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Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 13341343 www.elsevier.com/locate/enbuild

Analysis of thermal comfort and indoor air quality in a mechanically ventilated theatre
M. Kavgic a,*, D. Mumovic a, Z. Stevanovic b, A. Young a
a

The Bartlett School of Graduate Studies, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, England, UK b Institute of Nuclear Sciences Vinca, P.O. Box 522, 11001 Belgrade, Serbia Received 29 January 2007; received in revised form 10 December 2007; accepted 17 December 2007

Abstract Theatres are the most complex of all auditorium structures environmentally. They usually have high heat loads, which are of a transient nature as audiences come and go, and from lighting which changes from scene to scene, and they generally have full or nearly full occupancy. Theatres also need to perform well acoustically, both for the spoken word and for music, and as sound amplication is less used than in other auditoria, background noise control is critically important. All these factors place constraints on the ventilation design, and if this is poor, it can lead to the deterioration of indoor air quality and thermal comfort. To analyse the level of indoor air quality and thermal comfort in a typical medium-sized mechanically ventilated theatre, and to identify where improvements could typically be made, a comprehensive post-occupancy evaluation study was carried out on a theatre in Belgrade. The evaluation, based on the results of monitoring (temperature, relative humidity, CO2, air speed and heat ux) and modelling (CFD), as well as the assessment of comfort and health as perceived by occupants, has shown that for most of the monitored period the environmental parameters were within the standard limits of thermal comfort and IAQ. However, two important issues were identied, which should be borne in mind by theatre designers in the future. First, the calculated ventilation rates showed that the theatre was over-ventilated, which will have serious consequences for its energy consumption, and secondly, the displacement ventilation arrangement employed led to higher than expected complaints of cold discomfort, probably due to cold draughts around the occupants feet. # 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Post-occupancy building evaluation; Ventilation rates; Thermal comfort; Indoor air quality; Theatres

1. Introduction Indoor air quality (IAQ) and thermal comfort are important factors in the design of high quality buildings [1]. Although innovations in air-conditioning and other forms of cooling or ventilation, which can be viewed as technological solutions to the problem of producing and maintaining energy efcient environmental conditions that are benecial for human health, comfort and productivity [2], there is often a conict between reducing energy consumption and creating comfortable and healthy buildings [3]. Unhealthy buildings have been associated with the high prevalence of several symptoms: headaches, dry eyes or throat, itchy or watery eyes, sneezing, blocked and stuffy nose, runny nose, and dry or irritated skin [4]. Theatres are the most complex of all auditorium structures, and often have more than one performance per day.

* Corresponding author. E-mail address: miroslava.kavgic@gmail.com (M. Kavgic). 0378-7788/$ see front matter # 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2007.12.002

Furthermore, unlike other building types, the use of opening windows for air intake and extract ventilation is not possible, requiring a different approach. Theatres frequently operate at high occupancy level, and tend to have higher sensible (and latent) heat loads. Air must be distributed over a wide area, both within the auditorium and the stage, with numerous supplies and return registers. For all these reasons, a post-occupancy evaluation was carried out to gain an in-depth insight into IAQ and thermal comfort within theatres, and to identify specic problems, which could be used to inform future theatre design. In order to develop an IAQ post-occupancy evaluation methodology, and as a short review of literature, a number of papers focusing on lecture theatres (there is little useful literature on performance theatres) have been analysed. This was possible as the ventilation design for large teaching and performance theatres follow the same principles with varying degrees of complexity [5]. One study [6], solely based on computational uid dynamics (CFD) modelling scenarios, showed how this methodology

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could be used to investigate IAQ issues in theatres. It attempted to evaluate how two ventilation systems with the same air inlet arrangement, but different systems of air extraction, affected the air speed, temperature and CO2 concentration prole inside the teaching auditorium. The conclusion, not surprisingly, was that the lowest rate of air change leads to the increase of temperature. Furthermore, it was found that CO2 concentration decreases rapidly if the ventilation rate is increased, in this case by the unexpectedly large factor of ve. A more comprehensive assessment methodology was developed by Cheong and Lau, and applied to audit IAQ and thermal comfort in lecture theatres in the tropics [7]. The suggested IAQ assessment methodology consisted of four stages: (1) preliminary stage (understanding the background of the building), (2) sampling stage (on-site data collection), (3) evaluation stage (data analysis) and (4) recommendation stage (effectively a set of remedial measures). In addition, a questionnaire survey was carried out in the lecture theatre a few weeks prior to the monitoring campaign. However, the overall results suggested that the ventilation system, in this case a full air-conditioning system, was effective in removing indoor air pollutants and achieving reasonable IAQ with 81% of the respondents perceiving that the air quality was acceptable. Another study, again by Cheong et al., has focused on thermal comfort, rather than IAQ, in an air-conditioned lecture theatre in the tropics [8]. In addition to collecting thermal comfort data, the methodology in this paper included the analysis of thermal comfort using computational uid dynamics. Despite the fact that all the thermal comfort parameters were within the range limit set out in ISO 7730 [9], the occupant survey showed that more than 20% of the occupants were not satised with thermal comfort. Furthermore, the authors concluded that the VAV airconditioning system was unable to cope with the peak occupancy load. A recent study [10] focused on thermal comfort and indoor air quality in a lecture theatre with a 4-way cassette airconditioning and mixing ventilation system. This showed that increasing the discharge angle from the supply grilles on the cassette unit makes uniformity of thermal comfort worse, but rarely affects IAQ. The above review shows how a range of methodologies can be used to investigate the post-occupancy performance of theatres. 2. Methodology This study was carried out in a recently refurbished theatre located in the city centre of Belgrade which is characterized by a moderate continental climate. The theatre (Fig. 1), roughly a rectangular box, is 28 m long, 20 m wide, with a oor to ceiling height of 11 m, with a gallery over the rear and sides of the ground oor (or stalls). Around half of the ground oor area is given over to the stage. The auditorium is served by a displacement-type ventilation system. Fresh air is introduced via vortex diffusers, mounted at ground and gallery oor level directly under the seats (SDV0112 and SDV1318 in Fig. 1), boosted by a few circular diffusers in the ceiling of the gallery (SDR1 and SDR2 and SDR3 and SDR4). Air is also supplied at

low level from the side walls of the stage (SDG13 and SDG4 6). Extract air is removed by rectangular outlet grilles set into the ceiling over the stalls (RDG0104) and gallery level (RDG0509 and RDG1014)). The post-occupancy evaluation followed a systematic 4 step approach similar to the one described in [7] but further developed for the purposes of this study: Step 1: walkthrough (review of mechanical drawings, feedback from occupants including the facility manager, identication of areas prone to deterioration of IAQ), Step 2: on-site data collection (continuous monitoring of IAQ and thermal comfort parameters, questionnaire survey), Step 3: modelling (development, analysis and validation of detailed CFD model using FLAIR, which is based on PHOENICS code [11], Step 4: data analysis and assessment (statistical analysis of monitored parameters, comparison with standards and/ or regulations). 2.1. Walkthrough (Step 1) The rst, and perhaps most crucial step, in preparing for a post-occupancy evaluation of a building is the walkthrough. This helps to clarify the perceived strengths and weaknesses of the building design and to develop a detailed on-site data collection methodology. By interviewing the facility manager and the HVAC engineer, who designed the mechanical ventilation system, potential areas prone to deterioration of indoor air quality can be identied. In addition, anecdotal stories may provide an insight into the operational performance of the mechanical ventilation system. 2.2. On-site data collection (Step 2) It should be noted that the on-site data collection strategy consists of two parts: (1) monitoring and (2) assessment of thermal comfort and health as perceived by the occupants. 2.2.1. Monitoring strategy Measurements were carried out at several locations in the occupied zone within the auditorium, over two successive evenings during a performance. Three sampling points, MPP1 3 (Fig. 1), were selected in the occupied space with point 4 in an outdoor location. These measurements were carried out during two theatre performances at carefully selected locations in order to ensure a good representation of human exposure to thermal comfort and IAQ. It should be noted that sampling point MPP1 was located at the balcony near an outlet, while sampling points MPP2 and 3 were placed approximately at head height. The following parameters were measured: carbon dioxide concentration (CO2), air temperature (T), wall surface temperatures (Tw), relative humidity (RH) and air speed. All parameters were measured at 5-min interval for the duration of the whole performance. The 5-min interval was chosen to see how the breaks in the performance (which last approximately 20 min) will affect carbon dioxide concentration prole in the

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Fig. 1. Location of the measuring points in the auditorium (MPP13).

auditorium, since the pertinent source of CO2 is human beings. The thermal comfort and IAQ in the auditorium were assessed using the following parameters:      predicted mean vote index (PMV), percentage of people dissatised index (PPD), draught rate index (DR), mean age of air (AGE) and ventilation effectiveness (Ev).

Denitions of these parameters can be found elsewhere [12,13]. The rate of change in concentration of CO2 depends on the concentration of CO2 in the in-owing air, the concentration in the out-owing air and the internal generation rate. From this, the following equation can be derived for the calculation of ventilation rates during the occupied and unoccupied periods using the monitored values of CO2 [14]:   G G Qt=V e Ct C ex C in Cex Q Q (1)

where C(t) is the internal concentration of CO2 (ppm) at time t (s), Cex is the external concentration of CO2 (ppm), G is the generation rate of CO2 (m3/s), Q is the internalexternal exchange rate (m3/s), Cin is the initial concentration of CO2 (ppm), and V is the volume of the auditorium (m3). Note that in this case the inter-zone effects between the auditorium and surrounding internal spaces are neglected. Although not entirely accurate, this assumption was possible as the vast majority of the auditorium is facing the outdoor environment.

2.2.2. Assessment of thermal comfort and health as perceived by occupants The assessment of thermal comfort and health as perceived by occupants was carried out during the interval of each play, on both days. Audiences were requested to complete the questionnaire pertaining to thermal comfort (see Appendix A). The questionnaire was divided into sections, namely users gender and health, perceived environmental conditions, and other aspects of the auditorium environment such as cleanliness and odour. This was to assess the users observation of IAQ and investigate how people, perhaps with health problems, such as sinusitis or asthma, react to the existing indoor environment. The assessment of the thermal comfort and IAQ was based on the audiences votes on thermal sensation, humidity and air movement in the auditorium. A 3-point scale was used to evaluate thermal impression and sensation of comfort regarding humidity, air temperature, and air speed. Although the capacity of the auditorium was 500 people, a total of 100 questionnaires were distributed on each day. Sixty-ve on the rst day and 75 on the second day were completed and returned. The dominant gender was female (approximately 90%). Prior to the survey, the subjects would have been in their seats for between 1 h and 2 h, depending on the play. Since it was summer, the clothing ensemble consisted of light cotton shirts, trousers, blouses and skirts. 2.3. Modelling strategy (Step 3) A 3D ow model was set-up using the incompressible steady state NavierStokes equations coupled with the k-e turbulence model, continuity equation and the conservation equation for carbon dioxide concentration, as summarised in Table 1. The

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M. Kavgic et al. / Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 13341343 Table 1 Summary of the mathematical model General transport equation @i rU i F @i rG F @i F SF Equation Continuity Momentum Energy CO2 mass fraction H2O mass fraction Turbulence kinetic energy Dissipation rate F 1 Uj T Y CO2 Y H2 O k e GF 0 veff veff =s T veff =s CO2 veff =s H2 O veff =s k veff =s es SF

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0 @jP + bgj(T Tref) 0 0 0 P k + Gk e r(e/k)(Ce1Pk + Ce3Gk Ce2e)

Pk = nt(@kUi + @iUk)@kUi; Gk = b gi at (@iT) neff = n + nt; nt = Cm k2/e; at = nt/sT, b = 1/Tref sk, se, s CO2 ,s H2 O ,sT, Ce1, Ce2, Ce3 Cm = 1.0, 1.314, 0.9, 0.9, 0.9, 1.44, 1.92, 1.44, 0.09

physical model of the theatre was simulated with approximately the same geometrical conguration as the real auditorium. The geometric model consists of three groups of objects: (1) the auditorium shell, (2) the HVAC objects (diffusers, grilles, etc.) and (3) the heat sources (lighting, occupants, etc.). Most of these objects are already dened in the FLAIR library (building orientated CFD based on PHOENICS code) [11]. However, as the shape of the gallery was too complex, a 3D solid model of the gallery was created in AutoCAD and imported into FLAIR. The vortex diffusers were simulated at oor level of the main auditorium and gallery and the round diffusers similarly in the ceiling of the side gallery, and grille/nozzle diffusers were simulated on the lateral walls of the stage. The under-seat round vortex diffusers were actually approximated as squares. The heat source representing the audience was dened as 3D rectangular objects with specic heat, water vapour and CO2 emissions, as appropriate to human beings. The lighting was
Table 2 Air inlet boundary conditions of theatre HVAC air supply system Supply diffusers Ground level Vortex Round Gallery level Vortex Mean stage level Grille Number of elements 312 8 120 6 Temperature (8C) 20 20 20 20

set-up as an array of 3D rectangular heat source objects dened to generate 19.6 kW of heat in total. A number of cells, specically, 140 153 75, were set-up in the x, y and z directions, respectively. In other words, the whole theatre domain was divided into approximately 1.6 106 nite volumes (or cells). In every cell, all physical parameters, thermal comfort indices as well as indoor air quality parameters, were deduced. Since the surface temperatures of the ceiling, oor and internal walls, measured with an infra-red sensor, were found to be 23 8C, 22 8C and 24 8C, respectively, at the beginning of the monitoring period, these values were input as boundary conditions in the CFD analysis. Note that it was assumed that these values were constant for the duration of the performance, which is not an unreasonable assumption. The boundary conditions applied to air inlets and outlets are shown in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. Internal heat and mass sources are summarised in Table 4.

Humidity (kg/kg) 0.008654 0.008654 0.008654 0.008654

Total volume ow rate (m3/h) 15650 1600 6450 6000

CO2 volume fraction (ppm) 350 350 350 350

Table 3 Air outlet boundary conditions of theatre HVAC return air system Return diffusers Gallery ceiling Grille Mean stage ceiling Grille Dimensions (mm) 1025 525 825 425 Number of elements 10 4 Effective area (m2) 0.269 0.175 Pressure drop (Pa) 2 2

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1338 Table 4 Internal heat and mass sources in theatre HVAC load sources Parameters Sensible heat (W/person) Ground occupants 60.5 Gallery occupants 60.5 Mean stage 60.5 Latent heat (W/person) 55 55 55

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Total heat (W/person) 115.5 115.5 115.5

Total number of persons 332 132 3 (average)

Humidity source (g/h person) 55 55 55

CO2 source above outdoor air (ppm) 450 450 450

Heat from lights (W) 0 0 19600

3. Data analysis and assessment (Step 4) In this section the collected and analysed data are discussed. Thermal comfort and IAQ are examined, with exploration of the physical parameters such as air temperature, relative humidity, air speed and CO2 concentration. The developed CFD model of the theatre has contributed to further analysis of the spatial distribution of airow patterns, temperature gradients, levels of relative humidity and ventilation effectiveness inside the occupied zone. All these data are correlated with the results of the assessment of thermal comfort and health as perceived by the occupants. Measured values of the thermal comfort parameters are tabulated in Tables 5 and 6. Figs. 24 present the monitored results at sampling location 1 (MPP, see Fig. 1). Relative humidity in the occupied zone was between 58% and 67%, and between 57% and 65%, respectively, on the 2 days and is shown in Fig. 2. Mean relative humidity was 56% and 55%, respectively. Air temperatures in the auditorium on both days were between 24.6 8C and 26.6 8C and between 24.2 8C and 26.7 8C, respectively. The mean air temperatures were 25.9 8C and 25.5 8C, respectively, with a standard deviation of 1 8C. Note that the monitored air temperature on a number of occasions exceeded the higher limit of the acceptable range set by ISO Standard 7730 [9]. A close examination of the
Table 5 Measured air temperatures in the occupied zone for day1/day2 Locations 1 2 3 Minimum air temperature (8C) 24.6/24.2 25.1/24.5 25.6/24.8 Maximum air temperature (8C) 26.6/26.7 25.9/25.9 26.3/25.9 Mean air temperature (8C) 25.8/25.4 25.6/25.4 26.1/25.7

temperature curves in Fig. 3 showed that due to greater attendance, air temperatures on the rst day were slightly higher than on the second day. The main temperature peaks occurred when the audience was entering a little before 19:30 h,

Fig. 2. Relative humidity proles at MPP1.

Table 6 Measured RH in the occupied zone for day1/day2 Locations 1 2 3 Minimum relative humidity (%) 58.3/57.5 43.7/44.4 48.4/56.4 Maximum relative humidity (%) 67.3/64.8 51.0/49.8 61.0/60.2 Mean relative humidity (%) 62.2/61.0 47.8/46.7 57.0/58.3

Fig. 3. Air temperature proles at MPP1.

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Fig. 4. CO2 concentration proles at MPP1.

and when it was applauding and cheering during the performance, and while vacating the auditorium. The two CO2 concentration curves in Fig. 4 correspond closely. Furthermore, as the audience entered an abrupt buildup of concentration was perceived, while there was a gradual decay as they settled down. Other rapid decays and increases in the CO2 concentration were due to the intervals, when most of the people moved to the lobby. Finally, the third CO2 peak happened at the end of the performance when the audience was applauding, cheering and leaving the theatre. Measured CO2 concentrations ranged between 599 ppm and 1041 ppm and between 587 ppm and 949 ppm, respectively for the 2 days, with an average concentration of 744 ppm on the rst day and 734 ppm on the second day. The only time the CO2 concentration exceeded 1000 ppm, was at the beginning of the performance, and since this was for such a short period (note that the CO2 levels shown in the diagram are averaged over a period of 5 min), it is probably of no great concern as the recommended threshold values relate to a 2 h exposure [15]. Moreover, since this is a cabaret theatre, the audience was

involved in cheering, which inuenced the increase of air temperature and CO2 concentration. However, the calculated ventilation rates have shown that the theatre was mostly overventilated which may have consequences for its energy consumption. The calculated ventilation rates averaged over the period of duration of the performance was 14.5 l/s.p and 15.5 l/s.p for days 1 and 2, respectively which is around 50% greater than the recommended level of 10 l/s.p [16]. This paper presents the results of the questionnaire survey conducted on both days, when a total of 100 questionnaires were distributed each day to the audience. On the rst day 65, and on the second 75 were completed and returned. Fig. 5 shows the percentage of respondents who complained that they had suffered from a particular physiological symptom. Overall a total of 63% claimed they had suffered from one or more symptoms. The most prevalent symptoms are related to nasal and respiratory organs, dry or watering eyes, and headaches. Unexpectedly, a signicant number of respondents claimed they suffered from asthma. A total of 58% felt that thermal comfort and indoor air quality were satisfactory, while 16% stated that the air was too cold (Fig. 6). The reason many people complained about cold air, given a mean air temperature in the comfort zone (25.5 8C) on both days, could be due to an inherent problem with the displacement ventilation arrangement where cold (and fresh) air is located at the lower zones, near the occupants feet and ankles. The measured air speed at the supply diffusers, imbedded directly under the seats, was indeed 0.3 m/s which could lead to unpleasant draughts, since 0.25 m/s is the recommended upper limit for comfort for a sedentary person. The incoming temperature at the under-seat vortex diffusers was 18 8C which was 6 8C below the design temperature of 24 1.5 8C. It should be noted that 8% of respondents claimed the air was too dry even though the mean relative humidity, on both days, was 55%. It is interesting to note that many of the people who complained about dry air were those with dry or irritated throat symptoms. To validate the model the numerical probes, i.e. the cells used to predict the conditions in the simulation study, were located at the same positions as the sampling points used during the monitoring campaign. Based on the differences between the

Fig. 5. Physiological parameters: percentage of respondents who complained of a particular health symptom.

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Fig. 6. Physical parameters: percentage of respondents who complained about a particular environmental problem.

two sets of values, it was concluded that the air temperature, relative humidity and volume fraction of carbon dioxide were being predicted with acceptable accuracy. A comparison between measured and simulated data is given in Table 7. Figs. 7 and 8 show the predicted thermal stratication and ow pattern in the auditorium and indicate that the air movement is taking place in the ideal displacement ventilation manner. Cold and fresh air is located at the lower zones of both ground and gallery levels, while the hotter air moves to the
Table 7 Comparison of measured and numerical (simulated) data Probe location: rst exhaust diffuser Measured data Numerical data Relative error Air temperature (8C) 25.40 25.65 1.0% over predicted

upper zones (Fig. 7). The elds of air temperature and relative humidity obtained are roughly homogeneous. The average values were between 24.7 8C and 47% at the ground level and between 25 8C and 46.7% at the gallery level. Detailed analysis of the air ow pattern in the auditorium (Fig. 8) indicates that the air speeds may cause cold draughts around the occupants feet. This further underpins the statement that the displacement ventilation arrangement employed led to higher than expected complaints of cold discomfort, probably due to this factor.

CO2 volume fraction (ppm) 795.0 738.8 7.0% under predicted

Relative humidity (%) 61.0 45.4 25.6% under predicted

Fig. 7. Predicted thermal stratication in the middle-vertical cross-section.

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Fig. 8. Predicted air ow pattern in the middle-vertical cross-section.

Fig. 9. Predicted PMV distribution in the middle-vertical cross-section.

Unfortunately, the questionnaire did not contain a question related to cold draughts around occupants feet. The range of PMV was from 1.0 to +1.0 (Fig. 9). However, the occupied zones of the ground oor and gallery were of A class (0.2 < PMV > +0.2). The higher PMV values occurred in the micro zones near the back walls of the ground and gallery levels, respectively. In the occupied zones the mean age of air had the averaged values of approximately 50 s and 100 s at the ground and gallery levels, respectively. Clearly, as expected, the mean age of air in the lower part of the auditorium (ground level) was much less than that in the upper part (gallery level),

by a factor of nearly two. The average AGE across the whole auditorium was 30 s. Ventilation effectiveness Ev dened by CO2 mass fractions was in the range of 0.91.0 and therefore satises the criteria dened by CIBSE Guide A [17]. The measurements undertaken to evaluate the indoor environment in the auditorium were discussed in line with the recently introduced standard EN15251:2005 [16]. The evaluation of the category of the auditorium was based on temporal and spatial distribution of the theatre temperature, air speed and representative CO2 samples taken from different zones. Taking into account the recommended criteria for the

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thermal environment [16], the parameters related to thermal state of the body as a whole belong to the categories A (0.2 < PMV < +0.2) and B (PPD < 10%). The local discomfort indices such as draught rate (DR < 15%) and the vertical air temperature difference (DT < 10%) fall into the categories A and C, respectively. However, it has to be highlighted that in the micro zones near the backward walls of ground and gallery levels all parameters deteriorated signicantly (PPD > 15%, 1.0 < PMV < +1.0, DR < 25%, DT > 10%) falling below the requirements for the category C. Note that the calculated ventilation rates averaged over the period of duration of the performance (approximately 15 l/s.p) are higher than the recommended design ventilation rates for both low-polluting building (approximately 11 l/s.p) and non low-polluting building (approximately 12 l/s.p) leading to the conclusion that the theatre was mostly over-ventilated which will have consequences for the energy consumption of the theatre. 4. Conclusions To analyse the level of indoor air quality and thermal comfort in a typical medium-sized mechanically ventilated theatre, and to identify where improvements could typically be made, a comprehensive post-occupancy evaluation study was carried out on a theatre in Belgrade. The evaluation, based on the results of monitoring (temperature, relative humidity, CO2, air speed and heat ux) and modelling (CFD) as well as the assessment of comfort and health as perceived by occupants, has shown that for most of the monitored period the environmental parameters were within the standard limits of thermal comfort and IAQ. However, the post-occupancy evaluation of the theatre has highlighted the following issues:  Firstly, the calculated ventilation rates have shown that the theatre was mostly over-ventilated which will have consequences for the energy consumption of the theatre. To optimize the energy consumption of the ventilation system, while maintaining adequate IAQ, a CO2 operated control system for the ventilation system could be incorporated in the existing system.  Secondly, although average air temperatures were mostly in the comfort region, a larger than expected number of people complained of cold discomfort. In a displacement ventilation system, supply air is introduced to the space near the oor level, at low velocity, at a temperature only slightly below the desired room temperature, typically say, 2 8C. In this case, however, the incoming temperature at the under-seat vortex diffusers was 18 8C, which was 6 8C below the design temperature of 24 1.5 8C, while the air speed was 0.3 m/s. Where air speeds in buildings are greater than 0.15 m/s, the resultant temperature should be increased from its still air value to compensate for the cooling effect of the air movement. The required elevation to the dry resultant temperature to take account of an air speed of 0.3 m/s is approximately 1.5 8C [17]. The high air speed and large Dt

found here, in addition to the usual uctuations, which occasionally occur in any temperature controlled ventilation system, appear to be the main reasons for complaints of cold draughts.  Thirdly, it has been shown that the ventilation system was capable of maintaining the IAQ at an acceptable level. The only time the CO2 concentration exceeded 1000 ppm, was at the beginning of the performance, and since this was for such a short period, it is probably of no great concern as the recommended threshold values relate to a 2 h exposure. This study has shown that post-occupancy evaluation, using the techniques described, is key to maintaining adequate thermal comfort and IAQ in theatres, while ensuring that energy consumption is minimised. The techniques can be easily used by both HVAC engineers and facility managers. Appendix A. Questionnaire

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