1

Clculo de las

Prdidas Adicionales

en los Bobinados






Ing. lvaro Portillo
Junio 2010

2
Prdidas Adicionales en un Conductor



Por el conductor circula una corriente alterna impuesta: ( ) t I t I
MAX
cos =

Existe un campo magntico

B alterno impuesto en fase con ( ) t I (no se

considera el efecto de las corrientes inducidas sobre el campo magntico):


+ = j t B i t B B
Y X
cos cos

Ecuaciones de Maxwell: 0 =

t
B
E

= E J

1
=

Calcularemos

E suponiendo una solucin del tipo: ( )

= k t y x E E , ,

( )
( ) ( )

= j
x
t y x E
i
y
t y x E
t y x E
z y x
k j i
E
, , , ,
, , 0 0

j t B i t B
t
B
Y X
sin sin

t
B
E

( ) ( )

+ =

j t B i t B j
x
t y x E
i
y
t y x E
Y X
sin sin
, , , ,

3
( )
t B
y
t y x E
X
sin
, ,
=

( )
t B
x
t y x E
Y
sin
, ,
=

( )
( )

t C
t x B t y B t y x E
Y X
+ = sin sin , ,


= E J ( ) ( ) ( ) t C t B y B t y x J
Y X
+ = sin , ,

Si por el conductor circula una corriente impuesta ( ) t I podemos determinar la
constante de integracin ( ) t C a partir de la siguiente ecuacin:

( ) ( )

+

=
2
2
2
2
, ,
e
e
h
h
dy dx t y x J t I
( ) ( ) | |

+

+ =
2
2
2
2
sin sin
e
e
h
h
Y X
dy dx t C t x B t y B t I
( ) ( )

+

+ =
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
sin sin
e
e
h
h
e
e
h
h
Y
e
e
h
h
X
dy dx t C dy dx x t B dy dx y t B t I
( ) ( ) h e t C dx x h t B dy y e t B t I
e
e
Y
h
h
X
+ =

+

2
2
2
2
sin sin
0
2
2
=

e
e
dx x 0
2
2
=

h
h
dy y
( ) ( ) h e t C t I = h e S = ( )
( ) ( )
S
t I
h e
t I
t C = =

( ) ( )
( )
S
t I
t x B y B t y x J
Y X
+ = sin , ,



Potencia Instantnea por Unidad de Volumen:

( ) |

\
|
= = = =

3
2
m
W
J J J
J
J E J t p

Potencia Media por Unidad de Volumen: ( )
|

\
|
=
3
0
1
m
W
dt t p
T
p
T
V


4

2 1
= =
f
T t = dt d =

Cambio de variable: ( ) ( )

d p dt t p
T
p
T
V

= =
2
0 0
2
1 1


( )

d y x J p
V

=
2
0
2
, ,
2
1


( ) ( )
( )
S
t I
t x B y B t y x J
Y X
+ = sin , , ( ) t I t I
MAX
cos =

( ) ( ) t
S
I
t x B y B t y x J
MAX
Y X
cos sin , , + =

( ) ( ) cos sin , ,
S
I
x B y B y x J
MAX
Y X
+ =

( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
2 2 2 2 2
cos cos sin 2 sin , ,
|

\
|
+ + =
S
I
S
I
x B y B x B y B y x J
MAX MAX
Y X Y X

( )

d y x J p
V

=
2
0
2
, ,
2
1


2
1
sin
2
1
2
0
2
=

d 0 cos sin
2
1
2
0
=

d
2
1
cos
2
1
2
0
2
=

d

( )
2
2 2 2
2 2
|

\
|
+ =
S
I
x B y B p
MAX
Y X V

1
=
2
MAX
EF
I
I = ( )
2
2
2
2
|

\
|
+ =
S
I
x B y B p
EF
Y X V

\
|
|

\
|
+ + =
3
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 m
W
S
I x B y x B B y B
p
EF Y Y X X
V

( ) W dV p P
V
V

=


|

\
|
+ + =
V
EF
V
Y
V
Y X
V
X
dV
S
I
dV
x B
dV
y x B B
dV
y B
P
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2

5

|

\
|
+ + =
V
EF
V
Y
V
Y X
V
X
dV
S
I
dV x
B
dV y x
B B
dV y
B
P
2
2
2 2 2
2
2 2
2 2

V
h
h
V h
h
V y
dz dx dy y dV y
h
h
h
h V
12 12 3
2 3
2
2
2
2
3
2 2
= =

= =
+

V
e
e
V e
e
V x
dz dy dx x dV x
e
e
e
e V
12 12 3
2 3
2
2
2
2
3
2 2
= =

= =
+

0
2
2
2
2
= =

+

dz dy y dx x dV y x
h
h
e
e V
V dV
V
=

V
S
I
V
e B
V
h B
P
EF Y X
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
12 2 12 2
|

\
|
+ + =

V
S
I
V
e B
V
h B
P
EF Y X
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
24 24
|

\
|
+ + =

= =
d
M
V
V
M
d M
S
I
d
M
d
e B
M
d
h B
P
EF Y X
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
24 24
|

\
|
+ + =

|
|

\
|
|

\
|
+ + = =
kg
W
S
I
d d
e B
d
h B
M
P
p
EF Y X
M
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
24 24

Observacin 1:

2
I R proporcionales a
Adicionales proporcionales a

1

De aqu sale la correccin por temperatura de las prdidas de cortocircuito

Observacin 2:

Si el conductor est abierto ser 0 =
EF
I . En este caso las prdidas sern
debidas al campo magntico de dispersin creado por las restantes bobinas del
transformador con corriente.
6
Prdidas Adicionales en un Conductor
Influencia de las Corrientes Inducidas



Ecuaciones de Maxwell: 0 =

t
B
E

= H B
O
u 0 =

t
B
E

= J H

= E J

= E B
O
u

Solucin del Tipo: ( )

= j e x B B
t j
( )

= k e x E E
t j


Condiciones de Borde: ( )
2
e
x B x B
O
=

Corresponde a insertar el conductor en un campo uniforme

= j t B B
O
cos

( )
( )

= j e
dx
x dE
e x E
z y x
k j i
E
t j
t j

0 0


( )
( )

= k e
dx
x dB
e x B
z y x
k j i
B
t j
t j

0 0

7
( )

j e x B j
t
B
t j


0 =

t
B
E
( )
( ) 0 = +

j e x B j j e
dx
x dE
t j t j

( )
( ) 0 = x B j
dx
x dE



= E B
O
u
( )
( )

= k e x E k e
dx
x dB
t j
O
t j
u
( )
( ) 0 = x E
dx
x dB
O
u

( )
( ) 0 = x E
dx
x dB
O
u ( )
( )
dx
x dB
x E
O
u
1
=
( ) ( )
2
2
1
dx
x B d
dx
x dE
O
u
=

( )
( ) 0 = x B j
dx
x dE

( )
( ) 0
1
2
2
= x B j
dx
x B d
O

u


( )
( ) 0
2
2
= x B j
dx
x B d
O
u

u
O
j k =
2


( )
2
1
u
u u
O
O O
j j j k + = = =
2
u

O
=

1
=


( ) j k + = 1



Solucin del tipo: ( )
kx kx
e C e C x B
+
+ =
2 1



Con las condiciones de borde determinamos las constantes de integracin
1
C y
2
C :
O
e
k
e
k
B e C e C
e
B = + =
|

\
|
+
+
2
2
2
1
2

O
e
k
e
k
B e C e C
e
B = + =
|

\
|

+
2
2
2
1
2

2 2
2 1 e
k
e
k
O
e e
B
C C
+
+
= =

( )
2 2
e
k
e
k
kx kx
O
e e
e e
B x B
+
+
+
+
=
( )
( )
|

\
|
=
2
cosh
cosh
e
k
kx
B x B
O

8
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
|

\
|
=

\
|
= =
2
cosh
sinh
2
cosh
cosh 1
e
k
kx k B
e
k
kx
dx
d B
dx
x dB
x E
O
O
O
O
O
u u u


k
B
j j
k
B
k
k B k B
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O

u
u u u
= = =
2


( )
( )
|

\
|
=
2
cosh
sinh
e
k
kx
k
B
j x E
O

Desarrollo de ( ) x B :

( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2
1
2
1
1 1
2 2
e
j
e e
j
e
x j x x j x
O e
j
e
j
x j x j
O e
k
e
k
kx kx
O
e e e e
e e e e
B
e e
e e
B
e e
e e
B x B




+ +
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
+
+
+
+
=
+
+
=
+
+
=

( )
( ) ( )
|

\
|
+
|

\
|
+
+ +
=
+
+
2
sin
2
cos
2
sin
2
cos
sin cos sin cos
2 2
e
j
e
e
e
j
e
e
x j x e x j x e
B x B
e e
x x
O






( )
( ) ( )
|
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|
+
+ +
=
+ +
+ +
2 2 2 2
2
sin
2
cos
sin cos
e e e e
x x x x
O
e e
e
j e e
e
e e x j e e x
B x B






( )
2
sinh
2
sin
2
cosh
2
cos
sinh sin cosh cos
e e
j
e e
x x j x x
B x B
O


+
+
=

2 2
e
x
e
+

Desarrollo de ( ) x E :

( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2
1
2
1
1 1
2 2
e
j
e e
j
e
x j x x j x
O
e
j
e
j
x j x j
O
e
k
e
k
kx kx
O
e e e e
e e e e
k
B
j
e e
e e
k
B
j
e e
e e
k
B
j x E





+ +
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
+
+
+

=
+

=
+

=

( )
( ) ( )
|

\
|
+
|

\
|
+
+
=
+
+
2
sin
2
cos
2
sin
2
cos
sin cos sin cos
2 2
e
j
e
e
e
j
e
e
x j x e x j x e
k
B
j x E
e e
x x
O






9
( )
( ) ( )
|
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|
+
+ +
=
+ +
+ +
2 2 2 2
2
sin
2
cos
sin cos
e e e e
x x x x
O
e e
e
j e e
e
e e x j e e x
k
B
j x E






( )
2
sinh
2
sin
2
cosh
2
cos
cosh sin sinh cos
e e
j
e e
x x j x x
k
B
j x E
O


+
+
=

2 2
e
x
e
+


Clculo de la Prdidas:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
|

\
|
= =

=

3
2 2
2 2 2 m
W x J x E x E x E
p
V



( ) ( )
( ) W dV
x J
dV
x E
P
V V

= =
2 2
2 2


( ) 2 1 = + = k j k

( )
2
sinh
2
sin
2
cosh
2
cos
cosh sin sinh cos
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2
2 2
2
e e e e
x x x x B
x E
O

+
+
=

( )
( ) x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x


2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
sin sinh sinh cosh sin sinh
cosh sin sinh sin 1 cosh sin sinh cos
+ = + =
= + = +


2
sinh
2
cos
2
sinh
2
sinh
2
cosh
2
cos
2
sinh
2
cos 1
2
cosh
2
cos
2
sinh
2
sin
2
cosh
2
cos
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
e e e e e e
e e e e e e e e


+ = + |

\
|
=
= |

\
|
+ = +


( )
2
cos
2
sinh
sin sinh
2 2 2
2 2
2
2 2
2
e e
x x B
x E
O

+
+
=

( ) dV x x
e e
B
P
V
O

+
|

\
|
+
=


2 2
2 2 2
2 2
sin sinh
2
cos
2
sinh 4


( )

+

+
|

\
|
+
= dz dy dx x x
e e
B
P
e
e
O
2
2
2 2
2 2 2
2 2
sin sinh
2
cos
2
sinh 4




10
V
M
d =
d
M
V =
e d
M
e
V
dz dy = =

( ) dx x dx x dx x x
e
e
e
e
e
e

+

+ = +
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
sin sinh sin sinh

du dx u x = =

+ =

+ = =
+

e
e
u
u
du u dx x
e
e
e
e
e
e

sinh
2
1
2
1
2 sinh
4
1
2
1
sinh
1
sinh
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

= =
+

e
e
u
u
du u dx x
e
e
e
e
e
e

sin
2
1
2
1
2 sin
4
1
2
1
sin
1
sin
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2


( ) ( ) e e dx x x
e
e

sin sinh
2
1
sin sinh
2
2
2 2
= +

( )
e d
M
e e
e e
B
P
O

sin sinh
2
1
2
cos
2
sinh 4
2 2 2
2 2

\
|
+
=


( )
|
|

\
|
+

= =
kg
W
e e
e e
e d
e B
M
P
p
O
M
2
cos
2
sinh
sin sinh 3
24 2 2
3
2 2 2

|
|

\
|
= =
kg
W
d
e B
k
M
P
p
O
F M

24
2 2 2



( )
2
cos
2
sinh
sin sinh 3
2 2
3
e e
e e
e
k
F

=

11
Calcularemos el factor de correccin
F
k para cobre con distintos valores de e :

u u

2 2
O O
= =
f 2 =
m
Hy
O
7
10 4

= u

Cobre @ 75C: m =
7
10 210 . 0

Cobre @ 75C 50 Hz:

m
O
1
952 . 96
10 210 . 0 2
10 4 100
2
7
7
=


== =

u
mm 31 . 10
1
= =

Cobre @ 75C 60 Hz:

m
O
1
205 . 106
10 210 . 0 2
10 4 120
2
7
7
=


== =

u
mm 42 . 9
1
= =

( ) mm e Hz k
F
50 @ Hz k
F
60 @
1 0.999996 0.999995
2 0.999943 0.999918
3 0.999710 0.999583
4 0.999085 0.998683
5 0.997770 0.996792
6 0.995387 0.993371
7 0.991488 0.987789
8 0.985566 0.979349
9 0.977082 0.967332
10 0.965490 0.951059
11 0.950282 0.929960
12 0.931032 0.903652
13 0.907449 0.872013
14 0.879420 0.835232
15 0.847044 0.793818
16 0.810646 0.748576
17 0.770763 0.700535
18 0.728115 0.650849
19 0.683542 0.600690
20 0.637937 0.551146

12
Caso Particular:
1
2
<<
e

2
<< e
2 << e


2 2
e
x
e
+
2 2
e
x
e
+ 1 << x

x x sin 1 cos x x x sinh 1 cosh x

2 2
sin
e e
1
2
cos
e

2 2
sinh
e e
1
2
cosh
e


( )
( )
O O O
B
e
j
x j
B
e e
j
e e
x x j x x
B x B
|

\
|
+
+

+
+
=
2
2
2
1
1
2
sinh
2
sin
2
cosh
2
cos
sinh sin cosh cos

( )

= j e B j e x B B
t j
O
t j



j t B B
O
cos


Vemos que en este caso particular las corrientes inducidas no modifican el
campo impuesto en el interior del conductor.

( )
2
2
1
2
sinh
2
sin
2
cosh
2
cos
cosh sin sinh cos
|

\
|
+
+

+
+
=
e
j
x j x
k
B
j
e e
j
e e
x x j x x
k
B
j x E
O O

( ) j k + = 1 ( )
( )
( )
x B j
e
j
x j
j
B
j x E
O
O

\
|
+
+
+

2
2
1
1
1

|

\
|
+
= = k e x B k e x B j E
t j
O
t j
O
2

= |

\
|
+ = k t x B k t x B E
O O

sin
2
cos


= k t x B E
O
sin


Veamos ahora que ocurre con el factor de correccin
F
k :

( )
2
cos
2
sinh
sin sinh 3
2 2
3
e e
e e
e
k
F

=
13
3 6 6
sin sinh
3 3 3 3 3 3
e e
e
e
e e e

=
|
|

\
|

|
|

\
|
+
1 1
2 2
cos
2
sinh
2
2 2
+
|

\
|
+
e e e


( ) ( )
1
3
3
2
cos
2
sinh
sin sinh 3
3 3
3
2 2
3
=
+

=
e
e
e e
e e
e
k
F

1
F
k


|
|

\
|
=
kg
W
d
e B
M
P
p
O
M

24
2 2 2
14
Prdidas Adicionales en una Bobina

Consideremos una bobina con n conductores uniformemente distribuidos en
sentido radial. La dimensin radial de cada uno de los conductores es e .



Sea E la dimensin radial de la bobina, h la dimensin axial de la bobina, NI
los Ampere-Vuelta eficaces de referencia del transformador y ROG el Factor de
Rogowski.

El campo magntico de pico en funcin de la dimensin radial x se calcula
aplicando la Ley de Ampere en la curva
X
C :

( )

=

X
C
x FMM dP H ( ) ( ) x H x B
O
u = ( ) NI x
E
a b
a x FMM 2 |

\
|
+ =

( ) NI x
E
a b
a
ROG
h
x H 2 |

\
|
+ = ( )
h
ROG NI
x
E
a b
a x H
2
|

\
|
+ =

Obtenemos as la variacin radial del campo magntico axial en la bobina:

( ) NI
h
ROG
x
E
a b
a x B
O
u 2
|

\
|
+ =

15
Ubicacin de los conductores en sentido radial:

Conductor
k
1 2 3 4 K n
Coordenada
K
x
n
E
2
1

n
E
2
3

n
E
2
5

n
E
2
7
K
( )
n
E n
2
1 2


Las prdidas adicionales en cada conductor sern:

( )
( )
|
|

\
|
= =
kg
W
d
e x B
M
P
x p
K
K M

24
2 2 2


( ) ( )
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
24 24

\
|
+ = = NI
h
ROG
x
E
a b
a
d
e
x B
d
e
x p
O
K K K M
u

( ) ( )
2
2
2
2 2 2 2
2
24
|

\
|
+ =
K
O
K M
x
E
a b
a NI
h
ROG
d
e
x p
u

( ) ( )
2
2
2
2 2 2 2
12
|

\
|
+ =
K
O
K M
x
E
a b
a NI
h d
ROG e
x p

u


( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

\
|
+ + =
2
2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2
2
12 E
x
a b
E
x
a b a a NI
h d
ROG e
x p
K K O
K M

u


Las prdidas adicionales en la bobina debidas al campo magntico de
dispersin axial sern:

( )
|
|

\
|
=

=
=
kg
W
x p
n
p
n k
k
K M M
1
1


( ) ( ) ( )

=
=

\
|
+ + =
n k
k
K K O
M
E
x
a b
E
x
a b a a
n
NI
h d
ROG e
p
1
2
2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2
2
1
12
u


( ) ( ) ( )

\
|
+ + =

=
=
=
=
=
=
n k
k
K
n k
k
K
n k
k
O
M
E
x
a b
n E
x
a b a
n
a
n
NI
h d
ROG e
p
1
2
2
1 1
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
1
2
1 1
12
u


2 2
1
2
1 1
a a n
n
a
n
n k
k
= =

=
=


( )
( ) ( )
|

\
|
+ + + +

=

=
=
=
=
n
E n
n
E
n
E
n
E
E n
a b a
x
E n
a b a
E
x
a b a
n
n k
k
K
n k
k
K
2
1 2
2
5
2
3
2
1 2 2
2
1
1 1
L

16
( )
( )
( ) | | 1 2 5 3 1 2
1
2
1
+ + + +

=
=
n
n
a b a
E
x
a b a
n
n k
k
K
L

( )
2
1 2 5 3 1 n n = + + + + L

( ) ( ) a b a
E
x
a b a
n
n k
k
K
=

=
=1
2
1


( )
( ) ( )

=
=
=
=
=
=

= |

\
|

n k
k
K
n k
k
K
n k
k
K
x
E n
a b
x
E
a b
n E
x
a b
n
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2 1 1


( )
( )

\
|
+ +
|

\
|
+
|

\
|
+
|

\
|
=
|

\
|

=
=
2 2 2 2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1 2
2
5
2
3
2
1 1
n
E n
n
E
n
E
n
E
E n
a b
E
x
a b
n
n k
k
K
L

( )
( )
( ) | |
2 2 2 2
3
2
1
2
2
1 2 5 3 1
4
1
+ + + +

=
|

\
|

=
=
n
n
a b
E
x
a b
n
n k
k
K
L

( )
( ) ( )
3
1 2 1 2
1 2 5 3 1
2 2 2 2
+
= + + + +
n n n
n L

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
1
2
2
1 2 1 2
12
1
n
n n a b
E
x
a b
n
n k
k
K
+
= |

\
|

=
=


( )
( ) ( )
2
2 2
1
2
2
1 4
12
1
n
n a b
E
x
a b
n
n k
k
K

=
|

\
|

=
=


( )
( ) ( )
2
2 2
1
2
2
25 . 0
3
1
n
n a b
E
x
a b
n
n k
k
K

=
|

\
|

=
=


Sustituyendo las sumatorias calculadas resulta:

( ) ( ) ( )

\
|
+ + =

=
=
=
=
=
=
n k
k
K
n k
k
K
n k
k
O
M
E
x
a b
n E
x
a b a
n
a
n
NI
h d
ROG e
p
1
2
2
1 1
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
1
2
1 1
12
u


( ) ( )
( ) ( )

+ + =
2
2 2
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
25 . 0
3 12 n
n a b
a b a a NI
h d
ROG e
p
O
M

u


( ) b a a b a a = +
2


( )
( ) ( )

+ =
2
2 2
2
2
2 2 2 2
25 . 0
3 12 n
n a b
b a NI
h d
ROG e
p
O
M

u

17
En todos los casos la resistividad del material conductor (cobre o aluminio)
debe evaluarse a la temperatura de referencia (75C u 85C).

Observacin 1:

Se puede probar que en caso de conductores redondos de dimetro la
frmula anterior se transforma en:

( )
( ) ( )

+ =
2
2 2
2
2
2 2 2 2
25 . 0
3 16 n
n a b
b a NI
h d
ROG
p
O
M

u


Observacin 2:
Consideremos: ( )
2
2
25 . 0
n
n
n f

=

La funcin ( ) n f vale 0.75 para 1 = n y tiende rpidamente a 1 al crecer n . Para
5 = n ya resulta ( ) 99 . 0 = n f

Por lo tanto suponer ( ) 1 n f es conservador y simplifica las frmulas

Casos Particulares:

1. ( ) 1 0 1 0
2
= = = = a b ab b a TD, TM, SECOS,
( ) 1 0 0 1
2
= = = = a b ab b a Transformadores con 2 Bobinas

( )
( )
2
2
2
2
2 2 2 2
25 . 0
36 n
n
NI
h d
ROG e
p
O
M

u


2. ( ) 0
2 2
= = = a b a b a b a Bobinas sin corriente

( )
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
16
a NI
h d
ROG
p
O
M

u
=

Observacin 3:
Lo conveniente de las frmulas en
kg
W
es que pueden aplicarse a bobinas sin
corriente cosa que no es posible con las clsicas frmulas que expresan las
prdidas adicionales en por unidad de las prdidas hmicas.

Observacin 4:

Estas prdidas se aplican a todos los kg de conductor en la bobina sin importar
si tienen corriente o no (por ejemplo en una bobina de disco con regulacin
incorporada se consideran los kg totales sin importar el tap de clculo)
18
Transformer Engineering Design and Practice
S.V.Kulkarni S.A.Kharparde
Marcel Dekker Inc. 2004

In order to reduce the DC resistance ( I
2
R ) loss, if the designer increases the
conductor dimensions, the eddy loss in windings increases. Hence, optimization
of the total of I2R and eddy loss should be done.

The knowledge of flux density distribution in a winding helps in choosing proper
dimensions of conductors. This is particularly important for a winding with
tappings within its body, in which the high value of radial flux density can cause
excessive loss and temperature rise.

For the minimization of radial flux, balancing of ampere-turns per unit height of
LV and HV windings should be done (for various sections along their height) at
the average tap position.

The winding can be designed with different conductor dimensions in the tap
zone to minimize the risk of hot spots.

Guidelines are given in [19] for choosing the conductor width for eliminating hot
spots in windings. For 50 Hz frequency, the maximum width that can be used is
usually in the range of 12 to 14 mm, whereas for 60 Hz it is of the order of 10 to
12 mm.

This guideline is useful in the absence of detailed anlisis which involves
calculation of temperature rise in the part of the winding where a hot spot is
expected. For calculating the temperature rise of a disk/turn, its I
2
R loss and
eddy loss should be added.

An idle winding between LV and HV windings links the high gap flux resulting in
higher eddy loss. Hence, its conductor dimensions should be properly decided.

In gapped core shunt reactors, there is considerable flux fringing between limb
packets (separated by non-magnetic gap), resulting in an appreciable radial flux
causing excessive losses in the reactor winding if the distance between the
reactor winding and core is small or if the conductor width is large.

One of the most logical ways of reducing the eddy loss of a winding is to
subdivide winding conductors into a number of parallel conductors. If a
conductor having thickness t is sub-divided into 2 insulated parallel conductors
of thickness t/2, the eddy loss due to axial leakage field reduces by a factor of
1/4.

In actual practice, from the short circuit withstand considerations there is a
limitation imposed on the minimum thickness that can be used. Also, if the width
to thickness ratio of a rectangular conductor is more than about 6, there is
difficulty in winding it.

19
The sub-division of the conductor also impairs the winding space factor in the
radial direction. This is because each individual parallel conductor in a turn has
to be insulated increasing the total insulation thickness in the radial direction.

In order to improve the space factor, sometimes a bunch conductor is used in
which usually two or three parallel conductors are bunched in a common paper
covering. The advantage is that the individual conductor needs to be insulated
with a lower paper insulation thickness because of the outermost common
paper covering.

A single bunch conductor is also easier to wind, since no crossovers are
required at ID and OD of the winding. In contrast to this, for example in the case
of two parallel conductors, the two conductors are usually crossed over at ID
and OD of each disk for the ease of winding. Three rectangular strip conductors
and the corresponding bunch conductor are shown in figure 4.8.



For a strip conductor of radial thickness 2 mm with a radial paper covering of
0.5 mm, the total radial dimension of three strip conductors is 9 mm, whereas
for a bunch conductor with the individual radial insulation of 0.175 mm and the
common outermost radial insulation of 0.325 mm, the total radial dimension is
7.7 mm (=3(2+20.175)+20.325) giving 15% improvement in the space
factor.

For a continuously transposed cable (CTC) conductor, in which a number of
small rectangular conductors are transposed at regular intervals, it is possible to
use quite a small thickness (as low as 1.2 mm) and width (as low as 3.8 mm),
resulting into considerably less amount of eddy loss.

A cost-benefit analysis has to be done to check the advantage gained by the
reduction of losses versus the higher cost of the CTC conductor. For
transformer specifications with higher value of load loss capitalization (dollars
per kW of load loss), the CTC conductor may give a lower total capitalized cost
(material cost plus loss cost) particularly in large transformers.

The low voltage winding in large generator transformers is usually designed
with the CTC conductor to minimize the eddy loss and improve productivity.

The CTC conductor is shown in figure 4.9.


20


One more way of reducing the eddy loss is by use of two conductors with
different widths along the winding height. At the winding ends, there may be
appreciable eddy loss due to the fact that radial flux is incident perpendicularly
on the wider conductor dimension (width). This loss can be decreased by
reducing the conductor width for few disks at the ends based on the detailed
FEM analysis and increasing the width for remaining length of the winding
where the leakage field is predominantly axial, so that I
2
R losses are maintained
approximately constant.

Such an arrangement can give reduction in the winding loss (I
2
R + eddy) by
about 1 to 2% in large transformers.

In another method, end disks can have less turns per disk (one or two turns less
as compared to the other part of winding) in HV winding having a large number
of turns per disk. A conductor with higher thickness and lower width can be
used for these disks so that I2R loss is kept approximately constant and eddy
losses are reduced. Here, the assumption is that the increase in axial eddy loss
due to higher thickness is more than compensated by the decrease in radial
eddy loss due to lower width (which means that the radial field is contributing
more to the eddy loss as compared to the axial field).

In both these methods, ampere-turns of HV and LV windings per unit height
should be equal (for various sections along their height); otherwise there will be
an extra radial flux and corresponding losses, nullifying the advantages gained.

Some manufacturers use the combination of strip and CTC conductors to
minimize winding losses. The CTC conductor is used for a few top and bottom
disks minimizing the eddy loss, whereas the remaining disks are made out of
the strip conductor. This technique requires establishment of a proper method
for making the joint of the strip and CTC conductors.

References:

19. M.Kozlowski and J.Turowski: Stray losses and local overheating hazard in
Transformers, CIGRE 1972, Paper No. 1210.