Introduction To Op To Electronics JPMakris I

Technological Educational Institute of Crete
Department of Electronics
SOCRATES-ERASMUS INTENSIVE PROGRAM ON OPTOELECTRONICS, LASERS & APPLICATIONS
Summer School OLA, Crete 2007
Introduction to Optoelectronics (Elements of Semiconductors Theory)

John P. Makris
Lab of Measurements & Instrumentation Dept of Electronics

Energy Band Representation of Conductivity Insulators

Un-bound Energy States (Conduction Band)
Large Gap (Forbidden States)
Metals
Semiconductors
No Gap
Un-bound Energy States (Conduction Band) Energy Band of Bound States (Valence Band)
Un-bound Energy States (Conduction Band)

Small Gap
Energy Band of Bound States (Valence Band)
Energy Band of Bound States (Valence Band)


SEMICONDUCTOR STATISTICS
Energy Distribution Function
Free carriers, electrons and holes, are essential for the operation of active semiconductor devices. They are introduced in a semiconductor by the process of doping. The number of carriers at any energy level will then depend on the number of available states at that energy and the energy distribution of the carriers. Two important functions determine carrier distribution in a semiconductor: a) the energy distribution function and b) the density of states function. Remember Paulis exclusion principle for the occupancy of states by carriers in a semiconductor, either in the conduction or valence band, or in the impurity levels. Carriers are also indistinguishable.

Energy Distribution Function

The distribution that appropriately describes the occupation of states in a semiconductor is the Fermi-Dirac distribution:
The probability of occupation of an energy level can never exceed unity, or not more than one electron can occupy the same quantum state. If (Boltzmann approximation) in nondegenerate semiconductors:

Three-Dimensional Density of States Function

The density of states function N(E)dE gives the number of available quantum states in energy interval between E and E+dE. Consider a cubic region of the crystal with dimensions L along the three perpendicular directions and impose the condition that the electron wavefunctions become zero at the boundaries of the cube defined by values of x, y, and z equal to 0 and L. The boundary conditions are satisfied by a wavefunction of the form:
and the boundary conditions lead to: ki L = 2 ni, where i=x, y, z and ni are integers. Therefore, each allowed value of k with coordinates kx, ky, and kz occupies a volume (2/L)3 in k-space, thus, the density of allowed points in k-space is V/(2)3, where V=L3 is the crystal volume. The volume in k-space defined by vectors k and k + dk is 4k2dk. he total number of states with k-values between k and k+dk is: taking into account the two possible spins.

Three-Dimensional Density of States Function

For electrons in the conduction band of a semiconductor: By combining the above equations, we obtain: and for unit volume of the crystal:
where Mc is the number of equivalent minima in the conduction band. A similar equation holds for the density of states in the valence band.

Density of Carriers in Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

At 0K or very low temperatures, the valence band is filled with electrons and the conduction band is empty. Under such conditions there can be no electrical conduction. For the latter to occur, a covalent bond has to be broken, for which the minimum energy required is the bandgap energy Eg. This energy can be provided by heat, electric field, optical excitation etc. In an intrinsic semiconductor, without any dopant atoms, the breaking of a covalent bond creates an electron-hole pair, and under an electric field, the two carriers move in opposite directions to give rise to two-carrier transport. In an intrinsic semiconductor, therefore, under thermal equilibrium conditions: where ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration. Usually, in semiconductors with Eg~1eV, ni is too small for any practical use. Therefore, doping is used to increase n, or p, and such semiconductors are called extrinsic semiconductors. Under thermal equilibrium conditions, for the conduction and valence bands, the three-dimensional density of states functions can be written:

Density of Carriers in Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

The density of electrons and holes in the conduction and valence bands are given, respectively, by: which lead to:
NC and NV are the effective density of states in the conduction and valence respectively. The quantity F1/2() is called the Fermi integral. For example, for electrons:
where:
and

In the case of a lightly doped or non-degenerate semiconductor, where the Fermi level is within the forbidden energy gap and , the Boltzmann approximation is valid and the electrons density becomes:
The Fermi integral in the above equation is of the form of a gamma function and is equal to (3/2) whose numerical value is . Therefore, it follows that:
Note that in this case <<-1 and F1/2() = exp(). These equations give the energy separation between the Fermi energy level and the band-edges in terms of the free-carrier concentrations and the effective density of states. In an n-type semiconductor in which all the donor atoms are ionized, such that n0=ND:

For a non-degenerate semiconductor the law of mass action holds:
where Eg = EC - EV is the bandgap energy and ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration:
Since the bandgap energy does not depend on the impurity concentration in a non-degenerate semiconductor and since ni, is independent of Fermi energy level, which is affected by the doping level, it follows that this equation is equally valid for intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.

The position of the Fermi energy level in an intrinsic semiconductor, EFi, (intrinsic Fermi level) is given by:
Two important points: (i) the Fermi energy has a temperature dependence; (ii) it has been assumed that the value of the effective mass is constant in the respective bands, which is not strictly true, but reasonable assumption.

Compensation in Semiconductors
In real semiconductors, species are present. Thus, there is some unintentional impurity concentration of donors and acceptors (in addition to the intentional ones) present. As a result, in an n-type semiconductor, the net electron concentration in the conduction band is given by . Similarly, in a p-type: A semiconductor in which the number of free carriers produced by one type of dopant is reduced by the presence of the other type of dopant is said to be compensated. The compensation ratio (ideally desirable 0.1) is defined:

Compensation in Semiconductors
Consider a non-degenerately doped n-type semiconductor with a small density of compensating acceptors also present. Electrical neutrality: . For the donor and acceptor energy level, the Fermi functions are:
Numerical solution provides accurate value of EF.
Schockley diagram

At 300K, KBT is 26 meV and shallow donors and acceptors, e.g. in GaAs, 4-30 meV, therefore completely ionized: , . Thus charge neutrality and law of mass action give for n0:
Similarly, from the quadratic equation with p as a variable:
where it is assumed that for the n-type semiconductor ND>NA. The free-carrier concentration in a semiconductor as a function of temperature is very important for many device applications. This parameter can be obtained from above Eqs. At very high temperatures (known as the intrinsic region), where the intrinsic generation of electron-hole pairs is a dominant process:

In the intermediate temperature range, where ni << (ND-NA)/2: At low temperatures, assuming NA=0 (no compensation):
In the intermediate- and low-temperature regions, the free carriers are generated by the ionization of impurity centers (extrinsic region). In the intermediate temperature range:

Conduction Processes in Semiconductors

In order for a semiconductor material to conduct, electrons and holes must be in motion in their respective partially filled bands. The carrier motion must have a net direction, and for this an external force (stimulus) is needed (otherwise the carriers have a scattering limited thermal velocity, which is not directional). Moving electrons and holes collide with other carriers, impurity centers, and phonons. An externally applied electric field can move carriers in a band in the direction of the electric field (drift)
Electrons and holes, like neutral particles, can also acquire directional motion due to a concentration gradient (diffusion)

Conduction Processes in Semiconductors

Electrical conduction by electrons and holes in their respective bands is similar to conduction in metals by free electrons. Therefore: The equation of electron subject to an electric field in the x-direction and its solution:
Then, for the current density: The steady-state values of velocity and current: where mobility is defined as the mean drift velocity per unit field. It follows: The total current density due to drift of electrons and holes and the conductivity are given by:

Diffusion Processes in Semiconductors

Diffusion arises from a non-uniform density of carriers (electrons and holes). In the event of the absence of any other processes, the carriers will diffuse from region of high density to a region of low density. The process is identical for neutral charged particles. The force of diffusion acting on electron is given by: where is the force per unit area acting on the distribution of electrons. The motion of carriers by diffusion is limited by collisions and scattering. The velocity due diffusion is given by: or , where is the diffusion coef-
ficient for electrons and the relevant diffusion current is expressed:
and similarly for holes:

Diffusion Processes in Semiconductors

The diffusion constants for electrons and holes can be written: from which we get the Einstein relation:
If electric field and concentration gradients are present in a semiconductor, the total current density for electrons & holes and the total current density are:

Important Insights
(i) The process of drift is essentially controlled by majority carriers. (ii) Since the density of minority carriers is small, a concentration gradient of minority carriers is easily produced, by current injection in a p-n junction or by intrinsic photoexcitation. Thus, diffusion is essentially controlled by the density of minority carriers. (iii) No net current flow at equilibrium. Thus, if a concentration gradient is somehow induced in the material, a diffusion current is produced which is exactly balanced by a drift current due to a built-in electric field that is accommodated by band-bending that constitutes a potential gradient. For a p-type material, the built-in field is:

Bulk Recombination Phenomena In a semiconductor, excess minority carriers are generated by intrinsic photoexcitation or injection across a forward-biased p-n junction (the density of majority carriers is not usually affected) which after a mean lifetime, generally recombine with majority carriers. In an n-type semiconductor, the net rate of recombination (radiative or nonradiative) of holes is given by: The radiative processes usually involve the absorption or emission of a photon with energy close to the bandgap (e.g. band-to-band downward transition of an electron, in which a photon is emitted). There is a small probability that during such a downward transition phonons may be emitted, in which case the recombination becomes a nonradiative process.

Bulk Recombination Phenomena
Nonradiative recombination is more likely to take place via levels within the bandgap of the semiconductor. Defects with deep energy levels in the forbidden energy gap of large bandgap semiconductors act as carrier recombination or trapping centers and adversely affect device performance. The processes are: (a) electron capture, (b) electron emission, (c) hole capture and (d) hole emission, with corresponding rates (in cm-3s-1): where cn(p) and en(p) are the carrier capture and emission rates with units (cm3s-1) and (s-1), respectively, at the deep (trap) level and N is the trap concentration. The parameters se and sh are the electron and hole capture cross sections at the trap. Under equilibrium, and with no generation of carriers by any means (generation rate G = 0):

If carriers are also generated at a rate G, then the semiconductor is under nonequilibriurn conditions. In the pair-generation process, an electron is raised from the valence band to the conduction band, leaving behind a hole. In steady-state conditions, the rate at which carriers enter a band is equal to the rate at which they leave the band. Therefore, for an n-type semiconductor: Under steady-state non-equilibrium conditions: It can be shown that:
The net rate of recombination through deep-level traps under steady-state nonequilibrium conditions is given by:

The capture cross section is a measure of how close to a trap center a carrier has to come to get captured. Usually, for an electron trap se>>sh and for a hole trap sh>>se (for normal traps se(h)~10-15-10-13 cm2). For nonradiative recombination (midbandgap) centers se=sh=sr, then:
If this is not true, the recombination rate will decrease. For example, if ET-EFi increases (e.g. for true trapping centers or shallow donor and acceptor levels) then se>>sh or sh>>se. Finally, it is important to note that true recombination centers can also act as generation centers. For low-level injection in an n-type semiconductor, n>>p and so
So, the lifetime is not a function of the majority carrier density, n. The rate-limiting step in the recombination process is the concentration of minority carriers.

Introduction To Op To Electronics JPMakris I

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Introduction To Op To Electronics JPMakris I

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Technological Educational Institute of Crete

SOCRATES-ERASMUS INTENSIVE PROGRAM ON OPTOELECTRONICS, LASERS & APPLICATIONS

Summer School OLA, Crete 2007

Introduction to Optoelectronics (Elements of Semiconductors Theory)

Technological Educational Institute of Crete

SOCRATES-ERASMUS INTENSIVE PROGRAM ON OPTOELECTRONICS, LASERS & APPLICATIONS

Summer School OLA, Crete 2007

Energy Band Representation of Conductivity Insulators

Un-bound Energy States (Conduction Band)

Energy Band of Bound States (Valence Band)

Energy Band of Bound States (Valence Band)

Technological Educational Institute of Crete

SOCRATES-ERASMUS INTENSIVE PROGRAM ON OPTOELECTRONICS, LASERS & APPLICATIONS

Summer School OLA, Crete 2007

Technological Educational Institute of Crete

SOCRATES-ERASMUS INTENSIVE PROGRAM ON OPTOELECTRONICS, LASERS & APPLICATIONS

Summer School OLA, Crete 2007

Technological Educational Institute of Crete

SOCRATES-ERASMUS INTENSIVE PROGRAM ON OPTOELECTRONICS, LASERS & APPLICATIONS

Summer School OLA, Crete 2007

Energy Distribution Function

Technological Educational Institute of Crete

SOCRATES-ERASMUS INTENSIVE PROGRAM ON OPTOELECTRONICS, LASERS & APPLICATIONS

Summer School OLA, Crete 2007

Three-Dimensional Density of States Function

Technological Educational Institute of Crete

SOCRATES-ERASMUS INTENSIVE PROGRAM ON OPTOELECTRONICS, LASERS & APPLICATIONS

Summer School OLA, Crete 2007

Three-Dimensional Density of States Function

Technological Educational Institute of Crete

SOCRATES-ERASMUS INTENSIVE PROGRAM ON OPTOELECTRONICS, LASERS & APPLICATIONS

Summer School OLA, Crete 2007

Density of Carriers in Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

Technological Educational Institute of Crete

SOCRATES-ERASMUS INTENSIVE PROGRAM ON OPTOELECTRONICS, LASERS & APPLICATIONS

Summer School OLA, Crete 2007

Density of Carriers in Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

Technological Educational Institute of Crete

SOCRATES-ERASMUS INTENSIVE PROGRAM ON OPTOELECTRONICS, LASERS & APPLICATIONS

Summer School OLA, Crete 2007

Technological Educational Institute of Crete

SOCRATES-ERASMUS INTENSIVE PROGRAM ON OPTOELECTRONICS, LASERS & APPLICATIONS

Summer School OLA, Crete 2007

For a non-degenerate semiconductor the law of mass action holds:

where Eg = EC - EV is the bandgap energy and ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration:

Technological Educational Institute of Crete

SOCRATES-ERASMUS INTENSIVE PROGRAM ON OPTOELECTRONICS, LASERS & APPLICATIONS

Summer School OLA, Crete 2007

Technological Educational Institute of Crete

SOCRATES-ERASMUS INTENSIVE PROGRAM ON OPTOELECTRONICS, LASERS & APPLICATIONS

Summer School OLA, Crete 2007

Technological Educational Institute of Crete

SOCRATES-ERASMUS INTENSIVE PROGRAM ON OPTOELECTRONICS, LASERS & APPLICATIONS

Summer School OLA, Crete 2007

Numerical solution provides accurate value of EF.

Technological Educational Institute of Crete

SOCRATES-ERASMUS INTENSIVE PROGRAM ON OPTOELECTRONICS, LASERS & APPLICATIONS

Summer School OLA, Crete 2007

Similarly, from the quadratic equation with p as a variable:

Technological Educational Institute of Crete

SOCRATES-ERASMUS INTENSIVE PROGRAM ON OPTOELECTRONICS, LASERS & APPLICATIONS

Summer School OLA, Crete 2007