1 One of the most hazardous tasks during routine theatre productions is the setup and rigging of overhead lighting.

This is due to the use of electricity, heat generated by high wattage instruments, and the height at which the work is done. There are frequent trips up and down ladders of various types and it is the responsibility of the rigger to maintain their own safety. The US Department of Labor (DOL) lists falls as one of the leading causes of traumatic occupational death, accounting for eight percent of all occupational fatalities from trauma.

A-frame Ladder

Ladders
Ladders commonly found are of the A-frame or extension types, with materials including: wood, fiberglass, and aluminum. It is important to note the safe working limit. Before using any ladder it is good practice to do a quick visual inspection to find any defects in the material or structure that could result in failure.

Materials
Wood Wood is a natural material that shrinks or grows depending on humidity, temperature, and barometric pressure. The net effect of this is loose joints in the construction which add significant sway to the ladder and can make it dangerously unstable. Wooden ladders that are not stored correctly can develop cracks and splits in the material which could become points of failure. Most A-frame ladders of this type have a metal rod between

3 the front rails below each step which can be tightened to restore ladder rigidity. Aluminum The next material up in quality is aluminuma metal that is significantly lighter than steel and is an improvement over wood in terms of maintenance ease and safe working life. That said, it is still up to the user to take note of any material fractures, pulled rivets, broken welds, or crushed structural channelsin simpler terms, if it looks like it was run over by a truck, it is more likely not safe to use. Fiberglass The final material is fiberglass. This material displays excellent strength and is very light weight and has become the material of choice for ladders. It is a composite material that marries the properties of its components. That said, it is still made up of multiple pieces of differing material which means that there is a chance for failure. The key area to inspect is where the rungs meet the side rails.

Proper use
A ladder is only as safe as its user. The following is taken from the American Ladder Institute web site, www.laddersafety.org Unlike a stepladder that requires level support for all four of its side rails, the Extension Ladder requires only two level ground support points in addition to a top support. Ladder levelers may be used to achieve equal rail support on uneven surfaces. The top support also allows the opportunity to secure or tie off the top of the ladder to increase stability. In cases where the work site imposes a height restriction on the ladder length, the user may find that longer ladders are not capable of being set-up at the proper 75 1/2o angle, even

4 when fully retracted. To safeguard against the bottom of the ladder sliding out, select a shorter Extension or Single Ladder. There are also situations where the use of a particular ladder length creates a gap in the height of a wall that can be reached by the user. For example, a 28-foot Extension Ladder, fully retracted to its 14-foot length, cannot be used to work on a wall below a certain height because the user would be too far out from the wall. Usually, the lower portion of the wall can be reached from the ground up to a height of about 7 feet. When working from the 14foot Extension Ladder, working from the ladder below 10-feet becomes a problem. These conditions create a gap between 7 and 10-feet in height where another ladder selection is recommended. To work in this zone, a shorter non-self-supporting ladder such as a stepladder should be considered. In order to prevent tipping the ladder over sideways due to over-reaching, the user must climb or work with the body near the middle of the rungs. Never attempt to move the ladder without first descending, relocating the ladder, and then re-climbing. Do not attempt to mount the ladder from the side or step from one ladder to another unless the ladder is secured against sideways motion. In an effort to avoid losing your balance and falling off an Extension Ladder, the user must not step or stand higher than the step indicated on the label marking the highest standing level. Extension Ladders should be erected as close to a pitch of 75 1/2o from the horizontal as possible for optimum resistance against the bottom of the ladder sliding out, strength of the ladder, and balance of the climber. A simple rule for setting-up the ladder at the proper angle is to place the base a distance from the wall or upper support equal to one-quarter of the extended length of the ladder side rails. When ascending or descending the ladder, always face the ladder and maintain a firm hand hold. Do not attempt to carry other objects in your hand(s) while climbing. The anti-slip feet at the bottom of the Extension Ladder side rails must be present and in good condition prior to using the ladder. The ladder must not be used on ice, snow or slippery surfaces unless suitable means to prevent slipping is employed. An Extension Ladder must never be placed upon other objects such as boxes, barrels, scaffolds, or other unstable bases in an effort to obtain additional height. The user must avoid setting-up an Extension Ladder upside-down. That is, with the Fly Section at the bottom and the Base Section at the top with the Rung Locks engaged. The top of an Extension Ladder must be placed with the two side rails equally supported unless the ladder is equipped with a single-support attachment for situations such a pole light standard, building corner or in-tree type operation such as pruning or fruit picking. When it is necessary to support the top of the ladder at a window opening, a device should be attached

5 across the back of the ladder and extending across the window to provide firm support against the building walls or window frames. Extension Ladders or the ladder sections must not be tied or fastened together to provide a longer length unless specifically designed for the fastening means employed. A quick check of ladder orientation is to make sure that the flat spots on the rungs are parallel to the floor and facing up. This checks the approximate angle, upright position, and whether or not the ladder is facing the right way. Improper loading of a ladder is not safe. Special concerns for theatrical use are present due to overhead equipment found inside (ie; lights, ventilation ducts, live electrical cables). Fiberglass ladders have the added advantage of non-conductancehowever, resting a ladder on a cable should be avoided. Extension ladders should be handled by two individuals. In case of an accident there is another person present. The second individual is able to foot the ladder, that is: steady the ladder by placing oneself on its reverse side to act as an A-frame. Once the rigger has ascended the ladder, the second individual is able to fetch tools or equipment required. It is very helpful to have a length of rope with you as this can be used to lift things once at the top rather than carry it up the ladder. It is also important to have a line from the tool being used (most commonly a crescent wrench for focusing lighting instruments) tied off to your wrist so it cannot fall and injure anyone below. The top of the extension ladder should extend beyond the pick point (point at which upper part of the fly portion rests) as the ladder will flex some and may pull below the pick point and fall forward. When lifting or reaching is it best to tie off (both yourself and the ladder) to the nearest secure location, such as a roof truss or structural beam. This can be done with a waist or chest harness or one fashioned out of climbing rope or webbing (known as a Swiss seat). It is far better to work slow and get the job done rather than hurry and risk an accident.

Electricity

7 It only takes mere milli-amps of electrical flow to stop (fibrillate) the human heart so even low voltages can be hazardous. The power source most commonly used is single phase AC voltage of 110. THIS CAN CAUSE BURNING AND SEVERE SHOCK AND MUST BE RESPECTED. Before changing bulbs or commencing any work on an electrical system, DISCONNECT the power supply. As good practice, only allow one hand to come into contact with an object, using two hands provides a direct path for electricity to go through the heart. Ground wires must be in place on all cables and instruments, this provides a path for the electricity to travel in case of a fault (short) rather than through your body. Wearing gloves and electrically insulated boots a good safety precaution. The most common cause of malfunction is cable union failure due to strain (tension) on the cables. Strain protection is very important as this prevents the wires from being pulled from the socket. Normally the plug is fitted with some type of clamp to grip the wire insulation. It the clamp is too large to function, a slit piece or rubber tubing can be added so the clamp has enough material to bite down upon. To help prevent strain, electrical cables should be tied (or gaffed) every one and a half to two feet. This also keeps the electrical runs neat and in order which aids troubleshooting should anything go amiss. Both ends of the cable should be numbered to match so bundled circuits can be identified individually. There are several styles of plugs used in theatrical lighting. a. Edisonthe common household plug, two prong with a pin for the ground b. Twist lockthis three pronged connector locks together to prevent cables from being accidentally disconnected. c. Stage pinthese are found in either two pin or three pin variety. For safety reasons, it is best to upgrade to the three pin style for the integration of a ground circuit.

Given any of these plug types; it is standard practice for green to be used as the ground, with black (or red) being used for the live wire, and white being neutral. Given the oscillating nature of alternating current, the white and black wires may be interchanged and still power the light. Because of this, it is good to assume that both the white and black wires are hot until everything is disconnected completely from any power source. All plugs are marked in some manner. Black paint (or a brass screw) for the hot wire, silver for the neutral, and green paint or anodization for the ground. The second cause of lighting instrument failure if burnt out bulb. The lighting instruments in use since the 1940s utilize a pre-focused bulb that prevents mis-orientation. These either twist into place with locking stop tabs in a spring loaded socket or are of a pin variety that push into place. The bulbs used are mainly of the tungsten-halogen variety and generate large quantity of heat when powered, so it is important to wear leather gloves or give adequate time to cool before working with the instrument.