Chapter 9.

Plasma Heating

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Plasma Heating Methods

Ohmic current flow through plasma. Compression by magnetic field, shock wave, or beam pressure Wave heating radio waves, microwaves, laser beams Particle beam injecton electron beams, ion beams, or NBI Example: n = 1020 m-3, T = 10 keV, V = 200 m3. W = 1.5nk(Te+Ti) 100 MJ. Maybe 50 MW for about 10 s. Desirable features: High power flux, small ports in chamber walls High efficiency of generation, transmission Large fraction of energy absorbed in plasma High power per unit generator Reliable operation for long times Easy maintenance Low cost per Watt.
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Ohmic Heating
Electrodes or magnetic induction can drive plasma current. Power dissipated per m3 is

For Zeff = 1 and L = 18, Resistivity of copper at room temperature is about 2x10-8 -m.
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Increases of Resistivity
Neutral atoms increase by factor Impurity ions increase Zeff and Toroidal geometry Trapped particles Turbulence Turbulence increases energy loss rates. High E may cause electron runaway. Ignition by Ohmic heating is possible with very high B, but auxiliary heating is usually needed.
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eff >> ei

Runaway Electrons
me( ue/ t) = -eE + J - meueen If |eE | > | J meueen | , electrons continue to accelerate up to very high energies, sometimes MeV, then they are lost. The energy is wasted, instead of heating the plasma. A large part of the plasma current may be suddenly lost. The walls may be damaged.

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Compression Time
Compression time c << E adiabatic, reversible. Compression time c > E, energy losses, nonadiabatic. Extremely fast compression (c ~ 1 s) intense irreversible heating. shock wave,

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Shock Waves in Gases

Shock waves may be caused by rupturing a diaphragm between gases at different pressues, by detonation of an explosive, or by motion of a piston (such as an airplane wing) through the gas.
(a) nA > nC cs(nA) > cs(nC) (b) Top of density hill nA moves faster than bottom nC (c,d) Slope n(x) gets steeper, forming a cliff.

Causes sudden, irreversible heating of the gas. Overturning of the wave is limited by heat conduction and viscosity. Thickness ~ several (collisions).

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Shock Waves in Plasmas

Caused by increase of wave speed with density. May be large-amplitude MHD wave Initiated by changing E or B in s. Electrodes or pulsed coils can induce sudden J. High J flowing in wave front magnetic piston, like a snow plow. Sometimes (collisions) >> shock front thickness. collisionless shock wave good ion heating (~10 keV) Problems Low inductance, high voltage circuits required. Coils and insulators close to plasma damaged by neutrons. Cyclic stresses cause fatigue failures, limit coil B field.
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Adiabatic Compression
Ni = total number of ions = constant N = number of degrees of freedom during compression. 1D compression = 3; 2D = 2; 3D = 5/3. May be different in parallel and perpendicular directions Only the energy component in the direction of compression is affected. If collisions equalize Te and Ti, then = 5/3.

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Compression of Toroidal Plasma

Initial plasma Compressed along Minor radius

Compressed along Major radius

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Compression of Toroidal Plasma

In low-beta plasma particles are tied to B lines L = 2Ro In high-beta plasma

Compute volume change from these equations, Then compute pressure change from adiabatic equation or from the following Table.
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Types of Toroidal Compression

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Compression in Tokamaks
Toroidal flux conservation Bta2 = constant Bt = BoRo/R If Bo constant during compression, then a2/R = constant Decrease of R (with constant Bo) also causes a compression of minor radius a. Slow compression is non-adiabatic, need transport equations. Experiments with the Adiabatic Toroidal Compressor (ATC) Tokamak demonstrated effectiveness of compression. Disadvantages: plasma shape control is complex, Space available in chamber limits volume change, Compression coils may be damaged by fatigue and neutrons.
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Compression in Tokamaks

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Charged Particle Beam Injection

Charged particles cannot cross B field easily. Can inject along B into open magnetic systems, but they may be quickly lost out the other end. Beam-plasma instability may extract electron beam energy and heat the plasma (keV temperatures achieved). Can inject electron beam into a torus by gradually Increasing B. High power electron or ion beams can compress inertial confinement targets, causing heating.
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Plasma Guns
Plasma gun accelerates Plasma blob to high u, n, and Ti. Gun plasma can be injected into a tokamak. Charge-separation E field helps plasma to penetrate across B. Plasma focus is collapse of plasma blob to small diameter. Used as source of x-rays or neutrons. Vortex filaments observed. Washer gun = stack of Ti washers impregnated with Deuterium. Pulsed current Ionizes and accelerates D+.
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RACE Device, Livermore

Plasma gun v = 106 m/s

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Tokamak de Varennes, Canada

Plasma gun v ~ 2x105 m/s

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Neutral Beam Production

Separation Magnet

Accelerator Neutralizer Beam Beam Dump Transport Tube

Plasma

Ions Neutrals

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Neutral Beam Injection (NBI)

Energy too low

Energy satisfactory r Energy too high

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Neutral Beam Injection (NBI)

Unattenuated beam density nb(x) is trapped at a rate where a = attenuation length. In a uniform plasma

From graph, D at 100 keV nea = 3x1019 m-2. If ne = 1020 m-3, then a = 0.3 m.

Te = 10 keV (smooth curve) Te = 1 keV (dashed curve)

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NBI

dr

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Neutral Beam Injection (NBI)

Ions trapped in dx at r will quickly fill volume (2Ro) 2rdx. Ions deposited at small r will have greater effect on the local density. Let av = evaluated at <ne> and <Te>. Then av > a/4 may give adequate penetration. Example: ne = 8x1019 m-3, a = 1.0 m. nea = 8x1019 m-2. Require neav > 2x1019 m-2. Required Wo 70 keV.

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Neutral Beam Injection (NBI)

May heat plasma to ignition at small r, then expand to Ti full size. Example: Ro = 10 m, Bt = 4.2 T Elongation b/a = 1.6, ao = 1.4 m, neo = 1020 m-3, Wo = 150 keV P = 130 MW Final plasma a = 2.5 m I = 8 MA. Result depends strongly on transport model, alpha confinement, alpha energy transfer to electrons and ions.

b a
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DuoPIGatron Ion Source

Penning discharge = cylinder with axial magnetic field and negative cathodes at the ends. One cathode emits electrons, which bounce back and forth between the end cathodes, gradually diffusing to the cylindrical anode, and ionizing the neutral gas. At extraction grids need uniform plasma density and low B, to minimize transverse energy and beam divergence.
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22 cm diameter A = anode F = filaments M = magnet coils

LBL Ion Source

LBL ion source uses B = 0, higher arc current. p ~ 1 Pa. Gas efficiency = (ion flow rate)/(flow rate of ions + gas) 30% (for LBL source) and 50% (for DuoPIGatron). Need very powerful vacuum pumps. High gas flow can cause problems in accelerator, beam transport tube, and in plasma (hot ion loss by charge exchange.) 70% D+ (full energy) 20% D2+ (1/2 energy per atom) 10%D3+ (1/3 energy per atom) Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) extraction area 10x40 cm 120 keV, 65 A per source.

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Accelerator Electrodes, LBL Source

Accel-Decel design minimizes beam divergence angles (0.5 degree parallel to slits, 1.3 degree perpendicular to electrodes). Water-cooled grid rails fastened at one end only, to allow thermal expansion. J ~ 3 kA/m2 attained. If sparking occurs, high voltage must be switched off immediately.
Accelerating grid decelerating grid

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TFTR Neutral Beam Injector

0.2 T Magnetic field shielded by steel to avoid damaging plasma confinement.

5x7m

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Neutral Beam Injection (NBI)

Fraction of ion beam neutralized by charge exchange

10 = neutralization by cx If

01 = reionization Neutralization efficiency

Low efficiency for D+ above 100 keV. Need 1 MeV negative Ion beams for ITER.

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TFR Neutral Beam Injection (NBI)

Per MW of Do

Four units 20 MW (Do) Pulse length = 0.5 s

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Beam Duct and Pumping

Cryogenic pumps remove neutral gas to keep it from entering Plasma. Fast shutter valve closes after pulse ends. Injection angle variable. Neutral gas in beam duct some reionization. Minimize PotLd/C. Po = 5 MW, t = 0.5 s, Ld = 2.5 m, C = 150 m3/s. Efficiency. Without recovery of unneutralized beam energy, Efficiency = beam power/input power = 1.58/3.2 = 49%. With recovery at 30% efficiency, net efficiency = 58%.

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NBI Design Considerations

Current density maximize J, high , narrow gaps High voltage breakdown smooth electrodes, large gaps Beam divergence angle accel-decel electrodes, computer design, precise alignment, allow thermal expansion Beam blowup use narrow beamlets; put neutralization cell close to accelerating grids Overheating cooling by water, helium, or liquid metal. Arc damage computerized diagnostics, fast circuitinterrupters on power supplies.
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NBI Design Considerations

Electrode sputtering (surface erosion by ion bombardment) -Minimize neutral gas pressure in grid region. Radiation damage put electrodes far from reactor, out of line of sight of plasma (bending magnet in between) Shield insulators from neutrons. Gas flow use cryogenic pumping system and fast-closing valve. Long-pulse operation Efficiency convert energy of unneutralized ions into electricity in beam dump. Reliability and maintainability ability to repair quickly Cost
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Wave Heating
Coupling effective near plasma resonances or chamber resonances. Waves need to penetrate Inside before absorption. E B = ordinary mode Reflected at = pe Example: At n=1020 m-3, What frequency O-mode is required for penetration? = pe/2 = 90 GHz. Extraordinary mode may penetrate further.
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Resonant Frequencies
Coupling of wave energy to plasma is strong near resonances Electron cyclotron frequency Ion cyclotron frequency Lower hybrid frequency Upper hybrid frequency where (rad/s)

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Resonant Frequencies
ce = ce/2

When B = 5 T and n = 1020 m-3, these frequencies are

Mode conversion can change the wave type.

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Cavity Resonances
wave

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Cavity Resonances
Weakly absorbed waves can pass through the plasma many times, reflecting from the chamber walls. If the wave frequency or wavelength is tuned to a natural resonance frequency of the plasma-filled chamber, then the wave amplitude can become very large. (Like resonance of a musical instrument) Changes of plasma density change the resonant frequencies of the toroidal cavity. The generator needs to follow the changing resonant frequency. (Mode tracking). The usually low impedance of the (plasma+chamber) becomes high near a resonance, improving the coupling efficiency. Need smooth, high-conductivity walls.
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Wave Heating Methods

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Wave Heating Methods

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Ion Cyclotron Range of Frequencies (ICRF)

Example: NUMAK reactor: Cavity-backed aperture antenna for ion cyclotron range of frequencies (ICRF) Transmission line & cavity coupling efficiency 97% High voltage transformer efficiency 85% Generator/amplifier efficiency 75% Net efficiency 59% Good ion orbits needed. ICRF impurities increased Prad, possible MHD instabilities
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NUMAK design

Radiofrequency (rf) Wave Heating

Radiofrequency voltages ~ 30 kV, avoid breakdown Plasma near antenna & windows may facilitate arcing Rapid shutoff of generators if arc occurs Radiation damage to antennas Vacuum windows outside neutron shielding Need alloys with high conductivity after neutron irradiation Waveguide bends reduce neutron streaming Advantages of radiofrequency (rf) wave heating: Good efficiency NBI gas inflow and cryopumps avoided Smaller ports required for injection of rf or microwaves Lower cost than NBI Tokamak plasma current drive by rf, LH, ECH, or NBI
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