Predicting the Permeability of Pervious Concrete (Enhanced Porosity Concrete) from Non-Destructive Electrical Measurements N. Neithalath1, J.

Weiss2, and J. Olek3 Clarkson University, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Box. 5710, Potsdam, NY 13699; PH (315) 268-1261; FAX (315) 268-7985; e-mail: nneithal@clarkson.edu 2 Purdue University, School of Civil Engineering, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907; PH (765) 494-2215; FAX (765) 496-1364; e-mail: wjweiss@ecn.purdue.edu 3 Purdue University, School of Civil Engineering, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907; PH (765) 494-5015; FAX (765) 496-1364; e-mail: olek@ecn.purdue.edu
1

Abstract The effectiveness of a pervious concrete pavement to transport water through it depends on the intrinsic permeability of the system. However, this characteristic is usually defined in terms of the porosity of the material. It has been observed that porosity alone is an inadequate indicator of the permeability of pervious concretes, since the permeability depends on pore sizes, geometry and connectivity also. This paper presents a unique non-destructive method to determine the permeability of pervious concrete from electrical conductivity measurements. Combining the normalized electrical conductivity of pervious concrete determined using either alternating or direct currents with the porosity of the material, and applying it in a modified version of Kozeny-Carman equation, a new parameter called hydraulic connectivity factor is introduced. This factor can be thought of as a combination of parameters that describe the pore space volume and geometry in such a way that the intrinsic permeability is related to porosity and hydraulic connectivity factor. Using this factor, and the porosity, the hydraulic conductivity or permeability of pervious concrete is determined. The hydraulic connectivity factor also provides a means to classify pervious concretes based on their hydraulic characteristics. The permeability values predicted using this method have a strong correlation with the permeability measured using a falling head permeameter developed at Purdue University for pervious concretes. Introduction Pervious concrete or Enhanced Porosity Concrete has a strictly gap graded coarse aggregate phase and little or no fine aggregates so as to facilitate the formation of an interconnected network of pores in the material. The material is designed with a cementitious material content just enough to coat the coarse aggregate particles so that a configuration that allows the passage of water at a much higher rate than conventional concrete is produced. The major applications of pervious concrete include (i) surfaces for parking lots, to help in storm water conservation, (ii) pavements to reduce the tire-

pavement interaction noise, and (iii) rigid drainage layers under exterior mall areas (Tennis et al. 2004, ACI Committee 522, 2005). However, the major thrust for using pervious concrete stems from its capability to drain, and potentially de-pollute enormous amounts of water in a short time, thus reducing the run off rates and protecting water supplies. Pervious concrete, because of its unique pore configuration, allows the water to percolate into the ground under the pavement or parking area. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has adopted a policy that recommends the use of pervious pavements as a part of Best Management Practice (BMP) as a means to mitigate the problem of stormwater runoff. The physical and mechanical properties of pervious concretes are reported elsewhere (Onstenk et al. 1993, Yang and Jiang 2003, Neithalath 2004, Neithalath et al. 2005, 2006, Tennis et al. 2004). The use of larger aggregate sizes up to 20 mm maximum size has been recommended for pervious concrete since they result in large sized pores in the material as well as reduced clogging (Nelson and Phillips 1994). Recently, ACI Committee 522 has suggested that the aggregate sizes for pervious concrete should be between 9.5 mm and 19 mm, and that no fine aggregates should be used. The water permeation capacity or the drainage properties are closely related to the accessible porosity. For an accessible porosity of 20-29%, the coefficient of permeability is about 0.01 m/s (Belgian Road Research Center Report BE 3415, 1994). It has also been reported that the fine aggregate content determines the permeability. A drainage rate of 100 to 750 l/min/m2 has been reported for several pervious concretes (Tennis et al. 2004). Intrinsic permeability of 1 x 10-10 m2 to 5 x 10-10 m2 has been reported for pervious concretes with porosity ranging from 17% to 28% (Neithalath et al. 2006). The main objective of this paper is to assess the physical features of the pore system of pervious concrete as well as to assess its permeability. The electrical conductivity of pervious concrete saturated with an electrolyte was measured and used to describe the porosity and pore connectivity using a modified form of Archies equation that considers two conducting phases. A falling head permeameter was used to quantify the hydraulic conductivity. Results from the falling head permeameter were described using the Kozeny-Carman equation. This paper attempts to develop a relationship between measured characteristics (i.e., pore volume and electrical conductivity) and the pore structure (connectivity) for use in the prediction of hydraulic conductivity (i.e., permeability) of pervious concrete. This paper draws upon the results from previous work reported by the authors (Neithalath 2004, Neithalath et al. 2005, 2006, Marolf et al. 2004). Experimental Program This section describes the materials, mixtures, and test methods used in this study. Specifically, the determination of porosity by a water saturation method as well as image analysis, electrical conductivity by impedance spectroscopy, and hydraulic conductivity by a falling head permeameter are described.

Pervious Concrete Mixtures. The mixture proportions used in this study are given in Table 1. This is adopted from a larger study directed towards ascertaining the influence of material structure of pervious concrete on hydraulic conductivity and acoustic absorption (Neithalath 2004, Marolf et al. 2004). Single sized aggregates (limestone aggregates with a specific gravity 2.72) - # 8 (2.36 - 4.75 mm), # 4 (4.75 9.5 mm), and 3/8" (9.5 12.5 mm), as well as the binary blends of these aggregate sizes (i.e., by replacing 25, 50, and 75% by weight of the larger aggregates with smaller sized aggregates) were used to proportion the mixtures. One series of mixtures had 2.5, 5, and 7.5% of # 4 aggregates replaced by river sand. The water-cement ratio (w/c) of all mixtures was kept constant at 0.33. The mixtures were prepared using a 2 ft3 laboratory mixer, cast in 150 x 150 x 700 mm molds, and consolidated using external vibration. Cylinders having a diameter of 95 mm were cored from the beam specimens after they were cured for 28 days to study the hydraulic properties. Table 1. Mixture proportions and porosity
% Fine % 3/8" %#4 %#8 aggregate aggregates aggregates aggregates (sand) 0 0 0 0 0 25 50 75 100 50 0 0 0 0 25 50 75 100 0 0 0 0 50 97.5 95 92.5 100 75 50 25 0 75 50 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.5 5 7.5 WaterCement ratio (w/c) 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 Porosity (volume method) 0.207 0.208 0.247 0.225 0.206 0.225 0.190 0.174 0.193 0.264 0.187 0.176 0.160 Porosity (image analysis method) 0.214 0.305 0.260 0.276 0.203 0.219 0.151 0.244 0.237 0.303 0.189 0.212 0.231

Mixture ID

100 - #8 75-#8 - 25-#4 50-#8 - 50-#4 25-#8 - 75-#4 100 - #4 75-#8 - 25-3/8 50-#8 - 50-3/8 25-#8 - 75-3/8 100 - 3/8 50-#4 - 50-3/8 97.5-#4 - 2.5 sand 95-#4 - 5sand 92.5-#4 - 7.5sand

Measurement of Porosity. Because of the presence of large interconnected pores in the EPC system, two different procedures were adopted to determine the porosity. In the first method, which is a volumetric method, the cylindrical specimens that are 95 mm in diameter and 150 mm long were immersed in water for 24 hours. After this period, the sample was removed from water and allowed to achieve a saturated surface dried (SSD) condition. The sample was then enclosed in a latex membrane and the bottom of the cylinder was sealed to a stainless steel plate using silicone sealant. The combined mass of the sample, latex membrane, and the steel plate (M1) was measured. Water was added to the top of the sample until it was filled, which indicated that all the interconnected pores were saturated. The mass of the system filled with water was then taken (M2). The difference between the masses (M = (M2-M1)) was converted into a volume, and expressed as a percentage of the total volume of the specimen to provide an indication of the total porosity. Table 1 shows the porosities of various mixtures determined by the procedure stated above. In addition to this procedure, porosity was also determined using an image analysis procedure. In this procedure, the pervious concrete specimen was

impregnated with a low viscosity epoxy, and sectioned at different depths. The surface of each section was scanned, and an image analysis procedure was employed to distinguish between the connected and disconnected porosities (Marolf et al. 2004). The values of porosities determined by this method are also given in Table 1. The differences in porosities between two methods exist because of the concepts of volumes and area averaging used. However, the values from the volumetric method are used in further analysis since it measures the volumes and not areas as in image analysis. Measurement of Bulk Resistance using Electrical Impedance Spectroscopy. Electrical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) measurements were conducted in this study using a Solartron 1260 Impedance / Gain-Phase analyzer that was interfaced with a personal computer for data acquisition. A typical Nyquist plot (plot of real versus imaginary impedance) obtained from EIS measurements consists of two arcs the bulk arc and the electrode arc. The two arcs meet at a point where the imaginary component of the impedance is minimum, and the corresponding real impedance is the bulk resistance (Rb) of the sample. Figure 1 shows the specimen set up that was used for the experiments described in this paper. The cylindrical specimen was enclosed in a latex membrane to contain the electrolyte. The bottom of the specimen was sealed to a stainless steel plate using silicone sealant. After the specimen was saturated with the electrolyte, another stainless steel plate with a small acrylic dyke was placed at the top of the specimen, with a piece of porous foam in between to ensure proper electrical contact. The entire set up was firmly gripped with adjustable clamping mechanism.

C-clamp to hold the specimen in place Stainless steel plate top electrode with dyke Porous foam Specimen enclosed in latex membrane

Stainless steel plate as bottom Figure 1. Specimen set up for electrical impedance measurements

The stainless steel plates served as the electrodes and alligator plugs from the impedance analyzer were attached to the electrodes. The impedance measurements were made over the frequency range of 1 MHz to 10 Hz using a 250 mV AC signal. Using the bulk resistance (Rb) obtained from the Nyquist plots, the effective electrical conductivity (eff) of the sample was calculated as: l eff = (1) Rb A where l is the specimen length and A is the cross sectional area of the specimen. The electrolytes used in this study were sodium chloride (NaCl) solutions of varying concentrations (1%, 3%, and 10%). The conductivity of 1% NaCl solution was 1.56 S/m whereas the conductivities of 3% and 10% solutions were 4.40 S/m and 12.40 S/m respectively. Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity. Since pervious concrete has a large interconnected pore network, the conventional methods that are used to evaluate the hydraulic conductivity of normal concrete are not directly applicable. To estimate the hydraulic conductivity of pervious concrete, a falling head permeability cell has been designed, as shown in Figure 2. 95 mm

300 mm

Graduated cylinder

Drain pipe
Top of the sample 10 mm

150 mm

Sample O-Ring

100 mm

Valve

Figure 2. Falling head permeability test set up

The permeability cell consists of a 250 mm long acrylic tube with an inner diameter of 92 mm. The top 150 mm of the tube was machined to an inner diameter of 95 mm so that the specimen can be seated on an O-ring at a distance of 100 mm from the bottom. A 50 mm diameter valve connects the bottom part of the tube to a vertical pipe through which water can drain out. The top of this pipe is positioned 10 mm above the top of the specimen so that no unsaturated flow occurs during the test. A graduated acrylic cylinder of 300 mm length was attached to the top of the specimen assembly and clamped tightly using a rubber sleeve. This was used to monitor the water level during the test. The specimen was enclosed in a latex membrane (as was done for the electrical property measurements), and was inserted into the test set up. Water was added to the graduated cylinder to fill the specimen cell and the draining pipe. The specimen was preconditioned by allowing water to drain out through the pipe until the level in the graduated cylinder was the same as the top of the drain pipe. This eliminated any air pockets in the specimen and ensured that the specimen was completely saturated. With the valve closed, the graduated cylinder was filled with water. The valve was then opened, and the time in seconds (t) required for water to fall from an initial head of 290 mm (h1) to a final head of 70 mm (h2) measured. This procedure was repeated three times, and the average value of t was used. The coefficient of permeability (K) was calculated according to Darcys law as: h Al (1) K = 1 log 2 h A2 t 1 where A1 and A2 are the areas of the cross-section of the sample and the tube respectively and l is the length of the specimen. For a given specimen geometry, and same initial and final heads, the coefficient of permeability is given as: A K= (2) t where A is a constant, which in this study was 0.084 m. The measured values of hydraulic conductivity ranged from 0.001 to 0.005 m/s, with a standard deviation of 0.0003 to 0.0008 m/s (three repeated measurements). Results and Discussions The hydraulic conductivity (K) of a porous material is determined by the arrangement of particles, pores, and their relative sizes. The intrinsic permeability (k) of a porous medium can be thought of as a measure of the frictional resistance to a fluid flowing through it. Therefore, the intrinsic permeability depends on the porosity, poresize distribution, pore roughness, constrictions of the pore space, and the tortuosity and connectivity of the internal pore channels (Garboczi 1990, deLima and Nivas 2000). The hydraulic conductivity can be related to intrinsic permeability as:

K =k

(3)

where is the density of the fluid, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. For water flowing through the pore system, this equation can be simplified as:

K = k * 10 7 (in SI units)

(4)

The intrinsic permeability (k) of porous media is typically described using the Kozeny-Carman equation (Bear 1972, Chapuis and Aubertin 2003) as:

k=

3 p

Fs 2 S 02 (1 p ) 2

(5)

where p is the porosity, Fs is the generalized factor to account for different pore shapes, is the tortuosity, and S0 is the specific surface area of pores.
Relationship between Porosity, Pore Size, and Intrinsic Permeability. Several studies have predicted the permeability (permeability in this paper refers to intrinsic permeability) of porous media from the porosity. For example, it has been suggested that Darcys law could be given a form similar to Archies law (deLima and Nivas 2000), to relate the permeability and porosity of rock systems: k = a1 b1 (6)

where k is the intrinsic permeability (units of m2), is the porosity, and a1 and b1 are constants. Figures 3(a) and (b) depict the relationship between the aggregate sizes, pore sizes (a), porosity (), and intrinsic permeability of pervious concretes. From Figure 3(a), it could be observed that all the three specimens have similar values of porosity but the specimen with 3/8 aggregate shows a remarkably higher permeability, possibly due to its larger pore sizes. Figure 3(b) shows the permeability of pervious concrete mixtures made from a blend of different sized aggregates.
4 Intrinsic Permeability (m2) x 10-10
6

= 0.193
3 a = 4.76mm

Intrinsic Permeability (m2) x 10-10

5 4 3 2 1 0

= 0.225 a = 2.83 mm = 0.247 a = 2.58 mm

= 0.206
a = 3.29mm 2

= 0.207
a = 2.17mm

= 0.263 a = 3.62 mm

0 #8 #4 3/8"

50% #4 50% 3/8"

25% #8 75% # 4

50% #8 50% # 4

(a)

(b)

Figure 3. Relationship between aggregate sizes, pore sizes, porosity, and intrinsic permeability, (a) single sized aggregate mixtures, (b) blended aggregate mixtures

It can be seen that the specimen that exhibits the highest permeability neither has the highest porosity, nor the largest pore size. This proves that permeability is not a function of the porosity and the pore sizes alone, rather the pore connectivity has to be combined with easily measurable pore structure features like porosity and pore size to gain a fundamental understanding of the permeability of the system. This aspect is further emphasized in Figure 4, which shows the porosity-permeability relationship of the pervious concrete mixtures (without addition of sand) investigated in this study.
5

Intrinsic permeability x 10-10 (m2)

0 0.16 0.18 0.20

Porosity (p)

0.22

0.24

0.26

0.28

Figure 4. Porosity-Permeability relationship for pervious concrete mixtures

While permeability generally increases with an increase in porosity, there is no definitive relationship between these parameters. The reason for such poor correlation can be explained by the fact that porosity is a volumetric property of the material, whereas permeability is a parameter that defines the flow properties through the material that not only depends on the volume of the pores but also on the distribution of the pore volume and its connectivity.
Effective Electrical Conductivity as a Descriptor of the Pore System. The complex distributions of pore and solid phases in a saturated porous material with different volume fractions of constituents and electrical conductivities differing by orders of magnitude have been approximated by simpler models (Christensen et al. 1990, Glover et al. 2000, Bussian 1983). One such model is the parallel model where the effective electrical conductivity (eff) is given by the arithmetic mean of the conductivities of the saturated pore phase (p) and the solid phase (s), and their respective volume fractions (p and s), as expressed by the following equation. eff = p p + s s (7)

The first element represents the conductivity associated with the free electrolyte in the larger pores of pervious concrete while the other represents the conductivity associated with the matrix that binds the aggregates. The necessity of considering pervious concrete as a two-phase conducting medium with the matrix phase also

conducting has been elaborated elsewhere (Neithalath et al. 2006). The drawback of Equation 7 is that this representation does not take into account the connectivity of the pore and the solid networks. To counter this, the parallel model has been modified by including a connectivity factor () (Garboczi 1990). The modified parallel model then becomes: eff = p p p + s s s (8) where p and s are termed the connectivity factors, representing the connectivities of the pore and the solid phases respectively. Considering that the solid phase network has a connectivity of 1.0 (it can be proved that this is the case), Equation 8 reduces to: (9) eff = p p p + ss A term, modified normalized conductivity (

eff ss ) , which is equal to the p

product of the porosity and the pore connectivity factor is defined (hereinafter expressed as norm*), which can be thought of as a true measure of the pore structure of the material. From Equation 9, the product of porosity () and pore phase connectivity (p) is given by: ( eff s s ) * p p = = norm (10)

The effective conductivity (eff) can be easily deduced using Equation 1 in which the bulk resistance is equal to the real impedance when the imaginary impedance is a minimum, as shown with arrows for different single sized aggregate pervious concrete mixtures in a Nyquist plot (Figure 5).

-700

Imaginary impedance (Z")

-600 -500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200

100% 3/8" 100% #4 100% #8

300

400

500

600

700

Real impedance (Z')

Figure 5. Nyquist plot for pervious concrete mixtures saturated with 3% NaCl solution (the arrows indicate the corresponding bulk resistances)

The porosity can be measured using the procedure described in the section on experimental program. The conductivity of the solution filling the pores is also known. The only unknown in Equation 10 to determine norm* is the conductivity of the solid phase (s). In this study, the solid phase conductivity has been determined by using a modified form of Archies law which accounts for two-phase conducting media. The specimen was saturated with electrolytes of three different conductivities, resulting in three variants for the modified Archies law, which can then be solved for the unknowns, one of which is s. More details about this procedure can be found in (Neithalath et al. 2006).
Relating Pore Structure Features and Permeability through Electrical Properties. The relationship between porosity and permeability is given by the Kozeny-Carman relation (Equation 5). It can be shown that the pore tortuosity () in that equation is equivalent to the inverse of pore connectivity ( = 1/p).
p . Therefore, the term in KozenyEquation 12 equates pp to * 2 Carman equation is equivalent to, and can be replaced by [ norm ] . Using this approach, Kozeny-Carman equation can be rewritten as:
2

* norm

(11) (1 p )2 This illustrates that the intrinsic permeability (k) is equal to the product of a constant that describes the shape and specific surface area of pores, the square of modified normalized electrical conductivity, and a function that accounts for the pore 2 1 * volume fraction. The expression norm is defined as hydraulic connectivity factor 2 Fs S 0 (H). The Kozeny-Carman equation can then be simplified as: p (12) k = H (1 )2 p The intrinsic permeability therefore is represented as a function of porosity (p), and the hydraulic connectivity factor (H). The hydraulic connectivity factor (H) can be thought of as a combination of parameters that describe the pore space volume and geometry in such a way that the intrinsic permeability is related to porosity and hydraulic connectivity factor. The relationship between k and H is shown in Figure 6. The hydraulic connectivity factor H offers a means of classifying EPC based on their hydraulic characteristics. The mixtures with similar H values exhibit similar permeability (k). The mixture with a low H value (i.e., 100% # 8 aggregates) has a small aggregate size. Therefore, the inter-particle pore sizes are also small and as a result its ability to sustain water flow is lower. Similarly, the mixture with 50% # 8 and 50% 3/8" aggregates also has a low H value since the smaller aggregates fill in between the larger particles, resulting in a reduced porosity and a reduced flow capacity. The mixtures with the highest H values either have a large porosity and pore size as with mixtures having

k=

1 * norm 2 Fs S 0

]
2

100% 3/8" aggregates or has a blend of aggregate sizes that helps to create a very continuous pore structure, as in mixtures with 75% #4 and 25% #8 aggregates.
5

Intrinsic permeability x 10-10 (m2)

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
-10

Hydraulic connectivity factor (H) x 10

Figure 6. Relationship between the hydraulic connectivity factor and intrinsic permeability

The electrical conductivity is related to the intrinsic permeability of pervious concrete in the following paragraphs. Equation 11 showed that the intrinsic permeability could be related to the square of the modified normalized conductivity. This is similar to the findings of Wong et al. (1984). It should however be noted that some authors (Martys and Garboczi 1992) have expressed the intrinsic permeability as:
k = ' p l c2

(13)

where is a factor that accounts for the tortuosity (or connectivity) of the pores (similar to p), and lc is a characteristic length. Equation 13 can be rewritten using normalized conductivity, to yield Equation 14.
k=

* norm

' 2 ] lc p

(14)

From this equation, it can be seen that permeability could be considered as being directly proportional to the modified normalized conductivity. The modified normalized electrical conductivity, as well as its square are plotted against the intrinsic permeability in Figures 7(a) and (b) respectively. The plots show that there is no significant statistical difference between the two (R2 values of 0.93 and 0.92, respectively), but as Equation 11 can be easily derived from the Kozeny-Carman equation, it is recommended that the permeability of pervious concrete should be taken as being related to the square of the electrical conductivity.

(m2)

R2=0.93 4

2 (m ) Intrinsic permeability x 10 -10

Intrinsic permeability x 10

-10

4 R2=0.92

0 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04

0 0 0.0004 0.0008 0.0012 0.0016

Modified normalized conductivity

Square of modified normalized conductivity

(a)

(b)

Figure 7: Relationship between intrinsic permeability and (a) modified normalized conductivity, (b) square of modified normalized conductivity Conclusions

This paper has outlined a methodology to non-destructively assess the hydraulic properties of pervious concrete using electrical property measurements. The porosity and pore size of pervious concrete mixtures made using single sized aggregates and blends of these aggregates were measured using volumetric method and image analysis procedure. The hydraulic conductivity was measured using a falling head permeameter specifically designed and fabricated for this purpose. It was observed that the porosity and pore sizes did not bear any direct relation to permeability. Electrical impedance spectroscopy was used to determine the effective conductivity of pervious concrete samples saturated with sodium chloride solutions of varying concentrations. Using a modified version of parallel law of mixtures, a term called modified normalized conductivity was defined, which related to the pore structure features of the material. Using the Kozeny-Carman equation, a hydraulic connectivity factor was defined, which can be thought of as a combination of parameters that describe the pore space volume and geometry in such a way that the intrinsic permeability is related to porosity and hydraulic connectivity factor. The hydraulic connectivity factor H offers a means of classifying EPC based on their hydraulic characteristics. The mixtures with similar hydraulic connectivity values exhibit similar permeability.
Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge the support received from the Institute for Safe, Quiet, and Durable Highways (SQDH) and the Center for Advanced Cement Based

Materials (ACBM). This work was conducted in the Charles Pankow Concrete Materials Laboratory of Purdue University; as such the authors gratefully acknowledge the support that has made this laboratory possible.
References

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