MEN BEHIND FIREARMS HORACE SMITH Founded the great firm SMITH and WESSON and pioneered the

e making of breech loading rifles. DANIEL B. WESSON Associate of Smith in the manufacture of new cartridges and revolvers. SAMUEL COLT Produced the first practical revolvers. JOHN M. BROWNING Wizard of modern firearms and pioneered the first breech loading single shot rifles. ALEXANDER JOHN FORSYTH Father of percussion ignition. ELISHA KING ROOT Designed machinery for making colt firearms. ELIPHALET REMINGTON One of the first rifle makers. JOHN MAHLON MARTIN Founded the firearm company which bears his name. JAMES WOLFE RIPLY Stimulated the development of the 1855 rifled Musket, the first firearm of its kind ever produced. HENRY DERRINGER He gave his name to whole class of firearms. OLIVER F. WINCHESTER One of the earliest rifle and pistol makers. JOHN T. THOMPSON Pioneered the making of Thompson Submachine gun. DAVID CARBINE WILLIAM Maker of the first known carbine. JOHN C. GARAND Designed and invented the U.S. Rifle, Caliber .30 M1. IMPORTANT DATES IN FIREARMS HISTORY 1313 The ages of gunpowder began with its use as a propellant for projectile. 1350 The first portable hand firearms were introduced. These guns were ignited by a hand held hot wire or lighted. 1498 The first reference to rifled barrels appeared. 1676 Paper cartridges combining both powder ball were developed. 1807 The discovery of Forsyth that certain compounds detonated by a blow could be used to ignite the charges in a firearm formed the basis for all later percussion and cartridge development. 1836 Samuel Colt, patented the first practical revolver in which the cylinder was rotated by cocking the hammer.

1836 The pin fire cartridge developed by Le Faucheus, was probably, the first self exploding cartridge which resulted into general use. 1845 Flobert, a native of France, developed a bullet breech cap which was in reality the first rim fire cartridge. 1858 The Morse Cartridge marked the beginning of the rapid development of the center fire cartridge. 1884 Hiram Maxim built the first fully automatic gun utilizing the recoil of the piece to load and fire the next charge. 1886 Vielle of France developed the first satisfactory smokeless powder, a new propellant which not only lacked the smoke characteristics of black powder, but more powerful as well. DEFINITION OF TERMS IN FORENSIC BALLISTICS ACTION breech mechanism of a gun, by which it is loaded and unloaded. AIRSPACE Space on a loaded cartridge case not occupied by powder and bullet. ANVIL Is a primer or cartridge case, a fixed point against which the priming mixture is compressed and thereby detonated by action of the firing pin. ARMOR PIERCING A full patched bullet with steel core used against light mechanized armored vehicles. BALL Earlier term for bullet and still used in some military terminology BALLISTICS Science of projectile in motion. BARREL The part of a gun through which passes the bullet from breech to muzzle. BASE WAD Compressed paper or other materials inside a shot shell varying in size and form. BATTERY CUP Type of shot shell ignition form, in which the cap or primer is held. BELTED CASE Cartridge case with a band or belt at base just ahead of extractor groove, in which case position in chamber of rifle.

BLACK POWDER A mixture of saltpeter, charcoal and sulfur. BLANK CARTRIDGE A cartridge without a bullet.

BORE The cylindrical passage of the barrel through which the bullet or projectile travels. BORE DIAMETER In rifled arms, the diametrical measurement between tops of lands.
BOTTLE NECK CARTRIDGE A type cartridge designed to accommodate more powder usually for high-powered guns. BREECH The rear end of the bore where the bullet enters. BREECH BOLT the part of the breech that resists the rearward force of the combustion that occurs when a cartridge is discharged. BOAT TAIL Referring to the base taper given in a certain bullet to give greater efficiency at long range. BULLET The projectile only, (not to be applied to the cartridge) which is sometimes called ball. That portion of a cartridge, which is propelled from the firearm. CALIBER Bore diameter expressed I decimal of an inch, measured between two opposite land. CALIPER The measuring device used in the calibration of bullets and gun bores. CANNELURES Circumferential grooves around the bullet or cartridge case. CAPLOCK Used by muzzle loading guns whose ignition system employs percussion, a small thumb-like cap containing a detonating mixture. CARTRIDGE A complete round of ammunition, made up simply of cartridge case, primer, powder and bullet CARTRIDGE CASE Commonly the brass copper envelope that contains primer, powder and bullet (when ready for use). CENTER FIRE Those ignited by means of a separate and replaceable primer. CHAMBER That part of the bore, at the breech to accept the cartridge. CHOKE The constriction of a shotgun bore at the muzzle at various ranges or degree, designed to control pellet charge at the target. CHRONOGRAPH Instrument which measures the velocity of the projectiles. COMPARISON CAMERA An optical instrument designed to make simultaneous comparison of two specimens.

CORDITE A nitroglycerine smokeless powder used mainly in England. CORROSION The chemical wears and tears of the inside portion of the barrel of the gun due to rust or chemical action as a result of combustion after firing. CYLINDER In a revolver type firearm, cartridge container that rotates around an axis parallel to and below the barrel. DIE In hand loading ammunition, any number of tools used to sized bullets and shells. DRILLING A three-barrel gun, popular in Europe, which usually combined smooth bores and rifled bores. DOUBLE ACTION A weapon in which a pressure upon the trigger both cocks and releases the hammer. EJECTOR Correctly, the device at the barrel breech within which the action that knocks the fired cartridge case. ENERGY In bullets, the amount of work done, at a given range expressed in foot-pounds. EROSION More or less gradual wearing away of rifling by combustion gas, hot and bullet friction. EXTRACTOR The mechanism of a firearm by which the cartridge is withdrawn from the chamber. EXPERT WITNESS One who had acquired a special skill in a particular branch of science. EVERLASTING CASE Brass cartridge case from heavy stock intended for extended reloading life. EYEPIECE A part of the bullet comparison microscope where the examiner view the specimens. FIREARM An instrument used for the propulsion of a projectile by the expansive force of gases from the burning gunpowder. FIRING PIN A part of action, activated by the trigger than hits the primer and fires the cartridge. FOOT-POUND The amount of work required to raise one pound one foot high against the force of gravity. FOOT-SECOND Velocity expressed in feet per second. FOLLOWER A metal platform in a clip of magazine that pushes the cartridge upward to the proper angle for feeding in the chamber.

GAS CHECK A cup usually copper used on the base of a lead bullet to protect if from hot gasses. FOULING The accumulation of a deposit within the bore of a firearm caused by solid products remaining after a cartridge is fired. GAUGE Unit of bore measurement in shotguns, determined by the number of solid lead balls, of the bore diameter obtainable from a pound of lead. GILDING METAL A copper zinc alloy used as a bullet to spin as it travels down the barrel. GROOVES spiral cuts in a bore which cause the bullet to spin as it travels from the barrel. GROOVE DIAMETER In rifled arms, the diameter measurement between bottom of grooves. GROUP Number of shots fired into a target usually in one sighting set. HAMMER A part of action (in some guns) actuated by the trigger, the hammer drives the firing pin against the primer, thus igniting the primer and further burns the propellant powder. HANG FIRE Cartridge which fire for as long as several seconds after the firing pin strikes the primer. HOLLOW POINT A design features of some bullets. HEADSPACE For reamed cartridge, the distance from the face of the breechblock to the barrel seat of the forward surface of the case rim. For rimless bottle neck cartridge, the distance from the face of the breechblock to the predetermined point on the shoulder of the chamber. Belted cases had space on the forward edge of the belt. LANDS that portion of the bore remaining after the rifling of grooves have been cut. LEADING Lead deposited on the bore of the gun from the bullet passing through it. LENS Optical instrument magnified used for laboratory examination of microscopical specimens. MAGAZINE A reservoir to hold extra cartridge. MAGNUM Firearms designed for extra power. MATCH LOCK An early form of firearm, in which priming charge was ignited by a cord or match of a slow burning materials.

METAL CASE A form of bullet completely covered forward with copper alloy (jacket). MIDRANGE Usually used in connection with the trajectory, referring to a point midway between muzzle and target game. MISFIRE Cartridge, which do not fire when firing strikes the firing pin. MUSHROOM The capacity of certain bullet to expand on after impact, also the term given to some soft point or hollow point bullet. MUZZLE End of barrel opposite breech point from which bullet or shots leaves barrel. MUZZLE LOADER Gun loaded through the front end (muzzle) of the bore using loose powder and ball or shell or paper cartridges. MUZZLE ENERGY (M.E.) The bullets capacity for hitting measured in foot pounds from the muzzle. MUZZLE VELOCITY (M.V.) Speed of the bullet from muzzle point. NIPPLE In muzzle loading gun, the small metal cone at the rear of the barrel through which the frame from the percussion cup passes to ignite the powder charge. OGIVE The radius of the curve of the nose of the bullet usually expressed in caliber. OVER BOARD CAPACITY Condition in which the volume of a cartridge case exceeds the amount of powder, which can be most efficiently burnt. PARADOX Smooth bore gun in which the final few inches of the barrel are rifled to increase the efficiency of the round ball or slug. PARCHING CLOTH Use to form a gas seal around the projectile of the muzzle of the loading gun. PATTERN A pellet from a shotgun usually expressed as so many pellets within 30 circles at 40 yards. PERCUSSION CUP A small metallic cap containing fulminating material that explodes when struck by a guns hammer. PISTOL Any small concealable short barrel gun, generally not revolver.

PLATED BULLET A bullet covered with a thin coating of a copper alloy to prevent leading. POWDER CHARGE An amount of gunpowder in one load. PRESSURE The gas pressure generated in a cartridge on its being fired, usually expressed in pound per square inch. PRIMER POCKET A portion of the base center of a cartridge case designed to accommodate the primer (center fire). PRIMER In center fire cartridge cases, the small cap containing a detonating mixture, which is similar mixture, found in cartridge cases PROJECTILE One that is projected through the barrel and out of the gun by the powder gases. PROPRIETORY CARTRIDGE One developed and exclusively by one establishment or factory. RANGE The distance from gun muzzle to target. RAMROD Rod or wood used to force the bullet out of the bore of the gun barrel. REBATED RIM Type of a cartridge case rim smaller than the diameter of the cases at point just forward of the extractor groove. RECOIL The backward thrust of a gun caused by the reaction of the powder gases pushing the bullet forward. REPEATER Any arm holing more than one round at a time. REVOLVER A multi-shot handgun, using a revolving cylinder as a cartridge container. RICOCHET The deflections of the bullet from the normal path after striking a resistant surface. RIFLE Types of weapons fired from the shoulder. RIM FIRE A cartridge containing priming mixture in the rim, which struck by firing pin. RIMMED CARTRIDGE A cartridge having a flanged rim a little wider in size the body of the case. RIMLESS CARTRIDGE A cartridge having the size of the case in the same with the size of the body proper. RIFLING Spiral cuts into the bore of a rifled gun barrel to impart a spin on the bullet assuring point in flight for better accuracy. The purpose of rifling is to gyroscopic stability of the bullet during its flight from the gun muzzle. RIM The projecting edge of a cartridge case. SEMI-AUTOMATIC Single shot for every press on the trigger.

SHOT Lead or lead alloy spheres used as a projectile in smooth bore guns or shotguns. SHOTGUNS A smooth bore gun using cartridge loaded with shots. SINGLE ACTION A weapon in which pressure upon the trigger releases the hammer which must be manually pulled. SMOKELESS POWDER Gunpowder which gives off almost no smoke when burned. SMOOTHBORE A barrel without riflings SOFT POINT (S.P.) term used for bullet with partial jacketing having some portions of the bullet to expose at the front. TRACER BULLET A military type of bullet that contains a chemical elements that burns while the bullet is in flight. TRAJECTORY The carved path of the bullet in flight or in a parabola. TRIGGER The level operated by a shoulder which releases the firing pin and allows it to discharge the cartridge. TRIGGER GUARD Bent strip of metal that protects the trigger from accidental discharge. TWIST Angle of rifling relative to the axis of the bore. Usually uniform, expressed in turns or part turns in so many inches, less common the progressive or gain twist. UNDERSIZE BULLET Bullet slightly smaller than the actual bore diameter of the gun barrel. VELOCITY A projectile speed, usually measure feet per second. VENT Orifice through which the flame enters to burn the powder charge. WAD A disc of paper, felt plastic or other materials used in shells.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING Police, fire and jail operations demand the utmost skill and careful planning in order to insure the accomplishment of the police objectives and mission. Planning may mean any of the following: The process of combining all aspects of public safety activity and the realistic anticipation of the future problems; the analysis

of strategy and the correlation of strategy to detail; The use of rational design or pattern for all the public safety undertakings; and Slide 4: The act of determining policies and guidelines for police/fire/jail activities and operations and providing controls and safeguards for such activities and operation in the public safety services. AIMS OF POLICE STRATEGY AND TACTICS: The attainment of police objectives with the maximum of success. The attainment of police design with minimum of effort. The lessening of risk in police operations. The coordination of various police elements in the undertaking of joint task for operation. Slide 6: The reduction of friction and misunderstanding between the police and the public. The attainment of basic police purpose in the enforcement of laws. The attainment of total police effectiveness through the integration of physical, scientific, technical and psychological processes. IMPORTANCE OF POLICE STRATEGY : Controlling of mobs and crowds Handling of prisoners and suspects Police raids on buildings and places The capture of barricaded criminal hideouts The quelling of prison riots The handling of parades and demonstration Slide 8: Police actions in civil defense Responding to bank robbery alarm The technique of riot control Mobile and foot patrol Actions during disasters and calamities The control and regulations of traffic Protective securities to VIPs and dignitaries Action during labor strikes Surveillance and undercover works. NATURE OF PLANNING : Planning is an important and never-ending process of administration; particularly in the concept of public safety. Its

importance cannot be minimized even in the local police command, and a commander who ignores it, does so at substantial peril. In a very simple sense, planning is deciding in advance on what is to be done and how it is to be accomplished. It is in essence, preparations for actions Slide 10: In order to insure the accomplishment of the of the public safety objectives and mission, its components such as the police, fire and jail operations must adopt the utmost skill and careful planning. Planning is the key to administrative process which may mean any of the following: Slide 11: The process of combining all aspects of the public safety activity and the realistic anticipation of the future problems, the analysis of strategy and correlation of strategy to detail; The use of rational design or pattern for all the public safety undertakings; and The act of determining policies and guidelines for police, fire and jail activities and operations and providing controls and safeguards for such activities and operations in the public safety services. RESPONSIBILITY IN PLANNING : Broad policy planning shall be the responsibility of the DirectorGeneral of the PNP. The commander at each level or command, however, shall be responsible for establishing internal operational policies to achieve the objectives and missions of the police in his/her own unit. Slide 13: This requires a clear definition of work to be done; who will do it; and how well it is to be done. He/She shall be responsible for PLANNING, ORGANIZING, DIRECTING, STAFFING, COORDINATING, CONTROLLING, REPORTING and BUDGETING for the aforementioned unit within existing policies and available resources.

Slide 14: For maximum effectiveness, he/she shall be responsible for the technical operation of the unit and the management of its personnel. Slide 15: In effect, PLANNING as the key to administrative process, is a COMMAND RESPONSIBILITY of all commanders concerned. In the concept of the PNP, Broad Policy Planning is the command responsibility of the Director-General, while in the local command planning is the command responsibility of the respective local commanders. Slide 16: Specifically, the commander at each level or command shall have the command responsibility of the following: 1. Establishing internal operational policies to achieve the objectives and mission of his/her department in his/her particular unit. This requires a clear definition of work to be done, who are to do it, and how well it is to be done. Slide 17: 2. Planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, controlling, reporting and budgeting for the aforementioned unit within existing policies and available resources. 3. For maximum effectiveness, he/she shall be responsible for the technical operation of the unit and the management of its personnel. TYPES OF PLANS : To formally achieve the administrative planning responsibility within the unit, the commander shall develop plans relating to: Policies or Procedures Tactics Operations Extra-office Activities Management POLICY OR PROCEDURAL PLAN : Standard operating procedure shall be planned to guide members in routine field operations and in some special operations in accordance with the following procedures:

Slide 20: Field Procedures. This is intended to be used in all situations of all kinds, which shall be outlined to guide officers and men in the field. This relate to reporting, dispatching to raids, arrests, stopping suspicious looking person, receiving complaints, touring beat, investigation of crimes and similar activities. Slide 21: The use of physical force and clubs, restraining devices, firearms, teargas, and the like, in dealing with groups or individual, shall also be outlined. Slide 22: Headquarters Procedures. To be included in these procedures are the duties of the dispatcher, jailer, matron, and other personnel concerned, which may be reflected in the duty manual. It also involves coordinated action on activity of several offices. However, it shall be established separately as in the case of using telephone for local/long distance, the radio teletype, and other similar devices Slide 23: Special Operating Procedures. Certain special operations also necessitate the preparation of procedures as guides. TACTICAL PLANS : These are plans for operations of special divisions like the patrol, detectives, traffic, fire and juvenile control divisions. Operational plans shall be prepared to accomplish each of the primary police tasks. For example a patrol activity must be planned; the force must be distributed among the shifts and territorially among beats in proportion to the needs of the service; special details must be planned to meet unexpected needs and so on. Slide 25: Likewise, on crime prevention, and traffic, juvenile and vice control, campaign must be planned and assignments be made

to assure the accomplishment of the police purpose in meeting both average and irregular needs. Plans for operations of special division consist of two types, namely: Slide 26: Those designed to meet everyday, year-round needs, which are regular operating program of the division. This is known as REGULAR OPERATING PROGRAM. The operating units shall have specific plans to meet current needs. The manpower shall be distributed throughout the hours of operation and throughout the area of jurisdiction in proportion to need. Slide 27: These plans shall also assure suitable supervision, which becomes difficult when the regular assignment is interrupted to deal with these short time periodic needs. Slide 28: Specialized assignment shall be worked out for the detective and juvenile divisions to provide approximately equal work loads, taking into consideration variations in the importance of cases and the average time required to investigate them. Assignment of officers and men to divisions shall be on the need and on the basis of specialty and interest. Slide 29: Special program shall be developed to meet particular needs in each field of activity. For example, the traffic division needs program of enforcement, public education and engineering. The juvenile division needs program designed to make better citizens of delinquent and pre-delinquent children, and operational plans to eliminate certain delinquency-inducing factors in the community. Slide 30: Those designed to meet unusual needs, the result of intermittent and usually unexpected variations in activities that demand attention. This is MEETING THE UNUSUAL NEEDS. The unusual needs may arise in any field of police activity and are

nearly always met in the detective, vice and juvenile divisions by temporary readjustment of regular assignment. Slide 31: For example, a sudden upsurge of robberies may result in caseload beyond the capacity of the detective assigned. Some of these cases may be assigned to other detectives less at work. EXTRA OFFICE PLANS : The active interest and participation of individual citizen is so vital to the success of the integrated police programs that the police shall continuously seek to motivate, promote and maintain an active public concern in its affairs. Plans shall be made to organize the community to assist in the accomplishment of objectives in the field of traffic control, organized crime, and juvenile delinquency prevention. Slide 33: The organizations may call safety councils for crime and delinquency prevention. Organization and operating plans for civil defense shall also be prepared or used in case of emergency or war in coordination with the office of the Civil Defense. MANAGEMENT PLANS : Plans of management shall map out in advance all operations involved in the organization management or personnel and material and in the procurement and disbursement of money, such as the following: Slide 35: BUDGET PLANNING. Present and future money needs for personnel, equipment and capital investments must be estimated, and plans for supporting budget requests must be made if needed appropriations are to be obtained. Slide 36: ACCOUNTING PROCEDURES. Accounting procedures shall be established and expenditures reports shall also be provided to

assist in making administrative decisions and in holding expenditures within the appropriations. Slide 37: SPECIFICATION AND PURCHASING PROCEDURES. Specifications shall be drawn for equipment and supplies, and purchasing procedures shall likewise be established to ensure the checking of deliveries against specifications of orders. Plans and specifications shall be drafted for new buildings and for remodeling old ones. Slide 38: PERSONNEL. Procedures shall be established to assure the carrying out of personnel program and allocation of personnel among the component organizational units in proportion to need. Slide 39: ORGANIZATION. A basic plan of the command/unit shall be made/posted for the guidance of the force. For the organization to be meaningful, it shall be accompanied by a duty manual, which shall define relationship between the component units in terms of specific responsibilities. Slide 40: The duty manual shall incorporate rules and regulations and shall contain the following: definition of terms, organization of rank, general duties of the various units, and the like, provided the same shall not be in conflict with the manual. STEPS IN PLANNING : The following steps provide an orderly means of development of plans: Slide 42: FRAME OF REFERENCE. This shall be based on a careful view of the matters relating to the situation for which plans are being developed. Opinions or ideas of persons who may speak with authority on the subject and views of the police commander,

other government officials, and other professional shall be considered. Slide 43: CLARIFYING THE PROBLEMS. This calls for the identification of the problem, understanding both its record and its possible solution. A situation must exist for which something must and can be done. Slide 44: COLLECTING ALL PERTINENT FACTS. No attempt shall be made to develop a plan until all facts relating to it have been gathered. In the series of robberies, all cases on files shall be carefully reviewed to determine the modus operandi, suspects, types of victims, and such other information as may be necessary. Facts relating to such matters as availability, deployment and use of personnel shall be gathered. Slide 45: ANALYZING THE FACTS. After all data have been gathered a careful analysis and evaluation shall be made. This provides the basis from which plan or plans are evolved. Only such facts as may have relevance shall be considered. Slide 46: DEVELOPING ALTERNATIVE PLANS. In the initial phases of plan development, several alternative measures shall appear to be logically comparable to the needs of the situation. As the alternative solutions are evaluated, one of the proposed plans shall usually prove more logical than the others. Slide 47: SELECTING THE MOST APPROPRIATE ALTERNATIVES. A careful consideration of all facts usually leads to the selection of the best of alternative proposals. Slide 48:

SELLING THE PLAN. A plan to be effectively carried out, must be accepted by the persons concerned at the appropriate level of the plans development.

Slide 49: ARRANGING FOR THE EXECUTION OF THE PLAN. The execution of a plan requires the issuance of orders and detectives to units and personnel concerned, the establishment of a schedule, and the provisions of manpower and equipment for carrying out the plan. Slide 50: EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE PLAN. The result of the plan shall be determined. This is necessary in order to know whether a correct alternative was chosen, whether or not the plan was correct, which phase was poorly implemented, and whether additional planning may be necessary. Slide 51: Virtually, every problem in law enforcement and public safety leads itself to a thorough and systematic analysis of the process of planning. The said process of planning was clearly discussed in the STEPS IN PLANNING from Frame of Reference up to Evaluation of the Effectiveness of the Plan. Slide 52: These aforementioned STEPS IN PLANNING would result in an orderly means for development of plans. The general emphasis of police planning therefore is identical, if not similar to, that industry whose ultimate objective is to improve efficiency and effectiveness of the current operations in law enforcement and public safety. Slide 53: This is in consonance with the broad goals of RA 6975, which is to conserve manpower and budget and to provide better law enforcement and public safety managerial efficiency has been the by-word.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANS : Effective plans have certain identifiable characteristics such as the following: Slide 55: Clearly defined objective or goals Simplicity, directness and clarity Flexibility Possibility of attainment Provisions for standards of operation Economy in terms of resources needed for implementation, and Anticipated effect or effects on future operations. Slide 56: The identifiable characteristics of effective plans as enumerated in this section serve only as guide post for a commander to adopt and develop. The success of any plan lies in the success of its implementation. A good plan poorly executed is as ineffective as a poor plan. Slide 57: The effectiveness of planning likewise depends to a degree of or on the timeliness of the plan and on strategy used for implementation. Timeliness requires a commander to be able to exploit the sources involved in time to be of use to requiring his command responsibility. Plans to be used must be timely. Slide 58: EXECUTION OF PLANS. Once plans are made, same shall be put into operation and the result thereof evaluated accordingly. Operations on the public safety force shall be directed by the chiefs or commander to attain the following objectives: Slide 59: Protection of lives and property Preservation of the peace and order Prevention of crimes Repression and suppression of criminality Apprehension of criminals Slide 60:

Enforcement of laws and ordinances and regulations of conduct Safeguarding of public health and moral Prompt execution of criminal writs and processes of the court; and Coordination and cooperation with other law enforcement agencies

Slide 61: To achieve the foregoing objectives, the public safety services tasks shall be specifically assigned and each member must know his particular duties and functions. Functions or Tasks shall be categorized into: Slide 62: Primary. The primary or line operation tasks shall include patrol, investigation, traffic, vice and juvenile control. Accomplishment of these primary tasks shall achieve the main objective of the PNP. Slide 63: Secondary. Auxiliary or service tasks shall include records, property, jail, crime laboratory, transportation and communication. These tasks shall assist and effectively support the primary task in the accomplishment of the objective. Slide 64: Administrative. The administrative or managerial tasks shall include personnel, intelligence, inspection, planning, budgeting, training and public relations. These tasks shall assist and effectively support both the primary and secondary tasks in the attainment of their objectives. Slide 65: FIELD OPERATIONS. Operations in the field shall be directed by the police commander and the subordinate commanders and the same shall be aimed at the accomplishment of the following primary tasks effectively and economically. The following are the PRIMARY OR LINE OPERATION TASKS. Slide 66:

PATROL. The patrol force shall accomplish the primary responsibility of safeguarding the community through the protection of life and property, the preservation of peace, the prevention of crime, the suppression of criminal activities and apprehension of criminals, the enforcement of laws and ordinances and regulations of conduct, and performing necessary services and inspection. Slide 67: Policing shall be considered a patrol service with specialized activities developed as aids. A patrol force or unit is the nucleus of the police organization about which the special services are grouped, and therefore, it shall not be subordinated to any other police unit in force. Slide 68: The proportional strength of the patrol force and the special units like investigation, traffic and vice and juvenile units, shall depend on the services performed by each. The patrol force being the backbone of the police service, shall be responsible for the accomplishment of the TOTAL POLICE JOB, and in small police stations/sub-stations having no specialization, it shall perform all the primary, secondary and administrative tasks. Slide 69: If a special unit is created, it must be decided which task shall be taken from patrol, to be made the exclusive responsibility of said special unit, which tasks shall remain in the exclusive responsibility of the patrol, and which task shall be assigned as joint responsibility. Slide 70: INVESTIGATION. The basic purpose of investigation of detective bureau shall be to investigate certain designated serious crimes and clear them by the recovery of stolen property and the arrest and conviction of the perpetrators. Slide 71: To this end, the investigation division shall supervise the investigation made by patrol officer and undertake additional

investigations as may be necessary of all felonies, and all cases of murder, homicide, robbery, theft and other grave offenses, except those types that are assigned by department regulations to the traffic, vice and juvenile units.

Slide 72: The investigation division shall also be responsible for the investigation of felonies and misdemeanors which have not been cleared by arrest or some other means and which come within their jurisdiction. It shall be responsible also for the investigation of non-criminal activities, including missing person, and matters wherein an investigation would be beneficial to the public welfare. Slide 73: TRAFFIC CONTROL. Police control of streets or highways vehicles and peoples shall facilitate the safe and rapid movements of vehicles and pedestrians. To this end, the inconvenience, dangers and economic losses that arise from these movement congestion, delays, stopping, and parking of vehicles must be lessened. Control of traffic shall be accomplished in three steps, they are: Slide 74: Causes of accident and congestion shall be discovered, facts gathered and analyzed for this purpose. Causes shall be remedied; changes shall be made in physical conditions that create hazards; and legislation shall be enacted to regulate drivers and pedestrians. Slide 75: The public shall be educated in the provisions of traffic and ordinances; motorists and pedestrians shall be trained in satisfactory movement habits; and compliance with regulation shall be obtained if need be, by enforcement. The police shall initiate action and coordinate the efforts of the agencies that are also concerned in these activities.

Slide 76: The PNP have three tools to aid them in traffic control. Summarily, the above-mentioned are the: 1. Traffic Engineering 2. Traffic Education; and 3. Traffic Enforcement

Slide 77: VICE CONTROL. It shall determine stand of the police service in the control of vices, to treat vice offenses as they shall do to any violation, and exert efforts to eliminate them, as they attempt to eliminate robbery, theft and public disturbance. Control of vice shall be based on law rather than on moral precept, and intensive operations shall be directed toward their elimination. Slide 78: A primary interest in vice control results from the close coordination between vice and criminal activities. Constant raids of known vice dens shall be undertaken. Slide 79: JUVENILE DELINQUENCY CONTROL. Effective crime control necessitates preventing the development of individual as criminals. The police commander shall recognize a need for preventing crime or correcting conditions that induce criminality and by rehabilitating the delinquent. Slide 80: In determining the role which the police shall play in this endeavor, the commander shall study the causes of delinquency and the means of their elimination or correction, to inventory and evaluate community social-welfare activities directly or indirectly related to the prevention of criminality, and to discover by analysis delinquency prevention tasks that are best suited to perform. Slide 81: In carrying out this program, the police shall obtain support and assistance by harnessing all community resources to the tasks such as the facilities of health and guidance clinics, the

professional skills of physicians, psychiatrist and psychologist, and the help of teachers, ministers and laymen.

Slide 82: The police shall enlist the aid, focus the attention, and coordinate the activities of every agency and ground in the community which services may assist in the accomplishment of the delinquency prevention program. Slide 83: AUXILIARY AND ADMINISTRATIVE TASKS. In order for police operations to succeed, the resources of the PNP such as manpower, money, materials, methods and machines, shall be properly marshaled, utilized, coordinated and controlled. Field units shall be amply and ably supported by the auxiliary and administrative bureaus in their operations. Slide 84: The SECONDARY AND AUXILIARY or service police tasks such as records, property, jail, crime laboratory, transportation and communication must be made to support the line units. In like manner, the managerial tasks of personnel staffing, budgeting, intelligence, inspection, planning, training, and public relations must likewise support the line units. Slide 85: In a sense, Section 10 enumerates the resources of the Philippine National Police (PNP), otherwise known as the 5Ms of Police Management. The following are to wit: 1. Manpower, 2. Money, 3. Materials, 4. Methods, and 5. Machine DEFINITIONS OF TERMS COMMONLY ENCOUNTERED IN POLICE PLANNING : DEFINITIONS OF TERMS COMMONLY ENCOUNTERED IN POLICE PLANNING POLICE OPERATION the act of carrying out pre-conceived measure in a regular movement by managing

people in a situation to the advantage of a given mission in particular and of the good of the community in general.

Slide 87: POLICE STRATEGY AND TACTICS consists of plans and procedures adopted by the police for the attainment of operational objectives, aims, purposes, or situation and their accomplishment which involves leadership, initiatives, group action, coordination and integration. Slide 88: STRATEGY a plan, device or scheme for the purpose of carrying out some design or purpose of gaining some advantage in a conflict for police operation. Slide 89: TACTICS the method or procedure adopted to carry out a plan to attain a police purpose. Slide 90: MOB defined as an active and hostile crowd. A MOBs characteristic is its hostile activity. Slide 91: WEDGE FORMATION a formation composed of a squad or platoon. It is the normal offensive formation with diagonal primarily adjunct thereto. This is used when the crowd is small enough which do not require more than a squad. This is commonly used in splitting the crowd in order to apprehend the ring leader. Slide 92: SQUAD DIAGONAL used in dealing with small groups. The purpose of this movement is to move away the crowd from a wall or a building, or to sweep the street with crowd. In the event

the crowd is large, wedge diagonal is more appropriate. Squad diagonal may be formed by a platoon or by a unit of any size.

Slide 93: DEPLOYED LINE strictly a defensive formation and will be used in cases the police have drawn fire or gained the objective and wish to hold it. The reserves who are not engage in any squad or section movement should be drawn up in a skirmish line in the immediate rear of the action. This action may be formed by a unit of any size. Slide 94: CIVIL DEFENSE the joint endeavor of the civilian population of the country to survive the effect of war. While the armed forces are engaged in fighting the enemy in the field, it is the responsibility of every person in the country to prevent and minimize the damage which the enemy can cause upon civilian population. Slide 95: Republic Act 1190 known as the CIVIL DEFENSE Law which took effect on August 18, 1954. This is the law that provide for the creation of a Central National Defense Administration in the country. Slide 96: FRAGMENTATION BOMB are intended against military personnel in the battle field. Slide 97: GENERAL PURPOSE BOMB are intended against ordinary buildings, civilian concentration and common targets. Slide 98:

DEMOLITION BOMB are intended for special target of great size and strength like massive bridges, canal docks, dams and large concrete buildings. Demolition Bombs are also known as ARMOUR PIERCING BOMBS as they are constructed as to penetrate battle ditch, combat tanks and reinforced concrete or steel buildings.

Slide 99: NAPALM (Liquid) designed for use of a fighter plane and produces fire only. Slide 100: TEAR GAS Affects the eyes alone, and are therefore none persistent. It is not popular gas as warfare weapon. Slide 101: RESPIRATORY IRRITANT GAS are made from arsenic compound and produce pain in the nose through respiratory passages followed by nausea and vomiting. This is a non-fatal gas, but very effective in causing panic because it causes the victim to vomit and to be more exposed to vulnerability. Slide 102: LUNG INJURANT GAS attacks the lungs and cause a burning sensation in the nose and throat followed by injury of the lungs resulting in possible death of the victim. Slide 103: BLISTERING GASES the most effective chemical weapon because they can be delivered as sprays over large areas and evaporated very slowly into a deadly weapon, and the liquid form causes terrible burns and blisters on the skin penetrating ordinary clothing even leather jackets and shoes. Slide 104: SYSTEMATIC TOXIC GAS has the capacity of penetrating the skin and the lining of the lungs exerting a direct action upon nervous system of the body. It is considered the most deadly

among gases. It passes through the blood stream and performs systematic action resulting in the paralysis of the nervous system.

Slide 105: STATE OF EMERGENCY State of Emergency may be proclaimed by the president of the Philippines with the concurrence of the majority members of the Congress in accordance with Article VII, Section 18 of the New Constitution for a certain period of time. Slide 106: RAID a sudden attack or invasion of a building or small locality to effect an arrest, to secure evidence of illegal activity, or recover stolen property as necessary material in the prosecution of an offense. Types of Mobs : Types of Mobs AGGRESSIVE MOB active crowd where the main action is to escape all one sided, aimed at the destruction of persons or property. Slide 108: ESCAPE OR PANIC MOB one where the main objective is to escape for fear or safety. Slide 109: ACQUISITIVE MOB one whose goal is to acquire some objects, like food, money or other personal property. Slide 110: EXPRESSIVE MOB one whose activity, although incidentally destructive, is aimed principally at the expression or emotion or attitude, like political crowd or religious meeting.

Personality Types of Mobs : Personality Types of Mobs IMPULSIVE INDIVIDUAL that member of restive crowd that has not yet erupted into a mob who initiates the first impulsive or violent act which sets off sufficient crowds participation to form a mob.

Slide 112: CAUTIOUS INDIVIDUAL that person who is not impulsive enough to initiate violence but is completely susceptible to influence by the violent acts of the impulsive individual. Slide 113: YIELDING INDIVIDUAL that person who requires more stimulation than merely his own normal tendencies to violence. He does not become participant until he perceived the remaining sufficiently anonymous and until a certain impression of universality is present. Slide 114: SUPPORTING INDIVIDUAL that person who supports or follows what others do or tell him to do. Presentation Transcript Review Notes in Police Photography : Review Notes in Police Photography By MELCON S. LAPINA, MSCrim 4th Place, Criminologists Board Exams, October 1996, Manila melcon s. lapina, mscrim VIPs of Photography : VIPs of Photography Joseph Nicphore Nipce was able to obtain camera images on papers sensitized with silver chloride solution in 1816. He invented a photographic process which he called heliography, meaning writing of the sun. melcon s. lapina, mscrim VIPs of Photography cont :

 Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre invented daguerreotype. Daguerreotype is an early photograph produced on a silver or a silver-covered copper plate; also: the process of producing such photographs. It formed an image directly on the silver surface of a metal plate. It was a positive process, thus it yielded one-of-a kind images. melcon s. lapina, mscrim William Henry Fox Talbot invented a process called calotype (a photographic process by which a large number of prints could be produced from a paper negative; also: a positive print so made.) Calotype used paper with surface fibers impregnated with light sensitive compounds. VIPs of Photography cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim VIPs of Photography cont : Note: Calotype vs Daguerreotype Fixation in calotype was only partial while images in daguerreotype were made permanent with the use of hypo (short for hyposulfite thiosulfate: sodium thiosulfate or a solution of sodium thiosulfate). Sodium thiosulfate or hypo is a hygroscopic (readily taken up and retaining moisture) crystalline salt used esp. as a photographic fixing agent and a reducing or bleaching agent. VIPs of Photography cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim VIPs of Photography cont : John Frederick William Herschel coined the term photography and applied the terms negative and positive to photography. VIPs of Photography cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim VIPs of Photography cont : He made improvements in photographic processes, particularly in inventing the cyanotype process and variations (such as the chrysotype), the precursors of the modern blueprint process. VIPs of Photography cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim VIPs of Photography cont : He discovered sodium thiosulfate to be a solvent of silver halides in 1819, and informed Talbot and Daguerre of his discovery that this "hyposulphite of soda" ("hypo") could be

used as a photographic fixer, to "fix" pictures and make them permanent, after experimentally applying it thus in 1839. VIPs of Photography cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 9: VIPs of Photography cont Frederick Scott Archer invented the photographic collodion process which preceded the modern gelatin emulsion. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 10: VIPs of Photography cont Collodion is a wound-dressing material made of nitrated cotton dissolved in ether and alcohol, and other chemicals on sheets of glass. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 11: VIPs of Photography cont Richard Leach Maddox was an English photographer and physician who invented lightweight gelatin negative plates for photography in 1871. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 12: VIPs of Photography cont George Eastman founded the Eastman Kodak Company and invented roll film, helping to bring photography to the mainstream. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 13: Definition of Terms Photography Literal Definition: To write with light. From 2 Greek words: phos light and graphia write. Modern Definition: It is an art or science which deals with the reproduction of images through the action of light, upon sensitized materials, with the aid of a camera and its accessories, and the chemical processes involved therein. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 14: Definition of Terms cont Photography Technical/Legal Definition: It is any means for chemical, thermal, electrical or electronic recording of the images of scenes, or objects formed by some type of radiant energy, including gamma rays, X-rays,

ultra-violet rays, visible light and infrared rays. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 15: Definition of Terms cont Photography Technical/Legal Definition: This definition is broad enough to include not only the conventional methods of photography but almost any new process that may be developed. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 16: Definition of Terms cont Police Photography An art or science which deals with the study of the principles of photography, the reproduction of photographic evidence, and its application to police work. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 17: Definition of Terms cont Forensic Photography The art or science of photographically documenting a crime scene and evidence for laboratory examination and analysis for purposes of court trial. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 18: Aims & Purposes of Photography in LE Work Take photographs of the following: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 19: Aims & Purposes of Photography in LE Work Conduct comparative examination and analysis of questioned photographs or pictures to the known photographs. Process color and black and white film, print, reduce and enlarge picture. Reproduce picture and other printed matters. Compose portrait by means of portrait composition. Provides photographic intrusion detection devices. Maintain Rogues Gallery (a collection of pictures of persons arrested as criminals.) melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 20: Care and Handling of Camera Must be carried using a portable bag or built-in container to avoid dust and dirt. Must be kept dry and avoided contact with water and other liquid substances.

Must be repaired only by qualified technician. Must not be cleaned by oil. Must not be fixed without proper equipment and tools to avoid serious damage on it. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 21: Basic Camera Parts and Functions Camera is a light-tight box; with a lens to form an image with a shutter and diaphragm to control the entry of the image; a means of holding a film to record the image/and a viewer or viewfinder to show the photographer what the image is. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 22: Basic Camera Parts and Functions Camera originated from the term camera obscura. Camera obscura (Latin veiled chamber) is an optical device used, for example, in drawing or for entertainment. It is one of the inventions leading to photography. The principle can be demonstrated with a box with a hole in one side (the box may be room-sized, or hangar sized). Light from a scene passes through the hole and strikes a surface where it is reproduced, in color, and upside-down. The image's perspective is accurate. The image can be projected onto paper, which when traced can produce a highly accurate representation. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 23: Basic Camera Parts and Functions melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 24: Basic Camera Parts and Functions A freestanding room-sized camera obscura at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. One of the pinholes can be seen in the panel to the left of the door. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 25: Basic Camera Parts and Functions melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 26: Basic Camera Parts and Functions A freestanding room-sized camera obscura in the shape of a camera located in San Francisco at the Cliff House in Ocean Beach (San Francisco) melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 27: Basic Camera Parts and Functions Light Tight Box. This part of the camera is very essential because of its capability to exclude all unwanted light that may expose the sensitized materials or film. It is an enclosure that is devoid of light. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 28: Basic Camera Parts and Functions Lens. The lens is the only responsible in focusing the rays of light coming from the subject. It is one of the most important parts of camera because without lens, it is impossible to form a sharp image of the film. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 29: Basic Camera Parts and Functions Film Holder. The film holder holds the film firmly inside the camera. It is always located at the opposite side of the lens of the camera. Shutter. The shutter served as the barriers of the rays of light that will enter and effect the film inside the camera. It is usually placed at the path of the light passing thru the lens melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 30: Other Parts of the Camera Viewing system Film advancer Shutter speed Lens aperture Focusing mechanism melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 31: Major Types of Camera Viewfinder type. Single Lens Reflex. Twin Lens Reflex Type. View or Press Type. Special Cameras. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Viewfinder Type : Major Types of Camera cont The smallest and simplest type of camera. This is also known as instamatic camera. Viewfinder camera suffers parallax error. Viewfinder Type melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Single-Lens Reflex Type : Major Types of Camera cont Single-Lens Reflex Type Crosssection view of SLR system:1) Lens2) Mirror3) Shutter4) Film or sensor5) Focusing screen6) Condensing lens7) Pentaprism8) Eyepiece SLR Cross Section melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 34: Major Types of Camera cont SLR Cross Section The best way to determine the entire coverage of the camera is to look behind the lens of the camera. In this manner, the object can be framed properly and recorded on the film. This type of camera eliminates the problem on parallax error. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 35: Major Types of Camera cont Twin Lens Reflex Camera 2 lenses: 1. for viewing & focusing of the subject, & 2. for taking lens. In this type of camera, the image to be photographed is seen as flat surface as the image is reflected by the mirror behind the viewing lens. This suffers also parallax error. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 36: Major Types of Camera cont Parallax The difference between what the viewfinder on a point-and-shoot camera sees and what the lens sees (and thus records on film). At close shooting distances, this difference can cause you to crop off the top of a subjects head. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 37:

Major Types of Camera cont Parallax error The image you see through the viewfinder is different from the image the lens will capture. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 38: Major Types of Camera cont Parallax error The image you see through the viewfinder is different from the image the lens will capture. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 39: Major Types of Camera cont 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Lens Plane Front Standard Lens Axis Base Film Holder/Ground Glass Rear Standard Film Plane VIEW OR PRESS TYPE melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 40: Major Types of Camera cont VIEW OR PRESS TYPE CAMERA. The biggest and most sophisticated among the different type of camera. This type of camera is practically useless for candid and action photography. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 41: Major Types of Camera cont SPECIAL CAMERAS. These are cameras that have been devised that offer unique advantage or serve special purposes. Among the special cameras are: a. polaroid, b. panoramic cameras, c. aerial cameras, d. miniature and ultra-miniature cameras e. digital cameras (using computer processing) melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 42: Control of Cameras Knowing the controls on camera is necessary to produce a sharp and normal image and negatives after photographing. There are three important controls in a camera to be manipulated and adjusted to its proper setting. Focusing control Diaphragm/Aperture control Shutter speed melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 43:

Control of Cameras cont FOCUSING CONTROL. The camera lens bends light rays to form an image or likeness of the object. Adjusting the lens to form the clearest possible image is called focusing. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 44: Control of Cameras cont Focusing is defined as the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 45: Control of Cameras cont Three Types of Focusing Rangefinder Type (e.g. viewfinder, instamatic camera and 35mm cameras) Ground Glass Type (e.g. twin-lens reflex camera and digital camera) Scale Bed Type (e.g. press and view camera, and Polaroid Evidence Camera) melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 46: Control of Cameras cont Rangefinder Type The rangefinder type is classified into two: Coincidence type the object to be photographed looks double when the focusing control is not in proper distance, and by moving this control, one of the objects will move and coincide with the other object to make as one and become accurate appearance of an object. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 47: Control of Cameras cont Coincidence Type Out of Focus In Focus melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 48: Control of Cameras cont Rangefinder Type cont Split Type Splits the objects to be photographed into two. While moving the focusing control, the split image will move and unite to form an undivided appearance and therefore the focus is accurate and perfect. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 49:

Control of Cameras cont Split Type Out of Focus In Focus melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 50: Control of Cameras cont Ground Glass Type Ground glass type focusing mechanism clearly indicates whether the object distance and the camera is out of focus or not. If the object is not well focused, the object to be photographed will appear blurred. To make it clear and accurate the focusing ring of the camera is adjusted on clockwise or counter clockwise to get the desired clearness of the object. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 51: Control of Cameras cont Scale-Bed or Focusing Scale In the scale or bed type focusing mechanism, the distance of the object to be photographed is calculated by means of feet or meter. There are cameras where estimated distance from the camera to objects is being indicated in the focusing ring. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 52: Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim DIAPHRAGM CONTROL (lens opening) A device called a diaphragm usually serves as the aperture stop, and controls the aperture. The diaphragm functions much like the iris of the eye it controls the effective diameter of the lens opening. Reducing the aperture size increases the depth of field, which describes the extent to which subject matter lying closer than or farther from the actual plane of focus appears to be in focus. Slide 53: Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 54: Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim Aperture and shutter speed are the fundamental controls available to the SLR user: Varying one or other of these opens up a myriad of creative possibilities. Both also control how much light reaches the film so if you make the hole through which the light passes

into the camera (the aperture) smaller; you must keep this hole open for longer (the shutter speed) to compensate. Slide 55: Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim Fortunately, on most cameras this adjustment is made automatically. The size of the aperture is measured using f/numbers (or f/stops). Confusingly, as f/numbers represent fractions, the larger the f/number the smaller the aperture. The widest aperture on a lens might be f/2, whilst the smallest aperture available may be f/22.

Slide 56: Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 57: Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim Minimum aperture In this shot, the aperture being used is f/22 the smallest opening available on a 100mm lens. As this lets in only a small amount of light, the aperture was opened for longer than when the opening used was wider. On this occasion, a shutter speed of 1/30 sec was needed so that the film received enough light to give correct exposure. Slide 58: Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim Mid aperture With each stop that the lens is opened, twice as much light is let in as the one before. Here the aperture used was f/8 3 stops wider than the f/22 used above. So the f/8 setting means 8 times more light reaches the film than with the shot above. To get the same exposure, the shutter has to be open for just 1/8 of the time it was before in this case, just 1/250 sec. Slide 59: Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim Maximum aperture Opening the lens a further 2 stops to f/4 lets in 4 times more light. The shutter needs only to be open for a quarter of the time compared to the previous shot so a shutter speed

of 1/1000 sec, the fastest on many cameras, was used. Notice how changing the aperture in the 3 shots has affected how many of the cups are in focus. This is known as depth of field. Slide 60: Control of Cameras cont SHUTTER SPEED. Shutter is a device that allows light to pass for a determined period of time, for the purpose of exposing photographic film or a light-sensitive electronic sensor to light to capture a permanent image of a scene. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 61: Control of Cameras cont Types of Shutter (as to position) Central shutters Focal-plane melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 62: Control of Cameras cont Central Shutters Central shutters are mounted within a lens assembly, or more rarely behind or even in front of a lens, and shut off the beam of light where it is narrow. A leaf mechanism is usually used. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 63: Control of Cameras cont Focal Plane Shutter In camera design, a focal-plane shutter is a type of photographic shutter that is positioned immediately in front of the focal plane of the camera, that is, right in front of the photographic film or image sensor. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 64: Control of Cameras cont A focal-plane shutter. The plastic curtains travel vertically. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 65: Control of Cameras cont Types of Shutter (as to mechanism) Focal-Plane Shutters Leaf Shutters Diaphragm Shutters Central Shutters melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 66:

Control of Cameras cont Focal-Plane Shutters (as to mechanism) Focal-plane shutters are usually implemented as a pair of cloth, metal, or plastic curtains which shield the film from light. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 67: Control of Cameras cont Leaf Shutters A leaf shutter is a type of camera shutter consisting of a mechanism with one or more pivoting metal leaves which normally does not allow light through the lens onto the film, but which when triggered opens the shutter by moving the leaves to uncover the lens for the required time to make an exposure, then shuts. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 68: Control of Cameras cont Leaf Shutters Simple leaf shutter1. Shutter plate2. Aperture covered by leaf shutter3. Aperture during exposure4. Leaf blade5. Catch mechanism6. Butterfly spring melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 69: Control of Cameras cont Diaphragm Shutters A diaphragm shutter is a type of leaf shutter consisting of a number of thin blades which briefly uncover the camera aperture to make the exposure. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 70: Control of Cameras cont Diaphragm Shutter melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 71: Control of Cameras cont Central Shutters A central shutter is a camera shutter normally located within the lens assembly where a relatively small opening allows light to cover the entire image. The term is also used for shutters behind, but near to, the lens. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 72:

Control of Cameras cont Central Shutters cont Interchangeable lens cameras with a central shutter within the lens body require that each lens has a shutter built into it. In practice most cameras with interchangeable lenses use a single focal plane shutter in the camera body for all lenses, while cameras with a fixed lens use a central shutter. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 73: Control of Cameras cont In photography, shutter speed is a common term used to discuss exposure time, the effective length of time a shutter is open; the total exposure is proportional to this exposure time, or duration of light reaching the film or image sensor. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 74 Control of Cameras cont There are many factors to be considered in using this control. Some of these factors are: The light sensitivity of the film, which are determined through its ISO; The lighting condition; The motion of the subjects on different angles; and The purpose of the photographs to be taken, etc. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 75: Control of Cameras cont The different shutter speeds are: 1, 2 or 1/2 sec, 4 or 1/4 sec, 8 or 1/8 sec, 15 or 1/15 sec, 30 or 1/30 sec, 60 or 1/60 sec, 125 or 1/125 sec, 250 or 1/250, 500 or 1/500 sec, 1000 or 1/1000, 2000 or 1/2000. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 76: Control of Cameras cont Camera shutters often include one or two other settings for making very long exposures: B (for bulb) keep the shutter open as long as the shutter release is held. T (for time) keep the shutter open until the shutter release is pressed again. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 77: Control of Cameras cont Avoiding Camera Shake Unless you are using a tripod, the first thing you should ensure when

choosing the shutter speed is that it is fast enough to avoid camera shake. However tightly you hold your camera, it will always move slightly as you fire. If you use too slow a shutter speed this will mean blurred pictures. The speed you use depends on the focal length of lens you are doing. melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 78: Control of Cameras cont How to Hold Your Camera To be able to use the slowest possible handheld speeds, you must hold the camera correctly to avoid as much vibration as possible. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 79: Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 80: Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim Low-level shooting you dont always want to take your pictures from normal eye level. This kneeling position allows you to take shots at waist level. Slide 81: Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim Minimum shutter speeds for handheld shots Slide 82: Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim When to Use Slow Shutter Speeds By using a tripod, or other camera support, photographers can use slower shutter speeds than usual. These allow you to use apertures that would not otherwise be possible when using a handheld camera and to shoot in the lowest light. Slow shutter speeds can also be used for creative effect, as moving subjects will become artistically blurred. Slide 83:

Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim Maximizing Sharpness In this shot, the aperture used is the smallest available (f/22 on 35-70mm zoom) to ensure that as much of the picture as possible was sharp. This meant using a shutter speed of 1/15 sec which if used handheld would not have been fast enough to avoid camera shake, therefore a tripod was used to hold the camera steady. Slide 84: Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim Nightscapes With a solid tripod exposures lasting several seconds or even minutes are possible. This means that you can shoot pictures throughout the night. For this cityscape, the exposure used is 4 sec. Slide 85: Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim When to Use Fast Shutter Speeds Moving subjects require you to consider using a faster shutter speed than that needed to avoid camera shake. Some blur may be welcome with action subjects, but often we want to freeze the action. Selecting the right shutter speed depends not only on the velocity of the subject, but also on the direction in which it is traveling. Slide 86: Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim Frozen in Mid-Air It is not just for sport pictures that you need fast shutter speeds. There is movement in practically everything we see and sometimes this needs to be frozen crisply. In this shot the boy jumped on the photographers command, and the shutter speed used was 1/1000 sec. Slide 87: Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim Slide 88: melcon s. lapina, mscrim A lens is an optical device with perfect or approximate axial symmetry which transmits and refracts light, converging or diverging the beam. The Lens

Slide 89: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens lens Slide 90: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens Lenses can be used to focus light. Slide 91: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens Types of Lenses 1. Biconvex 2. Biconcave 3. Plano-convex/plano-concave 4. Convex-concave or meniscus 5. Positive or converging lens 6. Negative or diverging lens

Slide 92: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens Slide 93: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens BICONVEX A lens is biconvex (or double convex, or just convex) if both surfaces are convex. Slide 94: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens BICONCAVE A lens with two concave surfaces is biconcave (or just concave). Slide 95: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens PLANO-CONVEX or PLANOCONCAVE If one of the surfaces is flat, the lens is plano-convex or plano-concave depending on the curvature of the other surface. Slide 96: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens MENISCUS A lens with one convex and one concave side is convex-concave or meniscus. It is this type of lens that is most commonly used in corrective lenses.

Slide 97: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens POSITIVE OR CONVERGING LENS If the lens is biconvex or plano-convex, a collimated or parallel beam of light traveling parallel to the lens axis and passing through the lens will be converged (or focused) to a spot on the axis, at a certain distance behind the lens (known as the focal length). In this case, the lens is called a positive or converging lens. Slide 98: melcon s. lapina, mscrim POSITIVE OR CONVERGING LENS This lens is always thicker at the center and thinner at the sides. Light passing through it is bended toward each other on the other side of the lens meeting at a point. It produces a real image on the opposite side of the lens or where light is coming from. The Lens cont Slide 99: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens cont Slide 100: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens cont Slide 101: melcon s. lapina, mscrim NEGATIVE OR DIVERGING LENS If the lens is biconcave or plano-concave, a collimated beam of light passing through the lens is diverged (spread); the lens is thus called a negative or diverging lens. The beam after passing through the lens appears to be emanating from a particular point on the axis in front of the lens; the distance from this point to the lens is also known as the focal length, although it is negative with respect to the focal length of a converging lens. The Lens cont Slide 102: melcon s. lapina, mscrim NEGATIVE OR DIVERGING LENS This lens is always thinner at the center and thicker at the sides. Light passing through it is bended away from each other as if coming from a point. It produces a virtual image on the same side of the lens or where light is coming from. The Lens cont

Slide 103: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens cont Slide 104: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens cont Slide 105: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Inherent Lens Defects or Aberrations 1. Spherical Aberration 2. Coma 3. Curvature of Field 4. Distortion 5. Chromatic Aberration 6. Astigmatism 7. Chromatic Difference of Magnification The Lens cont

Slide 106: melcon s. lapina, mscrim SPHERICAL ABERRATION When light passing through near the central part of a converging lens is bended more sharply than those rays falling in the edge, thus the rays coming from the edges are focused on a plane nearer the lens than those coming from the central part. The Lens cont Slide 107: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens cont Slide 108: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens cont Slide 109: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens cont Slide 110: melcon s. lapina, mscrim COMA This is another form of spherical aberration but is concerned with the light rays entering the lens obliquely. The defect is noticeable only on the outer edges and not on the central part of the lens. The Lens cont

Slide 111: melcon s. lapina, mscrim COMA cont If a lens has coma, circular objects reproduced at the corners of the negative are comet-like form. Just like the spherical aberration, it is reduced by combinations of lenses of different curvatures. The Lens cont Slide 112: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens cont Slide 113: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens cont

Slide 114: melcon s. lapina, mscrim CURVATURE OF FIELD This is a kind of defect where the image formed by a lens comes to a sharper focus in curved surface than a flat surface. The correction of this defect is similar to spherical aberration and coma. The Lens cont Slide 115: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens cont Slide 116: melcon s. lapina, mscrim DISTORTION A lens with distortion is incapable of rendering straight lines correctly; either horizontal or vertical lines in an object. This is caused by the placement of the diaphragm. If the diaphragm is placed in front of the lens, straight lines near the edges of the object tends to bulge outside. This is known as the barrel distortion. The Lens cont Slide 117: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens cont Slide 118:

melcon s. lapina, mscrim DISTORTION cont If the diaphragm is placed behind the lens, straight lines near the edges tends to bend inward. This is known as the pincushion distortion. Distortion is remedied by placing the diaphragm in between the lens component and the two opposite distortions will neutralize each other. The Lens cont Slide 119: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens cont Slide 120: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens cont Slide 121: melcon s. lapina, mscrim CHROMATIC ABERRATION This defect is the inability of the lens to bring photographic rays of different wavelengths to the same focus. Ultraviolet rays are bent the most while infrared rays are bent to the least when they pass through the lens. This defect is reduced by utilizing compound lenses made up of single lens made up of glass of different curvatures. The Lens cont Slide 122: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens cont Slide 123: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens cont Slide 124: melcon s. lapina, mscrim ASTIGMATISM This defect is present when the size of image produced by photographic rays of one wavelength is different from the size produced by another. Size of the image increases as the wavelength of the rays decreases. The Lens cont Slide 125: melcon s. lapina, mscrim ASTIGMATISM cont In color photography it produces a rainbow colored fringes around the edges of objects while in black and white photography, it appears as a slight blue. The Lens cont

Slide 126: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens cont Slide 127: melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens cont Classic example of astigmatism. Left wheel: no astigmatism. In the presence of astigmatism (middle and right wheels) one discriminates between the sagittal and tangential foci. Slide 128: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Types of Lenses (as to degree of correction to lens aberration) 1. Achromatic lens corrected for chromatic aberration. 2. Rapid-rectilinear lens corrected for distortion. 3. Anastigmat lens corrected for astigmatism as well as the other lens defects. 4. Apochromatic lens also corrected for astigmatism but with higher degree of correction to color. The Lens cont Slide 129: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal length is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens to the film plane when the lens is set or focused at infinity position or far distance. Focal distance is the distance from the optical center of the lens to the film plane. Focal Length Slide 130: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal length is a measure of the lightbending power of a lens. It is invariably measured in millimeters (mm). The longer the focal length of a lens, the narrower the angle of view, and the larger objects appear in the viewfinder without the need to move any closer to them. Long focal length lenses are called telephotos short focal lengths are called wideangles. Focal Length cont Slide 131: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Wide-angles A lens with a focal length of 50mm is known as a standard lens the view that it gives is similar to that of the human eye. Any lens with a shorter focal

length, and wider angle of view, is known as wide-angle. Focal Length cont Slide 132: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont This picture shows the views afforded by common wide-angle lenses. Slide 133: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont How Focal Length Affects Image Size Lenses work on the principle that light affecting from a subject can be bent using the refractive properties of glass to form a miniature image of the subject. Slide 134: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont How Focal Length Affects Image Size cont Lenses with short focal lengths, such as the wide-angle lens, produce a small image. Telephoto lenses, with longer focal lengths, produce a larger image, when taken from the same distance. Slide 135: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont Wideangle Lens A short focal length results in a smaller image. Telephoto Lens Long focal lengths bring objects closer to fill the frame. Slide 136: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont Telephoto Lenses Telephotos are lenses with focal lengths greater than 50mm. They range from 70mm short telephotos to long toms with focal lengths of 1000mm or more. Slide 137: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont Slide 138: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont Zoom Lens It is a kind of lens with variable focal length. Slide 139:

melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont Does Focal Length Affect Depth of Field? Aperture is not the only factor that affects how much of a scene is in focus. You should also take into account the focal length of the lens being used and the distance that the lens is focused at (generally the distance from the camera to your subject). The longer the focal length, the more restricted depth of field becomes. Slide 140: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont So, all things being equal, a wide-angle lens keeps more of the scene in focus than a telephoto one. In addition, depth of field becomes increasingly more limited the closer you are to the subject that your lens is focused on. Slide 141: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont Slide 142: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont Factors Affecting Depth of Field These diagrams show how aperture, focused distance and focal length can individually affect how much of a scene is in focus. The shaded area indicates the amount of depth of field in front of, and behind, the subject. Slide 143: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont Aperture The larger the aperture the less depth of field. For maximum depth of field, use the smallest aperture Focused Distance The closer the subject you focus on, the less depth of field. Depth of field is greater with distance subjects. Focal Length The longer the lens you use, the less depth of field you will have. Wide-angle lenses give the greatest depth of field. Slide 144: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS BLACK & WHITE FILMS Emulsion - a suspension of a sensitive silver salt or a mixture of silver halides in a viscous medium (as a gelatin solution) forming a coating on photographic plates, film, or paper.

Slide 145: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS BLACK & WHITE FILMS cont Gray or Anti-Halation Backing - a layer found in modern photographic films. It is placed between the lightsensitive emulsion and the tough film base, or sometimes on the back of the film base. The light that passes through the emulsion and the base is absorbed by the opaque anti-halation layer. Slide 146: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS BLACK & WHITE FILMS cont Gray or Anti-Halation Backing - This keeps that light from reflecting off the pressure plate or anything else behind the film and re-exposing the emulsion, reducing contrast. The anti-halation layer is rendered transparent or washed from the film (as in K-14 films) during processing of the film. Slide 147: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS BLACK & WHITE FILMS cont Film Base - A film base is a transparent substrate which acts as a support medium for the photosensitive emulsion that lies atop it. Despite the numerous layers and coatings associated with the emulsion layer, the base generally accounts for the vast majority of the thickness of any given film stock. Slide 148: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS BLACK & WHITE FILMS cont Film Base - Historically there have been three major types of film base in use: cellulose nitrate, cellulose acetate (cellulose diacetate, cellulose acetate propionate, cellulose acetate butyrate, and cellulose triacetate), and polyethylene trephthalate polyester (Kodak trade-name: ESTAR). Slide 149:

melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Characteristics of B & W Films: Emulsion Speed Spectral Sensitivity Granularity or Graininess Slide 150: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Emulsion Speed ASA (American Standards Association) rating. This is expressed in arithmetical value. DIN (Deutsche Industrie Normen) rating, which is expressed in logarithmic value. ISO (International Standards Organization) rating. This is expressed in the combined arithmetical and logarithmic values. Slide 151: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Spectral Sensitivity Blue sensitive film sensitive to UV rays and blue color only Orthochromatic film sensitive to UV rays, to blue and green color. It is not sensitive to red color. Panchromatic film sensitive to UV radiation to blue, green, and red light or all colors. Slide 152: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Spectral Sensitivity cont d. Infra-red film sensitive to UV rays, to blue, green, red light and infrared rays. Slide 153: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Granularity or Graininess This refers to the size of the metallic silver grains that are formed after development of an exposed film. Generally, the size of metallic silver grains are dependent on the emulsion speed of the film and the type of developing solution that is used in processing. Slide 154: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Granularity or Graininess cont RULES to remember: The lower the emulsion speed rating of the film, the finer is the grain. The higher the emulsion speed rating of the film, the bigger are the grains. A film developer will produce a finer grain that a paper developer when used for film processing.

Slide 155: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS B. COLOR FILMS A color film is a multi-layer emulsion coated on the same support or base. Slide 156: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Main types of color film in current use Color negative film forms a negative (colorreversed) image when exposed, which is permanently fixed during developing. This is then exposed onto photographic paper to form a positive image. Ex: Kodacolor Color reversal film, also known as slide film, forms a negative image when exposed, which is reversed to a positive image during developing. The film can then be projected onto a screen. Ex: Kodachrome Slide 157: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS C. Photographic Papers (Black & White) Photographic paper is exposed to light in a controlled manner, either by placing a negative in contact with the paper directly to produce a contact print, by using an enlarger in order to create a latent image, by exposing in some types of camera to produce a photographic negative, or by placing objects upon it to produce photograms. Photographic papers are subsequently developed using the gelatin-silver process to create a visible image. Slide 158: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Characteristics of a Photographic Paper Chloride paper has a slow speed and is suited for contact printing. Bromide paper has a fast speed and is recommended for projection printing or enlarging. Chloro-bromide paper is a multi-speed and could be used in both contact printing and enlarging. Slide 159: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Exposure and development latitude Latitude is the degree or amount of which you can deviate from the ideal exposure or development without

appreciable loss of print quality. 1. Exposure latitude Generally, photographic papers do not have a wide exposure latitude so exposure must be critical at all times. Slide 160: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS 2. Development latitude Papers that do not change appreciable in contrast and image tone with reasonable variations in development has a good latitude. However, for best quality the developing time should be as near as those prescribed by the manufacturer. Slide 161: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Contrast Range or Grade In most photographic papers, the contrast range or grade are indicated by numbers # 0 to 5 1. # 0 & 1 are used on overexposed or low contrast negative. 2. # 2 are used on normal exposed or normal contrast negatives. 3. # 3 to 5 used in underexposed or high contrast negatives. Slide 162: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Which Film to Use Film is available in variety of 'speeds'. The faster the film the more sensitive it is to light, and the shorter the exposure needed. Fast film produces a grainier image. Slide 163: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Which Film to Use cont Film speed is measured on the ISO scale. A film rated as ISO 100 is four times slower than an ISO 400 film, and needs four times more light for the same shot. Slide 164: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Slow Film and UltraSlow Film Slow films are not just used conditions. For the shot of the sculpture (left) a tripod was used and ISO 50 film. For the nightscape (right) ISO 100 film was used as the photographer wanted a long shutter speed to blur the moving lights. Slide 165: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS

Slide 166: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Slide 167: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Fast Film Faster films, with a higher ISO rating, are needed in low light when faster shutter speeds are required, either to avoid camera shake or to freeze the action. In this shot, taken in fading sunlight, the photographer needed a shutter speed of 1/250 sec to freeze the jogger moving across the frame, and used ISO 400 film. Slide 168: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Super-Fast Film The fastest films are designed for handheld use in low light conditions when the fastest shutter speeds may be required. For this motorcycle race on an overcast day the photographer needed shutter speeds of 1/1000 sec or over to freeze the action, and chose to use ISO 1000 film. The grain on such films is noticeable particularly in shadow areas and at bigger enlargements but this is far preferable to blurred photographs. Slide 169: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILTERS In photography, a filter is a camera accessory consisting of an optical filter that can be inserted in the optical path. The filter can be a square or rectangle shape mounted in a holder accessory, or, more commonly, a glass or plastic disk with a metal or plastic ring frame, which can be screwed in front of the lens. Slide 170: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILTERS Slide 171: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILTERS TYPES OF FILTERS Light Balancing Filter Color Compensating Filter Neutral Density Filter Polarizing Filter Slide 172:

melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILTERS Light Balance Filter A filter used to change the color quality of the exposing light in order to secure proper color balance for artificial light films. Slide 173: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILTERS Color Compensating Filter This is used to change the over-all color balance of photographic result obtained with color films and to compensate for deficiencies in the quality of exposing energy. Slide 174: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILTERS Neutral Density Filter This filter is used when the light is too bright to allow the use of desired f-number or shutter speed with a particular film. Slide 175: melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILTERS Polarizing Filter It is used to reduce or minimize reflections on subjects like water glass, and highly polished surfaces. Slide 176: melcon s. lapina, mscrim EXPOSURE Exposure is simply a combination of the aperture and shutter speed. Thus, it is defined as the product of the total light intensity and the length of time it strikes the emulsion. Control of Cameras cont Slide 177: melcon s. lapina, mscrim EXPOSURE cont Exposure is subjective and errors in calculation will result to overexposure or underexposure. Proper exposure is dependent on: a. Film speed b. Lighting condition c. Type of subject Control of Cameras cont Slide 178: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light is a form of energy, and to understand light we begin with the electromagnetic spectrum which is basically a grouping of all electromagnetic radiation arranged according to the amount of energy contained in the radiation. Light: Its Characteristics & Sources

Slide 179: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Visible light is a part of this electromagnetic spectrum that creates the sensation of light when it falls on the human eye. Light: Its Characteristics & Sources Slide 180: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources Slide 181: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources The properties of all electromagnetic radiation can be described by three inter-related terms. These are wavelength, frequency and energy. Since light is a part of this spectrum, it too can be described by these terms. Hence, it is important to understand these terms as a first step towards understanding light. Slide 182: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources Wavelength Simplistically, we can think of light traveling as a wave. A typical wave form (e.g., ripples on the surface of water) has crests (or peaks) and troughs (or valleys). The distance between two consecutive peaks (or troughs) is called the wavelength, and is denoted by the Greek letter ? (lambda). Slide 183: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources The wavelengths of visible light are measured in nanometers (nm) where 1 nm = 1 billionth of a meter (10-9 meters). The wavelength of visible light is between 400-700nm. The combined effect of the complete range of radiation between 400-700nm appears as white light to the human eye. Slide 184: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources Slide 185: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources Rainbow Colors: Violet - 400 to 440nm Blue - 440 to 490nm

Green - 490 to 540nm Yellow - 540 to 590nm Orange - 600 to 650nm Red - 650 to 700nm Slide 186: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources 4 PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS OF MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY X-rays 1 to 30 nm UV rays 30 to 400 nm Visible light 400 to 700 nm Infrared rays 700 to 1,000+ nm. Slide 187: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources PRIMARY COLORS OF LIGHT Red Green Blue Slide 188: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources SECONDARY COLORS OF LIGHT Yellow Cyan Magenta Slide 189: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources NOTE: White is the presence of all colors Black is the absence of all colors or the absence of light. Slide 190: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources NOTE: White is the presence of all colors Black is the absence of all colors or the absence of light. Slide 191: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources PRIMARY COLORS OF COLORING MATTERS Red Yellow Blue Slide 192: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources BENDING OF LIGHT When traveling in open space, light travels in a straight line (186,000 miles/second). However, when light comes in contact with an object, it may be bended in the following manner: Slide 193:

melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources Reflection of Light Specular or Regular Reflection - If the reflecting surface is very smooth, the reflection of light that occurs is called specular or regular reflection. Slide 194: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources Specular or Regular Reflection Slide 195: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources Reflection of Light cont Diffuse or Irregular Reflection When light strikes a rough or granular surface, it bounces off in all directions due to the microscopic irregularities of the interface. Slide 196: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources Diffuse or Irregular Reflection Slide 197: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources Diffuse or Irregular Reflection Slide 198: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources Refraction It is the change in direction of a wave due to a change in its speed. This is most commonly observed when a wave passes from one medium to another. Slide 199: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources The straw seems to be broken, due to refraction of light as it emerges into the air. Slide 200: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources Diffraction It is described as the apparent bending of waves around small obstacles and the spreading out of waves past small openings.

Slide 201: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources Diffraction cont It is also described as the bending of light when it hits a sharp edge of an opaque object. Slide 202: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources Examples of Diffraction The closely spaced tracks on a CD or DVD act as a diffraction grating to form the familiar rainbow pattern we see when looking at a disk; The hologram (a picture that changes when looked at from different angles) on a credit card; Slide 203: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources Kinds of Objects Transparent objects allows sufficient visible light to pass through them that the object on the other side may be clearly seen. Translucent objects allows light to pass, however diffuse it sufficiently that objects on the other side may not be clearly distinguished. In some cases the objects on the other side may be recognizable but sharp detail and outline are obscured. Slide 204: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources Kinds of Objects cont Opaque objects so greatly diffuse the light that recognizing the object on the other side is very difficult if not impossible. Slide 205: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources Sources of Light Natural Light Source Artificial Light Source Slide 206: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources Natural Light Source (Sunlight) Bright sunlight a lighting condition where objects in open space cast a deep and uniform or distinct shadow. Hazy Sunlight objects in open space cast a transparent shadow. Dull Sunlight objects in open space cast no shadow.

Slide 207: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources Natural Light Source (Sunlight) Dull Sunlight Cloudy bright objects in open space cast no shadow but objects at far distance are clearly visible. Cloudy dull objects in open space cast not shadow and visibility of distant objects are already limited. Slide 208: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources Artificial Light Source Light sources of this category are manmade and is divided into the continuous radiation and the short duration. Slide 209: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Light: Its Characteristics & Sources Forensic Light Sources UV Lamp LASER Light Amplification through Simulated Emission of Radiation. Alternative Light Sources Forensic Light Sources Slide 210: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Developing, Printing and Enlarging CHEMICAL PROCESSING Black & White Processing development, stop-bath, and fixation. Color Processing development, stop-fix, and stabilizer. Slide 211: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Developing, Printing and Enlarging Development It is the conversion of latent image in an emulsion into visible image. 1. B & W Emulsion reducing exposed silver halide crystals (black silver) into metallic silver. (Same reaction is found in photographic papers.) 2. Color Emulsion Developed silver is replaced with cyan, yellow, and magenta dye. Slide 212: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Developing, Printing and Enlarging Stop-Bath The purpose of the stop bath is to halt the

development of the film, plate, or paper by either washing off the developing chemical or neutralizing it. Slide 213: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Developing, Printing and Enlarging Fixation The fixer removes the unexposed silver halide remaining on the Photographic film or photographic paper, leaving behind the reduced metallic silver that forms the image, making it insensitive to further action by light. Without fixing, the remaining silver halide would quickly darken and cause severe fogging of the image. Slide 214: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Developing, Printing and Enlarging Fixation cont The most common salts used are sodium thiosulfate - commonly called hypo - and ammonium thiosulfate, commonly used in modern rapid fixer formula. Slide 215: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Developing, Printing and Enlarging FILM PROCESSING It can be carried out in trays, tanks, or mechanized equipment. NOTE: Panchromatic materials handled in total darkness. Blue films, orthochromatic films and printing papers handled under a safelight. Slide 216: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Developing, Printing and Enlarging Equipment for Film Processing a. Tank or tray b. Developing reel c. Opener for film cartridge (pliers) d. Scissors to cut the tongue of the film e. Thermometer f. Timer g. Funnel Slide 217: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Developing, Printing and Enlarging Equipment for Film Processing cont h. Photographic sponge i. Film clips for drying j. glass or plastic bottles (gallon size) for storing mixed solutions. Slide 218: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Developing, Printing and Enlarging

Slide 219: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Developing, Printing and Enlarging Slide 220: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Developing, Printing and Enlarging DEVELOPER FORMULATION Typical component: 1. Solvent (water) 2. Developing agent 3. Preservative 4. Accelerator or activator 5. Restrainer Slide 221: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Developing, Printing and Enlarging D76 Film Developer formula 1. Water 520C or 125 0F - 750 ml 2. Elon - 2 gm 3. Hydroquinone - 5 gm 4. Sodium Sulfite - 100 gm 5. Borax (granules) - 2 gm 6. Water to make - 1 li Slide 222: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Developing, Printing and Enlarging DEKTOL Paper Developer 1. Water 520C or 125 0F - 500 ml 2. Elon - 311 gm 3. Hydroquinone - 12 gm 4. Sodium Sulfite - 4.5 gm 5. Sodium carbonate - 67.5 gm 6. Potassium bromide - 1 gm 7. Water to make - 1 li Slide 223: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Developing, Printing and Enlarging STOP-BATH Stop-bath can be plain water only with 28% glacial acetic acid. Slide 224: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Developing, Printing and Enlarging FIXING BATH FORMULA 1. Water 2. Dissolving agent 3. Preservative 4. Neutralizers 5. Hardeners Slide 225: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Developing, Printing and Enlarging Typical Fixing Formula: 1. Water 520C or 125 0F - 600 ml 2. Hypo - 240 gm 3. Sodium sulfite - 15 gm (anhydrous) 4. Acetic Acid (28%) - 480 ml 5. Boric Acid (crystals) - 7.5 gm 6. Potassium alum - 15 gm (fine granular) 7. Water to make - 1 li Slide 226:

melcon s. lapina, mscrim Developing, Printing and Enlarging PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING Contact Printing Projection Printing or Enlarging Slide 227: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Developing, Printing and Enlarging Contact Printing It is a procedure of exposing photographic print materials while it is pressed in contact with the negative being reproduced. Slide 228: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Developing, Printing and Enlarging Projection Printing or Enlarging It is a type of printing where the image in a negative is optically projected or enlarged onto a print material for exposure to produce a picture image. The main equipment is Enlarger, the so-called camera in reverse. Slide 229: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Developing, Printing and Enlarging EQUIPMENT FOR PAPER DEVELOPING Three plastic trays one each for the developer, stop-bath, and the fixer. (The size of the tray is determined by the largest prints size). Metal, plastic, or bamboo tong preferably with rubber ends to hold the prints. Slide 230: melcon s. lapina, mscrim Developing, Printing and Enlarging EQUIPMENT FOR PAPER DEVELOPING cont Rubber (surgical) hand gloves. Timers Paper cutter A bigger tray or tank for washing prints. Slide 231: melcon s. lapina, mscrim APPLICATION TO POLICE WORK GENERAL APPLICATION Identification purposes Recording and preserving of evidences Discovering and proving of evidences not readily seen by the naked eye. Recording action of offenders For court exhibits For crime prevention Slide 232: melcon s. lapina, mscrim APPLICATION TO POLICE WORK Public information Police training

Slide 233: melcon s. lapina, mscrim APPLICATION TO POLICE WORK SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS Identification Photographs CrimeScene Photography Slide 234: melcon s. lapina, mscrim References Forensic Photography for Criminology Students and Practitioners by WAYNEFRED H. VILLARBA, Ph. D. Crim The Complete Idiots Guide to: Photography Like a Pro The Everything Photography Book by Eliot Khuner with Sonia Weiss Slide 235: melcon s. lapina, mscrim References John Hedgecoes 35mm Photography Merriam-Websters Collegiate Dictionary 11th ed. www.en.wikipedia.com www.youtube.com DAY 1 Morning Session - CRIMINAL JURISPRUDENCE (20%) Criminal Law (RPC BK 1 & 2), Criminal Procedure (Rule 110 to 127, RC), Criminal Evidence (Rule 128 to 134, RC), Practice Court ** Need to consider - Special Laws DAY 1 Afternoon Session - LAW ENFORCEMENT ADMIN (L.E.A.) - (20%) Police Org, Mgmt, Admin, Police Personnel Mgmt, Police Operational Planning, Police Patrol Operations, Police Comm Systems, Police Com Relations, Police Intelligence, Security Management ** Need to Consider - Police Problems, Contemporary Systems DAY 2 Morning Session - CRIMINALISTICS - (20%) Police Photography, Forensic Ballistics, Dactyloscopy, Q. Documents, Forensic Chemistry, Polygraphy, Legal Medicine **Need to consider - other related sciences Direct Question Form DAY 2 Afternoon Session - CRIMINAL IDENTIFICATION & DETECTION - (15%) Basic/Fundamentals of Investigation, Investigation of Special Crimes, Fire Technology and Arson Investigation. Traffic Management and Accident Investigation,

Narcotic Investigation **Need to consider - related investigative courses Day 3 Morning Session - CRIMINAL SOCIOLOGY, ETHICS, HUMAN RELATIONS AND CRISIS MANAGEMENT (15%) Basic/Fundamentals of Criminology, Study of Juvenile Delinquency Criminological / Police Ethics, Human Behavior and Crisis Mgmt Concepts of Criminal Justice System DAY 3 Afternoon Session - CORRECTIONAL ADMINISTRATION - (10%) Basic/Fundamentals of Penology, Institutional Correction (Jails/Prisons) Non-Institutional Correction (Probation), Laws Related to Correction of Criminals Which one of the following places modern policing started? A. USA B. London C. Scotland D. England Incomplete Statement Form Rigor mortis is a post-mortem body changes occurring in the A. Color B. Eye C. Blood D. Muscle Best Answer Type Which of the following is the most expensive type of patrol? A. Helicopter Patrol B. Marine Patrol C. K-9 Patrol D. Foot Patrol Note also that multiple-choice types of examination are used in measuring knowledge outcome as in the following: Knowledge of Terminology 1. Which word nearly expresses the meaning of collusion? A. Decision B. Continuation C. Connivance D. Insinuation 2. Which of these statements best describe conduction? A. Heat transfers through liquid B. Heat transfers through heat waves C. Heat transfers through solid materials D. Heat transfers through air motion 3. What is meant by the word horde in the following sentence: The police successfully dispersed the horde of protesters. A. Large group B. Supporters C. Motor Vehicles D. Barricade

The third example above is a typical instance where the elimination technique of answering questions may be used. Simple analysis of the question, its shows that one can not disperse a barricade nor a motor vehicle because these are things, one can not also disperse supporters,, hence, eliminating D, C and B, the most logical answer is A. Knowledge of Specific Facts 1. What was the first court that held upon the admissibility of fingerprint as evidence? A. New Jersey Court B. Illinois Court C. California Court D. Seattle Court 2. From what state did the Miranda Doctrine originate? A. Oregon B. Arizona C. Michigan D. Texas Multiple-choice type of exam is used for measuring outcomes at the understanding and application levels like the examples below: 1. Which of the following does not fall under Class A fires? A. Exploding gas depot B. Burning nipa hut C. Forest fire D. None of the above 2. Which of the following best illustrates arson? A. Simultaneous fire B. Faulty electric wiring C. Unexplained explosion D. Thick reddish smoke Multiple choice type of exam is used to interpret cause-andeffect relationships like this example: 1. Carbon dioxide is hazardous because it A. is poisonious B. explodes when ignite by sparks C. does not support life D. supports combustion Multiple choice type of exam is also use to justify methods of procedures such as this example: 1. Why is water prohibited to quench Class D fires? A. Burning metals are too hot B. Water is not capable of extinguishing the fire C. There is the danger of electrocution D. Class D fires reacts violently with water

Valuable to know is that not all questions given in the Board Examination are perfectly stated or phrased. As per observation of the previous examination questionnaires, there are some unintended errors like the following examples: If no appeal is made, a judgment becomes final after ______ days from its promulgation. A. Jurisdiction B. Geographical Division C. Venue D. Territory Note that what is being asked by the blank is the number of days from promulgation but there is no number from the choices is given. Supposedly, if we were to correct it, it should have been: If no appeal is made, a judgment becomes final after ______ days from its promulgation. A. 5 B. 10 C. 15 D. 30 In the next example, try to observe how the question was phrased: Who among the following were given the opinion to join the PNB as provided under Republic Act No. 6975? A. NAPOLCOM operatives B. NBI agents C. Central banks Security Guards D. Jail Guards It should have been: Who among the following were given the option to join the PNP as provided under Republic Act No. 6975? A. NAPOLCOM operatives B. NBI agents C. Central banks Security Guards D. Jail Guards In these instances, the examinee should be careful in rephrasing the questions before picking the answer. However, noted from former PRC Board of Examiners, they tend to consider such erroneous questions as bonus. Importantly, the examinee should never leave an item blank in the answer sheet. Finally, try to examine the proceeding example: In planning for a traffic control program, which of the following IS NOT a factor to consider? A. Model of cars and vehicles B. Incidence of traffic accidents C. Existing road/highway system D. Traffic congestion hazards You should be aware that many questions are like the example above.

In this instance, observe the following NOT, EXCEPT, OTHER THAN, ALL BUT ONE simply means that one is not included or does not belong to the group. The word NEITHER means none of these or none of the above while EITHER means all of these or all of the above.