ProSono

Copyright 2006

Cell Biology A Review

Cellular functions Movement: Muscle cells can generate forces that produce motion. Muscles that are attached to bones produce limb movements, whereas those that enclose hollow tubes or cavities move or empty contents when they contract. For example, the contraction of smooth muscle cells surrounding blood vessels changes the diameter of the vessels; the contraction of muscles in walls of the urinary bladder expels urine. Conductivity: Conduction as a response to a stimulus is manifested by a wave of excitation, an electrical potential, that passes along the surface of the cell to reach its other parts. Conductivity is the chief function of nerve cells. Metabolic absorption: All cells take in and use nutrients and other substances from their surroundings. Cells of the intestine and the kidney are specialized to carry out absorption. Cells of the kidney tubules reabsorb fluids and synthesize proteins. Intestinal epithelial cells reabsorb fluids and synthesize protein enzymes. Secretion. Certain cells, such as mucous gland cells, can synthesize new substances from substances they absorb and can secrete the new substances to serve as needed elsewhere. Cells of the adrenal gland, testis, and ovary can secrete hormonal steroids. Excretion. All cells can rid themselves of waste products resulting from the metabolic breakdown of nutrients. Membrane-bound sacs (lysosomes) within cells contain enzymes that break down, or digest, large molecules, turning them into waste products that are released from the cell. Respiration. Cells absorb oxygen, which is used to transform nutrients into energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Cellular respiration, or oxidation, occurs in organelles called mitochondna. Reproduction. Tissue growth occurs as cells enlarge and reproduce themselves. Even without growth, tissue maintenance requires that new cells be produced to replace cells that are lost normally through cellular death. Not all cells are capable of continuous division, and some cells, such as nerve cells, cannot reproduce

Pathophysiology Lecture Notes - Cell Biology

(1)

ProSono

Copyright 2006

Structure and function of cellular components Cytoplasm: is an aqueous solution that fills the space between the nucleus and the plasma membrane, Nucleus: the largest membrane-bound organelle and is usually found in the center of the cell. The chief functions of the nucleus are cell division and control of genetic information. Ribosomes: RNA protein complexes that are synthesized in the nucleolus and secreted into the cytoplasm. Chief function is to provide sites for cellular protein synthesis. Endoplasmic reticulum: a network of tubular channels that extend throughout the outer nuclear membrane. It specializes in the synthesis and transport of protein and lipid components of most of the organelles. Golgi complex: a network of smooth membranes and vesicles located near the nucleus. The Golgi complex is responsible for processing and packaging proteins into secretory vesicles that break away from the Golgi complex and migrate to a variety of intracellular and extracellular destinations, including the plasma membrane. Lysosomes: sac-like structures that originate front the Golgi complex and contain digestive enzymes. These enzymes are responsible for digesting most cellular substances down into their basic form, such as amino acids, fatty acids and sugars. Peroxisomes: are similar to lysosomes but contain several enzymes that either use or produce hydrogen peroxide. Mitochondria: contain the metabolic machinery necessary for cellular energy metabolism. The enzymes of the respiratory chain (electron transport chain), found in the inner membrane of the mitochondria, generate most of the cells ATP. Cytoskeleton: the bone and muscle of the cell. The internal skeleton is skeleton is composed of a network of protein filaments including microtubules and actin filaments (microfilaments). Plasma membranes: The plasma membrane enclose cell and, by controlling the movement of substances across it, exerts a powerful influence on metabolic pathways. Protein receptors (recognition units) on the plasma membrane enable the cell to interact with extracellular substances. Membrane composition: The plasma membrane is a bilayer of lipids which gives the membrane its structural integrity. Membrane functions are determined largely by proteins. These functions include recognition by protein receptors and transport of substances into and out of the cell such as lipids, proteins and carbohydrates. Cellular receptors are protein molecules on the plasma membrane, in the cytoplasm, or in the nucleus capable of recognizing and binding smaller molecules called ligands.

Pathophysiology Lecture Notes - Cell Biology

(2)

ProSono

Copyright 2006

Cell to cell communication. Cells communicate in three ways: 1. They form protein channels (gap junctions); 2. They display receptors that affect intracellular processes or other cells in direct physical contact 3. They secrete signals for long distance communication. Four modes of chemical signaling include: endocrine, paracrine, autocrine, and synaptic. Cellular metabolism: The chemical tasks of maintaining essential cable functions are referred to as cellular metabolism. Anabolism is the energy-using process of metabolism, whereas catabolism is the energy-releasing process. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) functions as a energy-transferring molecule. Energy is stored by molecules of carbohydrate, lipid, and protein which, when catabolized, transfer energy to ATP Oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondria and is the mechanism by which the energy produced from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins is transferred to ATP. Processes of cellular intake and output Water and small, electrically uncharged molecules move through pores in the plasma membranes lipid bilayer in the process called passive transport. Passive transport does not require the expenditure of energy; rather it is driven by the physical effects of osmosis, hydrostatic pressure, and diffusion.

Pathophysiology Lecture Notes - Cell Biology

(3)

ProSono

Copyright 2006

Larger molecules and molecular complexes are moved into the by cell active transport, which requires expenditure of energy (by means of ATP) by the cell. The largest molecules (macromolecules) and fluids are transported by the process of endocytosis (ingestions) and exocytosis (expulsion). Diffusion is the passive movement of a solute from an area of higher solute concentration to an area of lower solute concentration. Hydrostatic pressure is the mechanical force of water pushing against cellular membranes. Osmosis is the movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration. The amount of hydrostatic pressure required to oppose the osmotic movement of water is called the osmotic pressure of the solution. Schematic demonstrating Active mediated transport requires metabolic water molecules osmosing energy (ATP) to move molecules against the across a cell membrane (pink ovals) concentration gradient. Active transport also occurs by endocytosis, or vesicle formation, in which the substance to be transported is engulfed by a segment of the plasma membrane, forming a vesicle that moves into the cell. Pinocytosis is a type of endocytosis in which fluids and solute molecules are ingested through formation of small vesicles. Phagocytosis is a type of endocytosis in which particles, such as bacteria and viruses, are ingested through formation of large vesicles, called vacuoles. Inside the cell, material ingested by endocytosis is processed and digested by lysosomal enzymes. All body cells are electrically polarized, with the inside of the cell more negatively charged than the outside of the cell. The difference in Photomicrograph of voltage across the plasma membrane is the phagocytosis. resting membrane potential. When an excitable (nerve or muscle) cell receives an electrochemical stimulus, cations enter the cell, causing a rapid change in the resting membrane potential known as the action potential. The action potential moves along the cells membrane and is transmitted to an adjacent cell. This is how electrochemical signals convey information from cell to cell.

Pathophysiology Lecture Notes - Cell Biology

(4)

ProSono

Copyright 2006

Cellular Reproduction Cellular reproduction in normal body tissues involves mitosis (nuclear division) and cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division). In germ cells, cellular reproduction involve meiosis which results in daughter cells containing only onehalf (23) of the normal number of chromosomes. Only mature cells are capable of division. Maturation occurs during a stage of cellular life called interphase (growth phase). Cellular reproduction begins after interphase in all tissues that have cellular turnover. The four phases of the cell cycle are: S phase, during which DNA synthesis takes place in the cell nucleus; G2 phase, the period between the completion of DNA synthesis and the next phase (M); M phase, which involves both nuclear (mitotic) and cytoplasmic (cytokinetic) division. The M phase involves four stages: Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase G phase (growth phase, or interphase), after which the cell cycle begins again.

Tissues
Tissue formation Cells of one or more types are organized into tissues, and different types of tissues compo organs. Organs are organized to function as tracts or systems. Specialized cells are thought to form tissue by mitotis of one or more founder cells or by migration of founder cells and their subsequent assembly at the site of tissue formation. Intercellular communication Tissue cells are linked at cell junctions which are specialized regions on their plasma membranes called desmosomes, tight junctions and gap junctions. Cell junctions attach adjacent cells and allow small molecules to pass between them.

Pathophysiology Lecture Notes - Cell Biology

(5)

ProSono

Copyright 2006

Types of tissue There are four basic types of tissue: epithelial, connective, muscle and neural. Epithelial tissue: covers most internal and external surfaces of the body. The functions of epithelial tissue include protection, absorption, secretion, and excretion. Types include: Simple squamous: lines major organs and body cavities. Simple cuboidal: lines tubules and ducts of glands; covers surface of ovary; lines interior of eye. Simple columnar: lines gastrointestinal tract. Stratified squamous: lines interior of mouth, tongue, esophagus, vagina. Transitional: lines urinary bladder
Common types of epithelial tissues

Connective tissue: binds various tissues and organs together, supporting them in their locations and serving as storage sites for excess nutrients. Types include: Loose connective tissue: deep layers of skin, blood vessels, nerves, body organs. Dense connective tissue: tendons, ligaments Elastic connective tissue: lungs, arterioles, trachea, vocal cords. Reticular connective tissue: spleen, liver, lymph nodes. Cartilage: ends of long bones, tip of nose, parts of larynx, trachea. Bone: bones Example of dense connective tissue Vascular connective tissue: within blood anchored to skeletal vessels. muscle Adipose tissue: deep layers of skin; surrounds heart and kidneys; padding around joints Muscle tissue: composed of long, thin, highly contractile cells or fibers called myocytes. Muscle tissue that is attached to bones enables voluntary movement. Muscle tissues in internal organs enable involuntary movement, such as the heartbeat. Types include: Smooth muscle: gastrointestinal tract, uterus, urinary bladder, blood vessels. Cardiac muscle: heart. Skeletal muscle: attached to bones.

Pathophysiology Lecture Notes - Cell Biology

(6)

ProSono

Copyright 2006

Cardiac muscle tissue

Skeletal muscle tissue

Smooth muscle tissue

Neural tissue: is composed of highly specialized cells called neurons, which receive and transmit electrical impulses very rapidly across junctions called synapses.

Artists rendering of the neural synapse

Microanatomic dissection demonstrating the neuro-motor endplate

Pathophysiology Lecture Notes - Cell Biology

(7)