Modulation

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Why use modulation?

Carrying one signal on another - uses carrier Modulated carrier transmitted Problems with transmitting baseband signals Antennas difficult at low frequencies Noise and interference at low frequencies Cant share with others Easier to transmit carrier at higher frequency Can choose convenient frequency
Antennas can be smaller May be useful propagation effects

Fractional bandwidth much smaller

Antennas and other components easier to design Can have many frequency channels
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Types of modulation
Sine wave (carrier) described by 3 parameters: amplitude, frequency and phase. v(t) = A sin (t + ) So can have Amplitude modulation (AM) Frequency modulation (FM) Phase modulation (PM) FM and PM closely related AM radio band ~500 to 1600 kHz FM radio band 88 to 108 MHz
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Amplitude modulation (AM)

Simplest case of AM is where carrier is just turned on or off.
Voltage

This signal controls whether the carrier is turned on or off

The resulting modulated carrier

Time

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Amplitude modulation
Continuous amplitude modulation (eg AM radio) Information contained in the envelope shape
Voltage Modulating signal

Amplitude modulated carrier

Time
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Amplitude modulation
Modulation by a sine wave: v(t) = AC cos (2 fCt) {1 + m cos (2 fmt)} AC = unmodulated peak carrier amnplitude fC = carrier frequency fm = modulation frequency m = modulation index (degree of modulation) m must be between 0 and 1 If m > 1 get overmodulation (bad distortion)
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Varying modulation index

modulating signal unmodulated carrier (m = 0) modulated carrier (m = 0.5) modulated carrier (m = 1.0) modulated carrier (m > 1, overmodulated)

carrier turned off here

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Measuring modulation index

Vmax

Vmin 0

m=

Vmax - Vmin Vmax + Vmin

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AM spectrum
Modulation produces two new components called sidebands, at frequencies above and below the carrier For a fully modulated carrier (m=1), 2/3 of the power is in the carrier, the rest in the sidebands (Power Ac2 + m2 Ac2) The spacing in frequency between carrier and sidebands is equal to fm (the modulating frequency) Hence a bandwidth of 2 x fm is required to transmit the modulated carrier With a more complicated modulating signal (e.g. voice) the sidebands will be extended, so that a bandwidth of twice the highest modulating frequency present is required
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AM spectrum
Carrier Carrier Carrier
Amplitude Amplitude Amplitude

Lower sideband

Upper sideband

fm fc
Frequency

fm fc
Frequency

fc

Frequency

unmodulated carrier

carrier modulated with a sine wave

carrier modulated with a range of frequencies

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AM spectrum
Example: fc = 1000 kHz, fm = 1 kHz
Carrier Carrier Carrier

Amplitude

Amplitude

Lower sideband

Upper sideband

1kHz

1kHz

Amplitude

eg f c = 1000kHz f m = 1kHz
unmodulated carrier

999 1000 1001 kHz kHz kHz

carrier modulated with a sine wave

2 X fm(max)
carrier modulated with a range of frequencies

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Where do the sidebands come from?

Expand v(t) = AC cos (2 fCt) {1 + m cos (2 fmt)} Using trig identities to get: v(t) = AC cos (2 fCt) +0.5mAC cos (2 [fC-fm]t) +0.5mAC cos (2 [fC+fm]t) This expression consists of 3 sine waves at frequencies of carrier (fc), lower sideband (fc-fm) and upper sideband (fc+fm).
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Frequency modulation
Frequency is wobbled higher and lower by modulating signal
Voltage

Modulating signal

Frequency modulated carrier

Time
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Frequency modulation
Modulation by a sine wave: v(t) = AC cos {2 fCt - m sin (2 fmt)} AC = unmodulated peak carrier amnplitude fC = carrier frequency fm = modulation frequency m = modulation index (degree of modulation) Modulation index: m =

peak carrier deviation (f) modulating frequency (f m )

f = 75 kHz for commercial FM Channel spacing 200 kHz

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Frequency modulation
No danger of overmodulation with FM As m increased, uses more bandwidth As m increased, more resistant to noise; S/N ratio improves Commercial FM broadcasting: f = 75 kHz fm = 15 kHz maximum (audio BW) Minimum value of m is 5 Required total bandwidth is approximately 2 (m + 1) fm Hz.
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FM spectrum
Sideband structure is more complicated than for AM; many sidebands produced Complexity depends on m However, spacing between carrier and sidebands (and between adjacent sidebands) is equal to fm, just as for AM Theoretically, an infinite number of sidebands produced, but most of power is contained in first (m+1) sidebands Thus transmission requires a bandwidth of approximately 2 (m+1) fm Hz
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FM spectrum

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Where do all the sidebands come from?

Look at expression for modulated carrier:
v(t) = AC cos {2 fCt - m sin (2 fmt)}

Very messy, not simply multiplication of sin and cos functions, rather have terms of the form
cos {m sin (2 fmt)} and sin {m sin (2 fmt)}

Expansion produces infinite sum of Bessel functions.

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Demodulation
Detection Most AM detectors are very simple and work by following the peaks of the modulated carrier (peak detector) FM detectors use a phase-locked loop (PLL) which uses a feedback loop to lock an oscillator to the exact frequency of the incoming signal The PLL produces a voltage which is proportional to the frequency shift of the signal

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Peak (envelope) detector for AM

Input is rectified (negative half removed) Capacitor is charged up on each peak, then slowly discharges

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