( ) ( ) ( ( )) ( ) u x d v x u x v x d u x v x

...(1)
Let ( ) ( ) u x f x so that ( ( )) ( ) d u x f x dx and
( ( ))
( ) ( )
d v x
v x g x
dx
so that ( ( )) ( ) d v x g x dx and
( ) ( ) v x g x dx
. Substituting these values in (1), we obtain

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) f x g x dx f x g x dx f x g x dx dx

This is the expression we stated earlier. Thus, this rule is simply obtainable from the product rule of differentiation.
(a) sin x x dx
(b)
2
(ln ) x dx
(c)
1
sin x dx
(d)
1
tan x x dx
Solution: (a) Using the ILATE rule, we let ( ) f x x be our first function:
Ist IInd
sin I x x dx
cos 1 ( cos ) x x x dx
cos sin x x x C + +
See what happens if you choose sin x as the first function.
(b) We choose unity as the second function and apply integration by parts:
2
IInd
Ist
(ln ) 1 I x dx
2
2ln
(ln )
x
x x x dx
x
_

,
Example 41
2
Again apply integration by
parts, taking unity as the second
function
(ln ) 2 ln x x x dx
2
1
(ln ) 2 ln x x x x x dx
x

' ;

2
(ln ) 2 ln 2 x x x x x C + +
(c) Here again, we choose unity as the second function:
1
IInd Ist
sin 1 I x dx
2
1
2
Substitute 1-
/ 2
1
sin
1
x t
xdx dt
x x x dx
x
"
1
1
sin
2
dt
x x
t
1
sin x x t C
+ +
1 2
sin 1 x x x C
+ +

(d) Using the ILATE rule, we choose
1
tan x
as the first function:

1
Ist IInd
tan I x x dx
2
1 2
2
1 1
tan
2 2 1
x
x x dx
x
2 2
1
2
1 1 1
tan
2 2 1
x x
x dx
x
+

+
2
1
2
1 1
tan
2 2 1
x
x dx dx
x

' ;
+

2
1 1
1
tan tan
2 2 2
x x
x x C

+ +

(a)
2
sec d
(b) sin
x
e x dx
Example 42
Solution: (a) We use the ILATE rule and let ( ) f be our first function:
2
Ist IInd
sec I d
tan 1 tan d
tan ln cos C + +
(b) We again use the ILATE rule and let
sin x
be our first function:
Ist IInd
sin
x
I x e dx
Ist IInd
sin cos
x x
x e x e dx
( )
{ }
sin cos sin
x x x
e x x e x e dx
sin cos sin

x x x
e x e x e x dx
(sin cos )
x
e x x I
2 (sin cos )
x
I e x x

1
(sin cos )
2
x
I e x x C +

(a)
2 2
a x dx +
(b)
2 2
a x dx
(c)
2 2
x a dx
Solution: In all these three questions, we use integration by parts, taking unity as the second function:
(a)
2 2
Ist IInd
1 I a x dx +
2
2 2
2 2
x
x a x dx
a x
+
+
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
( ) a x a
x a x dx
a x
+
+
+
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
of the standard
form (22)
1
x a x a x dx a dx
a x
+ + +
+

2 2 2 2 2
ln x a x I a x x a + + + +
{ }
2 2 2 2 2
1
ln
2
I x a x a x x a C + + + + +
Example 43
(b)
2 2
Ist IInd
1 I a x dx
2
2 2
2 2
x
x a x dx
a x
+
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
( ) a x a
x a x dx
a x

2 2 2 2 2
2 2
Of the standard
( ) form 15
1
x a x a x dx a dx
a x
+

2 2 2 1
sin
x
x a x I a
a
2 2 2 1
1
sin
2
x
I x a x a C
a

+ +
' ;

(c)
2 2
Ist IInd
1 I x a dx
2
2 2
2 2
x
x x a dx
x a

2 2 2
2 2
2 2
( ) x a a
x x a dx
x a
+

2 2 2 2 2
2 2
Of the standard
form (23)
1
x x a x a dx a dx
x a

2 2 2 2 2
ln x x a I a x x a +
{ }
2 2 2 2 2
1
ln |
2
I x x a a x x a C + +

These three results have an extensive use because we are now in a position to integrate expression
of the form ( ) Q x dx
(where ( ) Q x is a quadratic polynomial) or other expressions reducible

to this form.
Due to their wide use, we will soon extend Table-1: Standard Integrals to include these three
results.
Evaluate sin and cos
ax ax
e bx dx e bx dx

Solution: Let
1 2
sin and cos
ax ax
I e bx dx I e bx dx

1
Ist IInd
sin
ax
I e bx dx
(Use integration by parts)

cos
cos
ax
ax
e bx a
e bx dx
b b
1 2
cos
ax
e bx a
I I
b b
+
...(1)
Similarly, we now apply integration by parts on
2
I :
2
Ist IInd
cos
ax
I e bx dx
sin
sin
ax
ax
e bx a
e bx dx
b b

2 1
sin
ax
e bx a
I I
b b

...(2)
Solving (1) and (2), we have (verify):
1 2 2
( sin cos )
ax
e
I a bx b bx C
a b
+
+
2 2 2
( cos sin )
ax
e
I a bx b bx C
a b
+ +
+

We now include the results of this and the last example in our table of standard integrals:
Table - 1 Continued
Standard integrals (evaluated by parts)
Integral Result
26.
2 2
a x dx +

{ }
2 2 2 2 2
1
ln
2
x a x a x x a C + + + + +
27.
2 2
a x dx

2 2 2 1
1
sin
2
x
x a x a C
a

+ +
' ;

28.
2 2
x a dx

{ }
2 2 2 2 2
1
ln
2
x x a a x x a C + +
29. sin
ax
e bx dx

2 2
( sin cos )
ax
e
a bx b bx C
a b
+
+
30. cos
ax
e bx dx

2 2
( cos sin )
ax
e
a bx b bx C
a b
+ +
+
Example 44
Evaluate the following integrals.
(a)
2
1 x x dx + +
(b)
2
1 2x x dx
(c)
2
3 2 x x dx + +
(d) cos
x
x e x dx
Solution: (a) We can write

2
1 x x + +
as
2
2
3 1
1
4 2
x x x
_
+ + + +

,
2
2
3 1
2 2
x
_
_
+ +

,
,
Thus, this integral is of the standard form (26):
2 2
1 1 3 1
1 ln 1
2 2 4 2
I x x x x x x C

_ _
+ + + + + + + + +
' ;

, ,

(b) We can write
2
1 2x x
upon rearrangement as
2 2
1 2 2 (1 2 ) x x x x + +
( )
( )
2
2
2 1 x +
This integral therefore of the standard form (27) :
2 1
1 1
( 1) 1 2 2sin
2 2
x
I x x x C
+ _
+ + +
' ;

,

(c) Upon rearrangement,
2
3 2 x x + +
can be written as
2
2
3 1
3 2
2 4
x x x
_
+ + +

,
2 2
3 1
2 2
x
_ _
+

, ,
Thus, this integral is of the standard form (28):
2 2
1 3 1 3
3 2 ln 3 2
2 2 4 2
I x x x x x x C

_ _
+ + + + + + + +
' ;

, ,

Example 45
(d) From the standard form (30), we know the integral of
cos
x
e x
:
( )
1
cos sin cos
2
x x
e x dx e x x C + +
Thus, we can apply integration by parts on the expression cos

x
x e x , taking x as the first func-
tion:
Ist IInd
( cos )
x
I x e x dx
1 1
(sin cos ) 1 (sin cos )
2 2
x x
xe x x e x x dx
_
+ +

,
{ }
standard form (29) standard form (30)
1 1
(sin cos ) sin cos
2 2
x x x
xe x x e x dx e x dx + +
( (
{ }
1
(sin cos ) (sin cos ) (cos sin )
2 4
x
x
e
xe x x x x x x C + + + +
1 1
(sin cos ) sin
2 2
x x
xe x x e x C + +

____________________________________________________________________________________
We now consider an integral of the form ( ) ( ) L x Q x dx
where ( ) L x is a linear factor and ( ) Q x is a quadratic

factor. As described earlier, we can always find constants and such that
( ) ( ) L x Q x +
so that
( ) ( ) I L x Q x dx
( ) ( ) ( ) Q x Q x dx Q x dx +

1 2
I I +
1
I can be solved by the substitution ( ) Q x t so that ( ) Q x dx dt and
1
I reduces to t dt
whereas
2
I is of the standard form (26), (27) or (28) depending on the form of ( ) Q x .
(a)
2
( 3) 2 3 x x x dx + + +
(b)
2
1
x
dx
x x
Example 46
Solution: (a) The derivative of
2
2 3 x x + +
is
2 3 x +
. Thus, we can find and such that
( 3) (2 3) x x + + +
1 3
,
2 2

2 2
1 3
(2 3) 2 3 2 3
2 2
I x x x dx x x dx + + + + + +

2
2
(of the standard form (26)) ( where = 2 3)
1 3
( 1) 2
2 2
t x x
t dt x dx
+ +
+ + +

{ }
3/ 2
2 2
3
( 1) 2 3 2ln ( 1) 2 3
3 4
t
x x x x x x C + + + + + + + + + +

{ }
2 3/ 2
2 2
( 2 3) 3
( 1) 2 3 2ln ( 1) 2 3
3 4
x x
x x x x x x C
+ +
+ + + + + + + + + +

(b) We first rationalize the denominator:

2
1
x
I dx
x x

2
( 1) x x x dx +

2
2 2
(substitute 1= )
1
x t
x dx x x dx +

3
1
3 2
x
t dt +

3 3/ 2
3 3
x t
C + +

3 2 3/ 2
( 1)
3 3
x x
C
+ +
We now consider some miscenalleous examples of integration by parts:
(a)
1
tan x dx
(b)
1
2
tan
1
x x
dx
x
Example 47
Solution: (a) We apply integration by parts, taking unity as the second function.
1
IInd Ist
tan 1 I x dx
1
2
1 1
tan
1 ( ) 2
x x x dx
x x
1
1
tan
2 1
x
x x dx
x
To evaluate the integral on the right side above (call it

2
I ), we let
2
x t
. Thus,
2 dx tdt
2
2 2
1
t
I dt
t
2
1
1
1
dt
t
_

+
,
1
tan t t C
+
1
tan x x C
+
Thus,
1 1
tan tan I x x x x C

+ +

(b) We can divide the given expression into two parts,
1
2
and tan
1
x
x
x
+
. The integration of the
first expression is easy to carry out:
2
1
2
1
x dt
dx
t
x
+
(where t = 1 + x
2
)
t
2
1 x +
Now we integrate our original expression by parts:
1
2
IInd Ist
tan
1
x
I x dx
x
2 1 2
2
1
1 tan 1
1
x x x dx
x
+ +
+
2 1
2
(of the standard form (22))
1
1 tan
1
x x dx
x
+
+

2 1 2
1 tan ln 1 x x x x C
+ + + +
Evaluate
( )
2
2
sin cos
x
dx
x x x +
Solution: Consider the expression

1
sin cos x x x +
carefully. See what happens when we differentiate this
expression:
( )
'
2
1 cos
sin cos
sin cos
x x
x x x
x x x
_

+
, +
Thus, from this relation, we can say that
( )
2
cos 1
sin cos
sin cos
x x
dx C
x x x
x x x
+
+
+
... (1)
(1) gives us the required clue as to how to solve our original integral; we need to split the numerator x
2
of the original integral into two parts, cos and :
cos
x
x x
x
( ) ( )
( )
2
2 2
Ist
We have evaluated the integral
of this IInd function in 1
cos
cos
sin cos sin cos
x x x x
I dx dx
x
x x x x x x
_

,

+ +

( )
2
cos sin 1
cos sin cos cos sin cos
x x x x
dx
x x x x x x x x
+

+ +
( )
2
sec
cos sin cos
x
x dx
x x x x
+
+

( )
tan
cos sin cos
x
x C
x x x x
+ +
+

How to think of such non-trivial manipulations is the skill that you absolutely require if you want to
master integration!
Evaluate
cos sin
cos 2 ln
cos sin
d

+ _

Example 48
Example 49
Solution: If we can somehow arrange the expression inside the ln function in terms of sin 2 , we can substitute
sin 2 as a new variable and express cos 2 d as a differential of this new variable. Note the
following relations which should tell you how to proceed:
( )
2
2 2
cos sin cos sin 2sin cos + + +

1 sin 2 +
( )
2
2 2
cos sin cos sin 2sin cos +

1 sin 2
This shows that we need to square the expression inside the ln function to express it in terms of
sin2 :
cos sin
cos 2 ln
cos sin
I d

+ _

2
1 cos sin
cos 2 ln
2 cos sin
d

+ _
' ;

1 1 sin 2
cos 2 ln
2 1 sin 2
d
+ _

{ }
1 1
Using the substitution
ln
sin 2
4 1
t
dt
t
t

+ _
( ) ( ) { }
IInd Ist
1
ln 1 ln 1 1
4
t t dt +
( ) ( ) { }
1 1 1
ln 1 ln 1
4 1 1
t t t t dt
t t
1 _
+ +
1
+
, ]
2
2
Use the substitution 1 2
1 1 2
ln
4 1 1
t z tdt dx
t t
t dt
t t

+ 1 _
+
1

, ]
(
( )
2
1 1
ln ln 1
4 1
t
t t C
t
+ 1 _
+ +
1
, ]
( )
2
1 1 sin 2
sin 2 ln ln cos 2
4 1 sin 2
C
+ 1 _
+ +
1
, ]
Sometimes, we encounter integrals of the form ( ) ( ) ( )
' .
x
e f x f x dx +
This type of integrals can be solved easily

using integration by parts as follows:
( ) ( ) ( )
'
x
I e f x f x dx +

( ) ( ) '
Ist IInd
x x
f x e dx e f x dx +

( ) ( ) ( ) ' '
x x x
e f x f x e dx e f x dx +

( )
x
e f x C +
Thus,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) '
x x
e f x f x dx e f x C + +

This relation can of course also be verified by differentiating the right hand side.
(a)
2
1 sin 2
1 cos 2
x
x
e dx
x
+ _

+
,
(b)
( )
3
2
2
2
1
x
x x
e dx
x

+
' ;
+

Solution: (a) We have

2
2
1 2sin cos
2cos
x
x x
I e dx
x
+ _

2 2
1
sec tan
2
x
e x x dx
_
+

,

2
1 1
sec tan
2 2 2 2
t
t t
e dt
_
+

,
(Using the substitution 2 x = t)

1
tan
2 2
t
t
e C +
(As discussed in the preceeding discussion)

2
1
tan
2
x
e x C +

Example 50
(b) We try to express
( )
3
2
2
2
1
x x
x
+
+
in the form ( ) ( ) ' . f x f x +
Let ( )
2
1
Ax B
f x
x
+
+
( )
( ) ( )
( )
2
2
2
1 2
'
1
A x x Ax B
f x
x
+ +

+
( )
2
2
2
2
1
Ax Bx A
x
+
+
( ) ( )
( )
2
2 2
2
2
'
1
1
Ax B Ax Bx A
f x f x
x
x
+ +
+ +
+
+

( )( ) ( )
( )
2 2
2
2
1 2
1
Ax B x Ax Bx A
x
+ + + +
+

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
3 2
2
2
2
1
Ax B A x A B x A B
x
+ + + +
+
Comparing the numerator of the expression above with ( )
3
2 , x x + we obtain
A = B = 1
( )
3
2
2
2
1
x
x x
I e dx
x

+

' ;
+

( )
2
2 2
2
1 2 1
1
1
x
x x x
e dx
x
x

+ +
+
' ;
+
+

2
1
1
x
x
e C
x
+ _
+

+
,

In this section, we intend to discuss more advanced techniques of integration and specific substitutions that
weve not covered till now. This section can be treated as optional and the types of integrals/substitutions
discussed in this section will rarely be encountered in an actual exam; for a comprehensive study, however, you can
give this section a good reading (but again, dont try to remember all the formulae)
In the following discussion, the symbol L(x) represents a linear expression in x (of the form ax +b) while Q(x)
represents a quadratic expression (of the form ax
2
+ bx + c). P
n
(x) would represent a polynomial of degrees n
greater than two. M(x) represents a general polynomial. R(a, b, c.......) would represent a rational function of the
variables a, b, c....... .
Recall that we have already developed the requisite techniques to evaluate these types of integrals:
(a) If deg (M
1
(x) < deg (M
2
(x), we expand this expression
using partial fractions. If deg (M(x) )
deg (M
2
(x)), we

( )
( )
( )
1
2
2
:
is factorisable
into linear and or
quadratic factors
M x
M x
M x _

,
first divide M
1
(x) by M
2
(x) to obtain the quotient and
the remainder and then apply expansion by partial
fractions.
(b)
( )
1
:
Q x
Depending on the coefficients in Q(x), this integral is
of the standard form (17) or (21)
(c)
( )
( )
:
L x
Q x
Find constants and such that ( ) ( ) ' L x Q x +
(Q(x) is not factorisable)
(d) Depending on the coefficients in Q(x), this integral is
( )
1
:
Q x is of the standard form (15), (22) or (23)
(e)
( )
( )
:
L x
Q x
Find constants and such that
( ) ( ) ' L x Q x +
(f)
( ) : Q x
Depending on the coefficients in Q(x), this integral is of
the standard form (26), (27) or (28)
(g) ( ) ( ) : L x Q x Find constants and such that
( ) ( ) ' L x Q x +
Let us now consider more forms of this sort. You will observe that the basic unifying theme to solve any integral is
the same: we must somehow try to reduce the integral given to us to one of the standard simpler forms.
Section - 6 MISC. EXPRESSIONS / SUBSTITUTIONS
Consider an expression of the form
( )
( )
1
2
.
Q x
Q x
To integrate this, we find constants , and such that
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 2
' Q x Q x Q x + +
Thus, this integral becomes
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 2
1 2 3
' 1 Q x Q x
I dx dx dx
Q x Q x Q x
I I I

+ +
+ +

I
1
is actually ( )
2
Q x dx
which, depending on what the coefficients of Q

2
(x) are, is one of the standard forms
(26), (27) or (28) I
2
can be evaluated using the substitution Q
2
(x) = t. I
3
is again one of the standard forms (15),
(22) or (23), depending on the coefficients of Q
2
(x).
Using the same approach, we can evaluate integrals of the form ( ) ( )
1 2
. Q x Q x dx
If we again express Q
1
(x) in
terms of Q
2
(x) as described above, this integral becomes
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2
1 2 3
' I Q x Q x dx Q x Q x dx Q x dx
I I I

+ +
+ +

How to evaluate the integrals I
2
and I
3
should be obvious. How to evaluate I
1
is discussed in the following example.
(a)
2
2
1
2 3
x x
dx
x x
+ +
+ +
(b)
( )
2 2
1 2 3 x x x x dx + + + +
Solution: Let us first find the constants , and which will be common to both the questions.
( ) ( )
2 2
1 2 3 2 2 x x x x x + + + + + + +
( )
2
2 2 3 2 x x + + + + +
1
1, , 1
2

(a)
2
1
2
1
2 3
x x
I dx
x x
+ +
+ +

2
2 2
2 3 1 2 2
2
2 3 2 3
x x x
dx dx
x x x x
+ + +

+ + + +

2
1
2 3
dx
x x
+ +
Example 51

( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
2
2
2 2
use the substituion of the standard of the standard
form 26 form 22 2 3
1 2 2 1
1 2
2
2 3
1 2
x x t
x
x dx dx dx
x x
x
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
+ +

( ) ( )
{ }
2 2
1
1 2 3 2ln 1 2 3
2
x x x x x x + + + + + + + +
( )
{ }
2 2
2 3 ln 1 2 3 x x x x x C + + + + + + +
( )
2 2
1
1 2 3 2 3
2
x x x x x C + + + + + +
( )
2
1
1 2 3
2
x x x C + + +

(b) Using the same values for , and , this integral now becomes

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
2
3/ 2
2 2 2
2
Use the substituion of the standard
form 26 2 3
1
2 3 2 2 2 3 2 3
2
x x t
I x x dx x x x dx x x dx
+ +
+ + + + + + +

The last two integrals can be evaluated as indicated.
To evaluate
( ) ( )
( )
3/ 2
3/ 2
2
2
3
2 3 1 2 , I x x dx x dx + + + +

we let 1 2 tan x + so that
2
2 sec : dx d
3/ 2 3 2
3
2 sec . 2 sec : I d

5
4 sec d
3 2 3
Ist IInd
sec .sec
4
I
I d
3 3 2
sec tan 3 sec tan d
( )
3 3 2
sec tan 3 sec sec 1 d
3 5 3
sec tan 3 sec 3 sec d d +

3
4
sec tan 3 3 I I +
where
3
4
sec I d
3
4
4 sec tan 3 I I +
To evaluate I
4
, we again use integration by parts:
2
4
Ist IInd
sec sec I d

2
sec tan sec tan d
( )
2
sec tan sec sec 1 d

4
sec tan sec I d +

4
2 sec tan ln sec tan I + +
3
1 3 3
sec tan sec tan ln sec tan
4 8 8
I C + + + +

Using I, I
2
can be determined.
This question was included only for illustration purposes and you should not expect in an actual
exam a question with this much detailed calculations required.
Consider now an integral of the form
( )
( )
.
n
P x
Q x
We assert that a polynomial ( )
1 n
P x
can be found such that

( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
1
1
n
n
P x
dx P x Q x dx
Q x Q x
+

where is a constant to be determined. You are urged to convince yourself of the truth of this assertion (by
differentiating both sides). Find whether this assertion also holds trues if 2. n Try solving example 51 (a) using
this approach.
Evaluate
3 2
2
2 7
2 3
x x x
dx
x x
+ +
+
Solution: We can find a quadratic polynomial

2
ax bx c + + and a constant such that
( )
3 2
2 2
2 2
2 7 1
2 3
2 3 2 3
x x x
ax bx c x x dx
x x x x
+ +
+ + + +
+ +

Differentiaing both sides, we obtain
( )( )
( )
2
3 2
2
2 2 2
1
2 7
2 2 3
2 3 2 3 2 3
ax bx c x
x x x
ax b x x
x x x x x x
+ + +
+ +
+ + + +
+ + +
( )( ) ( )( )
3 2 2 2
2 7 1 2 2 3 x x x ax bx c x ax b x x + + + + + + + + +
comparing coefficients on both sides, we obtain
1 1 5
, , , 9
3 6 2
a b c
All that now remains to do is evaluate the integral
( )
2 2
1 1
2 3
1 4
I dx dx
x x
x

+
+

which is of the standard form
Example 52
If we encounter an integral of the form ( )
2 1 1
/ / /
, , ,....... ,
a n n
a b a b a b
R x x x x we can convert this into an entirely rational
expression using the substitution
P
x t
where P is the l.c.m of
1 2
, ........ .
n
b b b
This substitution will become clear through an example:
Evaluate
( )
3 2 6
3
1
x x x
dx
x x
+ +
+
Solution: We have either cube roots or sixth roots in this expression. The l.c.m of (3, 6) is 6, so that the
substitution x = t
6
can reduce this expression to an entirely rational form:
6
x t
5
6 dx t dt
( )
6 4
5
6 2
6 .
1
t t t
I t dt
t t
+ +

5 3
2
1
6
1
t t
dt
t
+ +

3
2
1
6
1
t dt dt
t

+
' ;
+

4 1
3
6tan
2
t t C
+ +

2/ 3 1 6
3
6tan
2
t x C
+ +

An integral of the form
1 2
1 2
, , ........
p p
q q
ax b ax b
R x
cx d cx d
_
+ + _ _

+ +
, ,
,
, can be reduced by the substitution
m
ax b
t
cx d
+
+
where m = l.c.m (q
1
, q
2
............)
Evaluate
( ) ( )
3/ 4 5/ 4
1 2
dx
x x +
Solution: Observe the exponents carefully;

3
4
is
1
less
4

than 1 while
5 1
is " more
4 4

''
than 1. Therefore,
we can write the denominator as
( ) ( ) ( )( )
1/ 4
3/ 4 5/ 4 2
1 2 1 2
1
x
x x x x
x
+ _
+ +

,
Example 53
Example 54
We thus use the substitution
4
2
1
x
t
x
+
4
4
2
1
t
x
t
+
and
( )
3
2
4
12
1
t
dx dt
t
Thus,
( )( )
1/ 4
2
1 2
1
dx
I
x
x x
x
+ _
+

( )
3
4
2
4
4 4
12
3 3
1
1 1
t dt
t
t t
t t
_
_

,
,

2
4
3
dt
t

4
3
C
t
+

1/ 4
4 1
3 2
x
C
x
_
+

+
,

Evaluate ( )
1
2
1
x
x dx
x
+
Solution: ( )
1 1
1
1 1
x x
I x dx dx
x x
+ +

2
1
1
1
x
x dx dx
x
+

The first integral is of the standard form (27) To evaluate the second integral I
1
, we can of course
use the substitution
cos 2 . x
However, here we use the substitution described in the preceeding
discussion.
2
1
1
x
t
x
+
2
2
1
1
t
x
t

( )
2
2
4
1
t
dx dt
t
+
Example 55
( )
1 2
2
4
1
tdt
I t
t

+

( )
2
2
2
4
1
t
dt
t

( )
( )
2
2 2
2
substitute tan
sec
1 1
4
1
1
t
dt d
dt dt
t
t

' ;
+
+

{ }
1 2
4 tan cos t d

1 1
2
1 1 2
4 tan tan
2 4 1
t
t t C
t

_
+
' ;

+
,

1
2
2
2tan
1
t
t C
t
+
+

This example once more shows that it is not necessary that there must be only one (unique) substitution
for a given integral. Multiple possible substitutions exist for many integrals.
We now consider more irrational algebraic expressions. The forms that are generally encountered are
listed below along with the recommended substitutions:
(a)
( ) ( )
( )
2
2
1 2
1
: Substitute dx L x t
L x L x
(b)
( ) ( )
( )
1 1
: Substitute dx L x
t
L x Q x
(c)
( ) ( )
( )
2
1
: Substitute dx L x t
Q x L x
(d)
( ) ( )
( )
( )
2 2
1
1 2
1
: Substitute
Q x
dx t
Q x
Q x Q x

( ) ( )
1 2
If the expressions and
arepurely quadratic, i.e, the coefficients
of are both are zero, the
1
substitution would also do
Q x Q x
x
x
t
_

,
Some examples will make the use of these substitutions more clear
(a)
( )
1
1 2
dx
x x +
(b)
( ) 3 1
x
dx
x x +
(c)
( )
2
1
1 1
dx
x x x + + +
(d)
( )
2
2 2 1
x
dx
x x x + + +
Example 56
Solution: Refer to the substitutions mentioned in the preceeding discussion:
(a) Substitute
2
2 x t +
2 dx tdt
( )
1
1 2
I dx
x x

( )
2
1
2
3
tdt
t t

2
1
2
3
dt
t

1 3
ln
3 3
t
C
t
+
+

1 2 3
ln
3 2 3
x
C
x
+
+
+ +

(b) Substitute
2
1 x t +
2 dx tdt
( ) 3 1
x
I dx
x x

( )
( )
2
2
1
2
4
t
tdt
t t

2
2
1
2
4
t
dt
t

2
3
2 1
4
dt
t

+
' ;

3 2
2 ln
2 2
t
t C
t
+ +
+

3 1 2
2 1 ln
2 1 2
x
x C
x
+
+ + +
+ +

(c) Substitute
1
1 x
t
+
2
1
dx dt
t

( )
2
1
1 1
I dx
x x x
+ + +

2
2
1
1 1
1 1 1
t
dt
t
t t
_

,
_ _
+ +

, ,

2
1
1
dt
t t

+

2
1
1 3
2 4
dt
t

_
+

,

2
1
ln 1
2
t t t C
_
+ + +

,

2
1 1 1
ln
1 2 1
x x
C
x x
+ +
+ +
+ +

(d) Substitute
2
1 x t +
2 dx tdt
( )
2
2 2 1
x
I dx
x x x
+ + +

( )
2
4
1
2
1
t
tdt
t t

2
4
1
2
1
t
dt
t
Weve already seen how to evaluate integrals of this type

(a)
2 2
1
1
dx
x x +
(b)
2
2 tan x dx +
(c)
( )
2 2
1
3 2 1
dx
x x x + +
(d)
( )
2 2
4 9
x
dx
x x + +
Example 57
Solution: (a) The denominator has quadratic factors which are purely quadratic. Thus we use the substitution
1
x
t
(and see what happens):
1
x
t
2
1
dx dt
t

2 2
1
1
I dx
x x

2
2
2
1
1
1
t
dt
t
t

+

2
1
t
dt
t
dz
(using the substitution t

2
+ 1 = z
2
)

z C +

2
1 t C + +

2
1 x
C
x
+
+
(b) Substitute
2 2
2 tan x z +
2
2 tan sec 2 x xdx zdz
2
2 tan I x dx +

2
2
2tan sec
zdz
z
x x

( )
2
2 2
2 1
z
dz
z z

( )
( )
2
2 2
1 1
1 2
z
dz
z z
+

( )
2 2 2
1 1
2 1 2
dz dz
z z z
+

2
1
ln 1 z z I + +
In I
1
, both the quadratic factors are purely quadratic, so we use the substitution
1
z
y
2
1
dz dy
y

( )
1
2 2
1
1 2
I dz
z z

( )
2
2
2
2
1
1 2
1
y
dy
y
y
y
y

( )
2 2
1 1 2
y
dy
y y
This can now be simply evaluated using the substitution

2 2
1 2 , y u so that
2
du
ydy
( )
1
2
1
2 1
2
udu
I
u
u

2
1
du
u

1
tan u C
+

( )
1 2
tan 1 2y C
+

2
1
2
tan
z
C
z
+

,

1
2
tan
tan
2 tan
x
C
x
_
+

+
,
Thus, using I
1
, I becomes known.
(c) Observe that the quadratic factor
2
3 2 x x + +
can be factorised, so that we can write:
( )
2 2
1
3 2 1
I dx
x x x
+ +

( )( )
2
1
1 2 1
dx
x x x
+ +

2
1 1 1
1 2
1
dx
x x
x
_

+ +
,

( ) ( )
2 2
1 1
1 1 2 1
dx dx
x x x x

+ +

= I
1
I
2
Calculating I
1
and I
2
separately is much simpler than calculating I.
For I
1
, we substitute
2
1 1
1 x dx dt
t t
+
1
1 2
dt
I
t

1 2t

1
1
x
x
+
For I
2
, we substitute
2
1 1
2 x dx dt
t t
+
2
2
1 4 3
dt
I
t t

+

( )
2
1 2 4 1
ln Verify
3 3 3 3
t t t
_
+ +

,

( )
( )
( )
2
2
2 1 1 1
ln
3 2 3 3 2
x x
x
x
+
+
+
+
From I
1
and I
2
, I becomes known.
(d) This integral can be evaluated using the simple substitution
2 2
9 x z xdx zdz +
( )
2 2
4 9
x
I dx
x x
+ +

( )
2
5
z
dz
z z

1 5
ln
2 5 5
z
C
z
+
+

2
2
1 9 5
ln
2 5
9 5
x
C
x
+
+
+ +

We now turn our attention to a special class of irrational algebraic functions, which are, though
rarely encountered in any exam, are discussed here for the sake of a comprehensive coverage.
These are integrals of the form
( )
, ( ) R x Q x . For example, an integral like
2
1
dx
x x x + +
would fall in this class. Note that uptill now we have not encountered integrals of this form.
A specific substitution scheme described below is used to solve such integrals.
Let
2
( ) Q x ax bx c + +
If a > 0, substitute
2
ax bx c t x a + + t
.
i.e.
2 2 2
2 ax bx c t ax a tx + + +
If c > 0, substitute
2
ax bx c tx c + + t
i.e.
2 2 2 2
2 ax bx c t x c c tx + + +
If
2
ax bx c + + is factorisable, i.e. it has real roots
and such that
2
( )( ) ax bx c a x x + + ,
substitute
2
( ) ax bx c x t + +
.
These substitutions are known as Eulers substitutions. You will get an idea of why these substitutions
work from the following example.
(a)
2
1
1
dx
x x x + +
(b)
2
1
2 4
dx
x x x + +
Solution: (a) From the Euler substitution scheme, we use the substitution
2
1 x x t x + t
2 2 2
1 2 x x t x tx + + t
2
(1 2 ) 1 t x t t
2
1
1 2
t
x
t
t
Let us select the sign. Thus,
2
2
(1 2 )( 2 ) (1 )( 2)
(1 2 )
t t t
dx dt
t

2
2
3 2
(1 2 )
t
dt
t
+
Also,
2
1 x x x x t x + + +
t
Thus,
2
2
1 3 2
(1 2 )
t
I dt
t t
+

2
2
3 2
(1 2 )
t
dt
t t
+
It is obvious that this integral can now be solved using expansion by partial fractions.
You should now understand why the Euler substitutions work. They reduce the integral to a rational
from which can be expanded using partial fractions.
Example 58
(b) The Euler substitution scheme tells us that we can use the following substitution.
2
2 4 x x t x + + +
2
We took the positive sign
since then the denominator
2 4 simply
becomes
x x x
t
+ +
_

,
2 2 2
2 4 2 x x t x tx + + + +

2
4
2 2
t
x
t
2
2
1 ( 1)( 2 ) (4 )(1)
2 ( 1)
t t t
dx dt
t

2
2
1 2 4
2 ( 1)
t t
dt
t
+
2
2
( 2 4)
2( 1)
t t
dt
t
+
2
2
1 ( 2 4)
2( 1)
t t
I dt
t t
+

2
2
2 4
2 ( 1)
t t
dt
t t
+
2
2
( 1) 3
2 ( 1)
t
dt
t t
+
2
3 1
2 2 ( 1)
dt
dt
t t t
+

The second integral can easily be evaluated using expansion by partial fractions.
We now need to deal with one final form of integrals. Integrals that can be characterised by an integer n can be
evaluated by reduction formulae (you can also call them recursive relations).
Suppose we have an integral
n
I that we wish to evaluate. As an example, think about sin
n
n
I x dx . The order
of the integral
n
I is n. What we want to do is write a reduction formula (a recursive relation) which relates
n
I to
a lower order integral, say for example
1 n
I

. If we have
n
I in terms of
1 n
I

in this relation, we can use the same
relation to evaluate
1 n
I

in terms of
2 n
I

, which could be expressed in terms of
3 n
I

, and so on, all the way upto,
say for example,
1 0
or I I which could easily be evaluated. This is the whole point of writing a reduction formula.
Using such a formula, we try to relate a higher order and a lower order integral.
The technique of writing such relations is elaborated in the following examples.
Write reduction formulae for the following integrals
(a) sin
n
x dx
(b) cos
n
x dx
(c) tan
n
x dx
(d) cot
n
x dx
(e) sec
n
x dx
(f) cosec
n
x dx
Solution:
(a) sin
n
n
I x dx
1
Ist IInd
sin sin
n
x x dx
1 2
cos sin ( 1) sin cos ( cos )
n n
x x n x x x dx

1 2 2
cos sin ( 1) sin (1 sin )
n n
x x n x x dx

+
( )
1 2
cos sin ( 1) sin 1 sin
n n n
x x n x dx n x dx

+

( )
1
2
cos sin ( 1) 1
n
n n
x x n I n I
( )
1
2
1
cos sin
n
n n
n
x x
I I
n n
+

Observe that this reduction formula relates I
n
to I
n-2
. Using exactly the same approach, we obtain
a similar relation for our next part
(b)
( )
1
2
1
cos sin
cos
n
n
n n
n
x x
I xdx I
n n

(c) tan
n
n
I xdx
( )
2 2
tan sec 1
n
x x dx

2 2 2
tan sec tan
n n
x xdx xdx

1
2
tan
tan
1
n
n
x
x dx
n

Thus,
1
2
tan
1
n
n n
x
I I
n

(d) Using an analogous approach as in the part above, we obtain the required relation for this part
1
2
cot
cot
1
n
n
n n
x
I xdx I
n

Example 59
(e) sec
n
n
I xdx

2 2
Ist IInd
sec sec
n
x x dx
( )
2 2
tan sec 2 sec tan
n n
x x n x x dx

( ) ( )
2 2 2
tan sec 2 sec sec 1
n n
x x n x x dx

( ) ( )
2 2
tan sec 2 sec 2 sec
n n n
x x n xdx n xdx

+

2
2
tan sec 2
1 1
n
n n
x x n
I I
n n

+

Using exactly the same approach, we obtain a similar relation for the next part.
(f)
2
2
cot cosec 2
cosec
1 1
n
n
n n
x x n
I xdx I
n n

Find a reduction formula for the integral
,
mx n
m n
I e x dx
Solution:
,
Ist IInd
n mx
m n
I x e dx

1
n mx
n mx
x e n
x e dx
m m

, 1
n mx
m n
x e n
I
m m

This relation relates
, , 1
to
m n m n
I I

, which is lower in index (considering n). Thus, this is a valid recursive
relation
Example 60

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L OCUS L OCUS L OCUS L OCUS L OCUS 1

Maths / Indefinite Integration

This is because, as mentioned earlier, the derivative of a constant is 0.

The derivative of an integral also gives the same function:

11. cot ln sin xdx x C +

12. tan ln cos xdx x C +

13. sec ln sec tan xdx x x C + +

14. cosec ln cosec cot xdx x x C +

05. sin cos xdx x C +

06. cos sin xdx x C +

10. cosec cot cosec x xdx x C +

L OCUS L OCUS L OCUS L OCUS L OCUS 4

Suppose that you now have to evaluate the following integral:

We will use formula (17) and rule (e) stated earlier:

Section - 2 INTEGRATION BY SIMPLE REARRANGEMENTS

tan tan 2 tan 3 tan 3 tan 2 tan x x x x x x

( ) ( ) ( ) cos sin ln sin x a b a b x b C +

(c) sin 2 cos 4 cos5 x x x dx

Section - 3 INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION

. We find some function ( ) x (and put it equal to a variable y)

L OCUS L OCUS L OCUS L OCUS L OCUS 14

The denominator can be reduced by the substitution

2 sec tan xdx d

To proceed further, notice that there is a

It is straightforward to see why these substitutions are appropriate

You can proceed further as we did from (1) above.

Notice that the power of

Now we use the substitution tan x t

Not much headway! What do we do now?

1 4(1 cos 4 ) cos 6 cos 2

1 sin 2 sin 4 sin 6

Now, we use the substitution

L OCUS L OCUS L OCUS L OCUS L OCUS 29

We follow the same approach as we did in the previous part:

However, this time we write the denominator

This is of the form encountered in Example - 18 part (d)

Solution: To simplify this integral, we need to make an appropriate substitution, such as

The numerator was written like this so

This is of the form (21) where

This is of the form (17) which contains the expression

where L(x) is a linear term of the

We find and such that ( ) ( ) ' . L x Q x + Thus,

Solution: (a) We find constant and such that

can always be integrated using the mentioned substitutions. Let us

Evaluate the following integrals:

Substituting tan x = t reduces this integral to

which is of the form (17)

can therefore be solved using the approach described above.

We could now use the substitution tan x t so that

{By the substitution tan x = t}

Now, if we differentiate the expression inside the second bracket, i.e

and wed be left with only

are all constants that need to be determined

Thus, the partial fraction expansion is

To obtain A, we compare the coefficients of

The required partial fraction expansion is

Solution: We first express this expression as a sum of partial fractions:

We find out the partial fraction expansion of this expression:

Solution: Observe that the derivative of xe

We can now expand this expression in t using partial fractions:

. The rule for integration by

, we should choose the second function in such a way