UNIT 10 PLANE TRUSSES

Structure
10.1 Introduction
Objectives

10.2 General Considerations

10.3 Types of Trusses

10.4 Analysis of Trusses - Method of Joints 10.4.1 Assumptions 10.4.2 Truss Notations 10.4.3 Method of Joints 10.4.4 Special Loading Cases Analysis of Trusses - Method of Sections Special Trusses

10.5 10.6

10.7, Analysis of Trusses - Graphical Method 10.8 Geometric Stability and Static Indeterminacy 10.9 Summary 10.10 Key Words 10.11 SolutionsIAnswers to S AQs
-

10.1 --

INTRODUCTION

In the earlier units, the principle of plane statics were developed and their use in actual practice illustrated, by application to the study of simple beams and rigid frames. In this unit, the principle of statics will be applied to the study of another simple structure, the truss, which is used extensively in engineering field. A truss is a structure whose members are connected. arranged and supported in such a manner that they are primarily subjected to axial loading. When all members of a truss lie in one plane, the truss is referred to as a plane truss. A three dimensional Uuss is referred to as a space truss. Space trusses will not be discussed in this unit.
The study of this unit will enable you to determine the axial forces in different members of a plane truss by analytical and graphical methods.

Objectives
After studying rhis unit, you should be able to : identify stable and unstable trusses, distinguish between statically determinate and indeterminate trusses. analyse a determinate truss and find the forces in all members by method of joints, find the forces in specified members by method of sections, and understand clearly the graphical method of determining the forces in various members of a truss.
-- ---

10.2 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS - - - - - -

A plane truss can be defined as a fraloework of bars or members situated in one plane and joined together at their ends by pins 01 hinges so as to form a geometrically stable structure capable of supporting the loads imposed on it. By the term geometricallystable is meant that there is no relative movement between the members when the truss is subjected to external forces. The basic element of a truss is a triangle composed of three straight members pinned or hinged together at their ends. Such a simple plane frame is shown in Figure 10.1 (a) which can resist loads P I ,P2 P3 applied on it without changing its shape, apart from negligibly srriall elastic deformations. Hence it is geometrically stable and can he used as a structure to

I n t t ~ d u ~ lo~Structural l ~n Mechanics

carry loads if it is sultahly supported as in Figure 10.1 (b). The mss of Figure 10.1 (Is) can be enlarged hy adding two nlore members to form a vuss composed of two triangular elements as shown in Figure 10.1 (c). Various combinations of basic trial~gularelements produce general plane truss structures such as that in Figurc 10.1 (d).

Figure 10.1 (e) shows a Sramework ABCD for~liedby joining together fbur members at their ends by frictionless hinges. It is ohvious that ~f two forces P I and P2 are applied at joints A and C, respectively the framework will be unable to resist these forces and will deform to the shape shown by dotted line in the same figure. The slightest value of forces. PI and P2will cause relative movement between the members. Such a framework is termed as "geometrically unstable" and cannot be used as a structure to carry external loads. In fact such a framework is a mechanism. The rnechanisnl ot Figure 10.1 (a) can be made stable by adding an extra member AC as show11 in Figurc 10.1 (f). This will actually consist of two triangles ABC and ACD as discussed earlier. Alternatively, instead of member AC, and additional member BD could have been added as shown in Figure 10.1 (g). This also will be can a stable configuration. Such a ~onfigurat~on now he used as a simple truss by supporting ~t suitably to carry external loads similar to that shown in Figure 10.1 (c).

10.3 TYPES OF TRUSSES

Figure 10.2 shows a number of trusses commonly met with in practice which are built up from the basic unit which is a triangle.

(h)
Figure 10.2

The trusses shown in Figures 10.2 (a), (b) and (g) are used as roof trusses. Generally the uusses of Figures 10.2 (c), (d), (e) and ( f ) are used as bridge girders hut could also be employed as roof trusses. The trusses of Figures 10.2 (a) to ( f ) have been provided with a hinged support at one end md a roller support at the other end similar to that of a simple beam and are called simply supported trusses. Figure 10.2 (g) however shows a cantilever m s s obtained by building the structure from a fixed support such as a wall. A truss with an overhang similar to that of an overhanging heam is shown in Figure 10.2 (h), Trusses used to he named after the engineers who have popularised their use. For instances, the trusses of Figures 10.2 (a), (d) are termed as Howe trusses. the trusses of Figures 10.2 (b), (c) are termed Pratt trusses; the trusses of Figure 10.2 (e) as a Warren truss etc. Sometimes, the trusses are named after their shapes. Thus the truss of Figure 10.2 (d) is called as N-truss while that of Figure 10.2 (tJ is known as K - truss.

10.4 ANALYSIS OF TRUSSES - METHOD OF JOINTS

10.4.1 Assumptions
The calculation of internal forces in the members of a truss sbbjected to external loads or forces is termed as the analysis of the truss. The analysis of plane trusses is hased on the following assumptions :
1)

The members of the truss are connected together at their ends hy frictionless hinges ,or pins. The external loads are applied only at the joir!ts in the plane of the truss arid not directly on any member. The individual members of the truss are straight.

2)

3)

Introduction
Mechanics

to Structural

The first of the above assuniptions is seldom completely satisfied in an actual truss. In olden days, trusses used to be constructed with actual pins at the joints. Even in such cases, unless the joints are greased and maintained properly, they will not act as frictionless hinges. In modem practice, the trusses are mostly made of steel sections and the joints are made with the help of gusset plates and bolts or by using welding as shown in Figures 10.3 (a) and (b). Such joints do not exemplify a hinged or pinned connection and that LOO a frictionless one, In many cases, however, where the members of the truss are long and slender, very little moment is transmitted by the members and the assumption of a frictionless pinned connection produces acceptable results and the calculations are greatly simplified.

Figure 10.3

Let us see now how the calculations are simplified by the assumptions made. By assumption 2, since the loads are applied only at the joints, no bending moments will be caused anywhere along the length of the member. By assumplion 1, because the members are connected by frictionless hinges, there are no moments acting at the ends. Therefore, the only possible reactive forces transmitted by the hinges are denoted by horizontal and vertical components at the ends. These are indicated by (HA, and (HB, in the general VA) VB) free-body diagram of a uuss member shown in Figure 10.4 (a).

VA), , The hinge reaction (HA, (HB VB) at A and B can also be represented by their resultants RA and RB. equilibrium of the member AB, since only two forces RA and RB For are acting on it, they must be equal and oppositely directed along the same line. The member is therefore subjected to either axial tension or axial compression as shown in Figure 10.4 (b).
10.4.2 Truss Notations
In this text, the joints will be arbitrarily indicated by alphabets A,B,C etc. and the members of the truss by numerals 1.2.3, etc. as shown in Figure 10.5 (a). External loads on the structure at the joints are denoted by the letter P subscripted with the letter of the joint at which it ac;a. In Figure 10.5 (a) since two loads are shown acting at joint C, they are indicated as PC, and PC,.
The axial forces in the members are denoted by the letter N with proper subscript; thus N3 is the m a 1 force in the member (3).

Tensio~i a member is denoted by a plus sign ( + ) and compression is denoted by a minus in sign ( -- ).

//k?N3\
HA

Plane Tmsses

N g P c x c

N3 NI+

rX

B
Nl t
0-

;A-N1
$B

Tv2

, +N, f
(a)

Figure 10.5

10.4.3 Method of Joints

One of the methods used in analysing a truss for member forces is the method of joints. The analysls entals the use of free-body diagrams of the joints with the application of equilibrium equatlons C H = 0 and Z V= 0 for each joint. Thls can be best understood by studying the simple triangular truss ABC of Figure 10.5 (a). Flgure 10.5 (b) shows the free body diagrams for all the three joints A,B,C and all the three members 1,2,3. The member forces are indicated as N 1 , N 2 , N3 111 the free-body diagrams for the members. The axial force N 1 is assumed as tension and axial forces N2, N3 are assumed as compression and indicated accordingly. Cons~der now the jolnt A where the memhers AC and AB are connected. In addition to the feactlons VA and HA, additional forces N 1 and N 3 equal and opposite to those at the at member ends will also act at joint A as shown. Similarly the forces act~ng joints B and C are lnd~catedin Figure. Slnce the truss is In equilibrium, the members and the joints must also be in equilibrium. The equlllbrium of the member has already been considered by showing equal and opposite forces such as N 1 at ends A and B of the member AB etc. It is clear from Figure 10.5 (b) that the forces N 1 , N2 and N 3 are the internal forces in the truss. The analysis of the truss requires the calculation of these unknown forces. These internal unknown forces can be found by considering the equilibrium of the joints by applying equations C H = 0 and Z V = 0 for each jolnt. For the truss shown in Figure 10.5, there are totally 6 unknown forces-three reaction components VA, HA, VB and three internal forces N 1 , N2, N 3 . There are three joints A,B,C and two equatlons of equll~briumfor each joint thus totalling 3 x 2 = 6 equations. Therefore, we have 6 equations for the solution of 6 unknowns. Thus the axial forces N 1 , N2 and N 3 can be determined. In the general case of a truss with ' j ' joints and 'm' members, the total number of equations of equilibrium available would be 2 j. If, in general, the number of unknown reaction s components 1 indicated by ' f , then the total number of unknowns would be m+r. If 2 j = m+r, then 2 j equations will be enough to calculate the 'm' internal forces in the members and the ' f reaction components at the supports. The sketching of ftee-body diagruns separately for various members and joints as shown for a simple truss in Figure 10.5 (b) is onlyessential for understanding clearly the concept of analysis of truss by method of joints. For a larger truss with several members and joints, the sketching of free-body diagrams may become laborious and cumbersome at times. What is essential is to know that equilibrium equations for joints is to be written down for determining the member forces. For this purposes, the member forces acting on the joints are shown by arrows on the diagram of the truss ifself as indicated in Figure 10.6 corresponding to the truss in Figure 10.5 (a). For example, the force N 1 is indicated as a pull on the joints A and B which means that the member 1 is in tension. Similarly the forces N;! and Nj are shown as pushes on the joints A, B and C meaning thereby that the members 2 and 3 are in compression. Now, from Figure 10.6, we can directly write down the equations of equilibrium at the joints. If any of the forces say N I turns odt to be negative, then it means that the member 1 is actually in compression.
2

Introduction to Stmetural Mecbmics

The procedure can be well explained by illustrative examples given below.

Example 10.1 Using the method of joints, analyse the uuss shown in Figure 10.7.

Figure 10.7 (a)

Figure 10.7 (b)

Solution The truss consists of 9 members and 6 joints. Since the truss is supported on a hinge at A and roller at F, the number of unknown external reactions is 3 (VA1HA and VF).

: Number of unknown forces = m + r = 9 + 3 = 12 .

Number of equilibrium equations = 2 j = 2 x 6 = 12

: The truss can be analysed with the 12 equations of equilibrium available and thus . the truss is statically determinate. However writing out the 12 equations of equilibrium at the 6 joints and solving them for the member forces and support reactions may be unnecessarily laborious and generally tedious. The better method will be to solve the problem step by step. One of the aspect of the method of joints that sometimes causes difficulty is in determining the joint at yhich analysis should begin and the order in which the for succeeding joints should be taken. The governing ~xiteria the choice of a joints is that there must no1 be more than two unknown member forces. me task will be made easier if we first calculate the reactions from the overall 6-quilibsium of the structure in the case of simply supported and overhanging,trus,ses. ID ;his example Z H = 0 gives HA = 2 kN

Taking moments ahout F ,

C M= 0 gives
+
( 2 x 3) - ( 6 x 7)

I
Again

(VAx 1 0
V = 0 gives,

( 3 x 3) = 0

...

vF=

9 - 4.5 = 4.5 kN.

HA=2kN A - c -

The reactions along with the external loads are shown in Figure 10.7 (b). After finding the reactions, the next important step is to study the structure and determine which path can he taken so that the joints will have oi~ly unknowns. One path that will two work is the order of joints A-B-C-D-E-F. There are other paths that can be followed hut this will illustrate the method. Free-hody diagram of joint - A is shown in Figure 10.7 (c). In drawing the free-hody diagram of joints, it is convenient to show the unknown member forces acting in tension. If the aiswer comes out negative. then the member is in compression. From Figure,

V =4.5kN A

FSgure 10.7 (c)

TN:
N3

4.5JZkN

V = 0 gives,

2kN

N4

N l sin 0 = 4.5 N1 = 4.5.\12= + 6.37 kN

NOW

F i p 10.7 (d) ~

C H = o gives,
Ffguro 10.7 (e)

Therel'r)re, member - 2 IS in compression. The results ohtained at each joint can he recorded on n summary diagram of the lruss as shown is Figure 10.7 (1). Such a diagram showing thc sign and ~nagnitudeof member forces enables us to proceed to the succeeding joiii~smore expeditiously. Proceeding to joint - B, we show the previously determined value of N 1 on the free-body diagram in its determined direciion (Figure 10.7 (d)). The values of unknown forces N g and N 4 can be obtained from equilibrium equations at this joint. V = o gives,

4.SkN
N7 Figurn 10.7

N9

(0

Now. proceed~ngto join1 - C. the previously delermined values of N2 and N3 in their cortect tiirectlnn 1s shown 011 the free-body diagram of Figure 10.7 (e).

Figuns 10.7 (g)

Resolviiig vertically, we get

.'. Ns + 1.5 X

N5 sin$ + 1.5 = 0
= 0

.'. N5

- 2.50 kN

Resolving horizontally, we get

N 6 + 6.5 + Ns cos 9 = 0

...

4 N 6 + 6.5 - 2.5 x - = 0 : N 6 = . 5

4.5m

2kN

--

4.5kN

qq,/
-- --+6.37kN

Now. conling to joint - E, it is easily seen that N7 = - 3.0 kN and N9 = - 4.5 kN Again, referring to joint

-4.5k~

-2.5kN

4.5kN

+8.37kN

- F (Figure 10.7 (g)) N 8 cos O = 4.5 N8 = + 4.5 fi = + 6.37 1dV

+6.5kN

~ i ~ 10.7 k u (i)

At the last joint - D, it will be observed that all the forces are already known from previous calculations. The two equilibrium equations applied at this joint merely serves as a check on the preceding analysis. Thus, refercing to joint D (Figure 10.7 (h))

Intmduction lo Stmeturn1
Mechanics

V = 2.5 sin $

3.0 - 4.5 6sin 8

H = 6.5 - 2.5 cos 4 - 4.5 ~r'i--cos8

After you have hecome more adept at analysing trusses, you might find less need for complete free-hody diagrams of joints, particularly for joints, such as E at which the ~nernherforces are obvious. However, the value of free-body diagrams during the leaniilig stages and for the more complicated joints cannot be overemphasized.
Example10.2

Analyse the cantilever-type tnlss shown in Figure 10.8 (a) and find the forces in all the memhers.
B
A

u 1 tan$ = - = 2u 2 sin 4 = cos 41 =

1 n=

0.446 0.892

2-

20 tan@= -= 2u sin 8 = cos 8 =

Figure 10.8 (a)

~1- = 0.707 2
I
= 0.707

Solution Since the uuss consists of triangles and it is supported on hinge and roller supports at F and E, it is geometrically stahle. Further since NZ = 9, r = 3 and j = 6, m + r is equal to 2 j . Therefore, the truss is statically determinate.
Unlike the simply supported truss in Example 10.1, in the case of cantilever truss such as that under discussion, you can start aiialysiiig the truss without calculatioil of support reactions.
j

For example, In this case, you can start from joint - A where there are only two unknown rnemher forces N 1 and N 2 Further, as discussed earlier, there is no need to draw free-body diagrams of all joints. Wherever the need arises, the free-hody diagrams are drawn. The order of joints that will he considered is A-B-C-D-E and then reactions w ~ l lbe checked at supports E and F by overall equilihriurn of Iruss. For the purpose of clarity, the sketch of truss is draw11 in Figure 10.8 (h) where the calculated member forces will he indicated.

Joint A
By inspection, for vertical equilibrium at A, the force exerted hy member - 2 at the joint must he a push-shown hy an m o w in Figure 10.8 (a).
: .

V = 0 gives N 2 sin $ = 2 P

: N2 .

26 P

4.47 P (compression)

Pirule Trusses

Fiaim 10.8 (h)

Again. by inspection, for horizontal equilibriuln at A, the force exerted by member 1 at the joint must be a pull, again shown by an arrow H = o gives N , = P + h2 cos(/1

Now, since the nature of member forces, N , and N 2 are known, the forces exctkd by them at far joint8 B and C are iudicated by arrows as pull and push respectively.
Joint - R

Proceeding as discussed earlier at joint A, the fotce exerted by member 4 at the joint B must be a pull, : . 0 gives N4 = N, = 5P

CH=

case

N 4 = SP x - = 2.5 6~ 5.59 P (tension) = 2

V = 0 gives N 3 = N4 sin I$
= 2.5

1 6-P x q=j- =

2.50 P (compression)

Since N 3 and N 4 ;ire calculated, the forces exerted by the corresponding members at the far joints C and D call be llldicated on h e truss.
Joint C

Proceeding as before,

C H=

0 gives N s = N 2 cos 4
= 2 6P

4 P (compression)

XV =

0 gives

N 8 = N 3 + N 2 sin I$

2 P = 4.50 P (compression) Again, thc forces exerted by members 5 and 8 at far joints D and E are indicated on the truss.
= 2.5 P

.loint D

There may be a need for free-body diagram of this joint which is drawn. Both the uiilaiowii forces N6 and N7 are assumed to be tensile.

C H= o gives

NJ= 2 4 6 ~

/"
-

:.

N7 = -

fiP

.\IZP

(compression)

ZV=
.'.

0 gives Ns+ N7 sine - N4sin+ = 0

N6 -

1 ~ F XP -jT-

1 2 . 5 6 X -;$5= 0 ~

N6 = P

2.5 P = 3.5 P

(tension)

The arrows are shown correctly a$ calculated on joint D itself and far joints F and E in respect of forces exerted by members 6 and 7 respectively. Joint E Resolving horizontally, since there is no horizontal reaction at roller support at E,

CH=
N9 =

0 gives N9 = N7 cost)

GP x

1 - j = P (tension) ~

Again, the force exerted by member - 9 at far joint F can be indicated by arrow correctly.
Check

For vertical equilibrium of joint E,

CV =
For equilibrium of joint F,

0 gives V E = Ns+ N7 sin8

V = 0 gives VF =

Nn

= 3 . 5 P downwards

CH =
From overall equilibrium of truss,

0 gives HF = N9 = P towards left

C H =P -

cv=

P=

o
( Z P X 20) - ( 3 . 5 ~a ~ ~

3.5P

+ +

2P - 5 . 5 P = 0

Taking moments about E,

Z M= ( P X 3a) +
= 3Pa
Example 103

4Pa - 7 P a = 0

For the simply supported mss shown in Figure 10.9, find the nature and magnitude of f ~ r c e s all the members. in

Figure 10.9 (a)

Solution

Plane Trusses

The truss is subjected to a vertical load of 6 kN at B and a horizontal load of 3 kN at C. The reactions at A and D can be obtained as usual from overall equilibrium of the truss.

The reader should check these values for himself.

m = The total number of members (AB, AC, BC, CD, BD)

=5

r = Total number of external reactions (VA, HA, VD)

=3
j = Total l ~ ~ m h ofr joints (A,B,C,D) e

= 4.

Please note that there is no joint where the two members (2) and (5) overlap. It call be seen that m

+r=

2j

: .

The structure is statically determinate.

111 this special truss, at every joint, there are two inclined members unlike the trusses

i n Examples 10.1 and 10.2.

Therefore, the equilibrium equations Z H = 0 and C V = 0 applied at joints A or D to start with, will contain two unkt~ownmember forces. Hence the equations will have to be solved simultaneously as shown below r ,

tan 8 = - = 1, 3

sin 8 = cos 8 =

= 0.707

Introduction to Structural Mechanics

Joint A

Consider equilibrium of joint A with both symbol N1 and N2 assumed to be positive (tension) - See Figure 10.9 (b) = 0 gives NI cos0 + N2cosg = 3

CH C V=
N2 =

0 gives Nl sin0

NzsinO = - 3

Solving the simultaiieous equations, we get N1 = - 12.7 kN = 12.7 kN (compression)

Joint B

13.4 kN = 13.4 kN (tension)

[Figure 10.9 (e)] Resolving vertically, 6

v=

0 gives

Ns sin 4 - 12.7 sin 0 = 0

=

: Ns .

6.7 klV = 6.7 kN tension

Resolving horizontally, 12.7 cos 0 12.7

H = 0 gives

+ cos 0 +

Ns cos 4 6.7

+ NS = 0 cos 4 + N3 = 0

N3 = - 14.96 kN = 14.96 kN (compression)

Joint C

[Figure 10.9 (d)] Resolving vertically, 13.4 sill 41

Check

Cv =

Ogives

N4 sin t) = 0

N4 = - 8.45 kN = 8.45 kN (compress~on) Resolving horizontally,

+ 3.0 + = 14.96 + 3.0 Check at Joint - D

xli = 14.96

Nq cos t) - 13.4 cos 4 5.98 - 11.95 =

0

Resolving horizontally,

C H = N4 cns 0 +

Ns cos 4

= - 8.45 x 0.707

6.7 x 0.892 r

The final results are shown in Table 10.1.

Table 10.1 Member
I

Force (kN)

3
1 4 5

14.96 (compression)

08.45 (compression) 06.70 (tension)

10.4.4 Special Loading Cases

Very often, certain members of a Uuss carry no axial force under the action of external loads acting at certain joints. The equilibrium of forces at some of these joints where no external loads act can be more easily handled if the general concepts are clear and the forces are resolved in two mutually perpendicular directions rather than horizontal and vertical. Consider, for instance, the joint B of the Uuss shown in Figure 10.10 (a) where 3 members are only connected. No external load is applied at joint B and the memhers BA and BC are in a straight line. Consider the free-body diagram of joint B. Resolving all forces at the joint parallel to and perpendicular to the line ABC, and using the equations of equilibrium, you will find that NBD sin 0 = 0 and NBA = NBC .

P l w e Trusses

Figure 10.10

Hence the force NBD = 0 in the third member BD which is not in line with the other two. Consider, another instance of joint P in Figure 10.10 (b) where the two members PQ. PR are not in the same line and the joint carries no external load. Refernil to free-body diagram of joint P and resolving the forces horizontally, equilibrium equation H = 0 gives NpQ cos 8, = NpR cos %, But, vertical equation of equilibrium gives

NpR sin

NPR sin 82 = 0

The two equilibjum equations cannot be simultaneously satisfied unless NPLZ= N p R = 0 Both the above results hold good as long as no external load acts at the joint under consideration.

SAQ 1
a) Find the forces in all the members
'

the Uuss shown

Figure 10.1 1 below :

Figure 10.1 1

b)

Figure 10.12 below shows a saw-tooth roof truss with wind bads acting on it. Determine i) the reactions at the two supports ii) the forces in all the members and their nature.

Iatmductitiua b Structural Mechanics

10 kN

Figure 10.12

-4

C)

A tower used for a transmission line is shown in Figure 10.13. If ~tis subjected to a horizontal force of 540 kN, find the forces in all members and indicate their magnitude and nature.

10.5 ANALYSIS OF TRUSSES-METHOD

OF SECTIONS

ngul~ 10.13

The distinguishing feature of the method of sections is that ~t enables us to detenn~ne the forcelforces in a particular memberlmembers of a truss without first having to determine many other member forces iis we might have to do with method of joints. The melhod of joints would require a j o i ~ ~ t joint analysis till the axial forces in the chosen members are by obtained. Whereas, the required result ciln be obtained more s~mply the method of by sections. The critical aspect of this metho0 is the choice of proper frw-body diagrams. The student, when first learning this method, is encouraged to concentrate only on selecting an appropriate free-body diagram and to forego the computational aspects until this has been masteyed. Exercises at the end of this unit will aid in develop~ng ability. this This method can be illostrated first with respect to the truss shown in Figure 10.14 (a) which has dready been analysed before in Example 10.1. This time, it is required to find the axial forces only in lhe members (4), (5) and (6).

figure 10.14

To apply method of sectiol~s i:~ the case of method of joints, the reactions at the supports as have to be calculated by using equations of equ~libriumfor the whole structure. This has already b:en done earlier which gives V A = 4.5 kN, VB = 4.5 kN and H A = 2 kN. To ti-!.! .forces in members (4), (5) and (6) by method of sections, the structure is cut by sec:ln*i I thr011gh members (4). (5) and ( 6 ) so as to divide the truss into distinct parts or free k rt::ies As a rule. the section must not cut more than 3 members including the member in W:'IC~I f l l a axlal force is to be determined. The internal axial forces N4, N6 ill these N5,
:. L

members are now "revealed" acting in opposite directions on either side of ihc sectioli a-a. For convenience, lhese unknown forces are assumed to be acting in tension so that the forces N4 N5, pull on the joints as shown in Figure 10.14 (b) which indicates the free-body N6 diagrams to the left and rlght of the section. Since lhe entire rruss was considered to be in equilibrium, each part of the truss to the left and right of the section is also in equilibrium under the action of the corresponding external loads and the internal forces in the members. Now, equilibrium equations may be applied to either of the two free-bodies. In applying the equations of equilibrium, calculations are silnplified by a suitable selection of coordinate axes or moment centres. For instance, consider the equilibrium of the right part of the truss in Figure 10.14 (b) (since this part involves 2 external force components compared to 4 in the left part). Taking joint D, which is the point of interaction of the forces N4 and Ns,as the moment cenue and appling equilibrium equation

Plane Trusses

C MD =

0, we get - 4.5 x 3 - N~ x 3 =
= 4.5 kN (compression)

: N6 = - 4.5 kN .

To calculate the force N4.the joint C is taken as the monient centre.

C M ~o = gives
:.
N4 =

6.5 kN = 6.5 kN

(tensile)

Finally, resolving all forces acting on the right part in Ole vertical direction,

C V = 0 gives N5 sine +
N5 = - 2.5 kN
.=

4.5 - 3 = 0 (compression)

2.5 kN

The same results would be obtained if the equilibrium of the left part of the tnlss were considered. (The student should check this and confirm for himself.) Similarly, by taking sections b-b and c-c as shown in Figure 10.14 (a), the forces in numbers (I), (2) and (8), (9) can be determined. The resultant equations of equilibrium become the equatio~~s equilibrium of the joints A and F respectively. of Example 10.4 One pin-jointed frame of a simple pylon is loaded as shown in Figure 10.15 (a). By method of sections, determine the magnitude and nature of forces in members AC, CD, AD and BD. Also determine the magnitude and direction of reactions at supports A and B.

P
(a)
Figure 10.15

(a)

Solution

The members AC, CD, AD and BD are named as (I), (2), (3) a d (4) respectively. For convenience, the inclined load of 10 kN applied at top joint J is resolved into vertical and horizolltal components of 5 kN and 8.66 kN respectively.

Introduction to Structural Mechanics

Consider section a-a and the free-body diagram of the part frame above the section as shown in Figure 10.15 (b), revealilig the forces N 1 , N3 and N4. The equilibrium equations, in this case, cannot be written down easily unless some geometric properties are first determined. Dotted lines AL, DM, JK, respectively. JK tan 0 = - = KB AL = DM = AD = D P are drawn perpendicular to BJ, AJ, AJ, A 3 T 12 6 , sin 0 = 0.9863, cos 0 = 0.1644 2 A B s i n 0 = 4 x 0.9863 = 3.945 m CD sin 0 = 3 x 0.9863 = 2.959 m
-=

dAP2+

np2 =

= 4.61 m

JN

= A J sin $ = 12.17 x

0.6419 = 7.812 m

Taking moments of all forces above section a-a about A,

C M= 0 gives

= - 31.41 kN = 31.41 kN (compression) 3.945 Taking moments about D, M = Ogives - N 1 x D M + 1 ( 3 + 6 + 9 ) + 8 . 6 6 ~9 + 5 x . 1 . 5 = 0 =

: N4 .

- 123.92

N 1 = --- - + 34.96 kN = 34.96 kN (tension) 103'44 2.959 Taking moments about J. M = 0 gives N 3 x JN - 1 ( 3 + 6 + 9) = O

.'.

- + 2.30kN (tension) 7.812 For determining the force N2, consider section b-b and taking moment of all forces about J,

: NJ= .

- 'I-

We get

-N2x 9-

18 N2 = - - = - 2 kN = 2 kN (compression) 9

Reactions at A and B

The member forces NAC (= N1), NAD (= N2) and N B D (= N4) acting on the joints A,B,C,D are shown by arrows on the diagram of the truss in Figure 10.15 (c). The magnitudes of the forces in the members meeting at the base supports are also shown. For joint B to be in equilibrium, the reaction R B at support B must be equal and opposite to N4.
RB = 3 1.41 kN as shown. The reaction IhA at support A [nust be equal and opposite to the resultaiit of forces N 1 and N g .

Analytically, RA can be calculated as follows :

VB

R B sin 0 = 31.41 x 0.9863 = 30.98 kN

Now for equilibrium of whole truss,

C H =0

: HA .

+ : .

HB = 1 + 1 + 1 + I

8.66 = 12.66

HA = 12.66- HI, 12.66 - 5.16 = 7.50kN =

Plane Trusses

acting at an angle of tan-'

HA = VA

tansup-l

7'50 -35.98

11.7' with the vertical

SAQ 2
a)

Determine the forces in members DF and DC in the turns shown in Figure 10.16 below. The magnitude of the three applied forces are indicated in brackets.

Figure 1 . 6 01

b)

Determine the magnitude and nature of forces in the members U2 L3, U2 L3 and L2 L3 of the truss shown in Figure 10.17

Figure 10.17

Introdmction Mechanics

10.6 SPECIAL TRUSSES

The examples in the previous section 10.5 have illustrated the general procedure for analyzing a truss by the method of sections. Basically, the procedure involves the selection of a free-body diagram of a portion of the structure such that the desired unknown will appear in an equilibrium equation. Occasionally it may be necessary to solve simultaneous equilihriutn equations of the free-body and sotnetimes we must solve some other member force before the desired member f r e can be determined. The method of sections can also oc be used in combination with the method of joints for the most efficient analysis of some trusses. As an illustration, consider the F i - t y p e truss shown in Figure 10.18

Figure 10.18

Since the truss is supported on a hinge at A and roller at B, Total number of external reactions r = 3 Number of joints 'j'= 15 Number of members 'm ' = 27 Number of unknown forces = m + t = 27 + 3 = 30 ' Nuinber of equilibrium equations available = 2 j = 2 x 15 = 30. -Thus the truss is statically determinate. Now if we want to ,malyse the truss completely and determine the forces in all the members, it is easier to adopt the "merhod of joints" for the solution. Starting from joint A, two forces N1 and N2 can be obtained from two equilibrium equations applied at this joint. Proceeding to joint C, N3 and N4 can be found. Similarly at joint J, Ns and N6 can be determined. After this, when we proceed to joints K or D, it will he noticed that there are 3 unknown forces N7.N8 and N9 at joint K or N7, and N 1 at joint D. Nlo 1 Three unknown forces camlot be determined with the help of two equilibrium equations H = 0 either at joint K or D. Bat we know that the truss in statically V = 0 and determinate. Therefore, we have to find an alternative method. Consider a section line m-m as shown in figure crossing three members 8, 13 and 14 revealing the internal forces N8 , N I S and N I 4 .Adopting "method of sections" and applying 3 equations of equilibriums to the free-body of the part-truss to the left of the section m-m, we can now find the unknown forces N8 , N13 and N14. Then, we can come back to joint K. Now, using "method of joints" again, we can determine

N7 and N9 since N5 and N8 are known. We proceed to joint D and find N l o and N l 1 . Lastly we prcxeed to joint E and tirid N12.
Thus. we see that, a judicious combination of "method o joints" and "method of f sections" is necessary for andysing special Uusses such as the one discussed above.

----10.7 ANALYSIS OF TRUSSES - GRAPHICAL METHOD

Graph~cal methods in structured mechanics have lost some of their importance due to the development of modem calculating techniques with the help of computer and the demands for greater accuracy. However, the graphical xilethod for the analysis of trusses retains a fair degree of popularity due to the speed with which the analysis can be completed. The graphical method is a graphical version of the method of joints. It makes use of the fact that each joint of the truss is subjected to a system of concurrent forces in equilibrium. Hence if a tbrce palygon is drawn for this system of forces, it must bc closed for equilibrium to exist. For a truss of 'j'joints, 7' such closed force polygons can be drawn. The drawing of these force palygons is very much simplified if Bow's notation is used. Bow's notation can be understood with reference to Figure 10.19 which shows a cantilever truss subjected to loads PA , PB and PC .
L

--"

Plane Trusses

I
I

The free-body diagram for the joint B has been shown in Figure 10.19 (b). To facilitate drawing of the force polygon, the spaces in F~gure 10.19 (b) between the forces P B , Nm , ?VBC NBAhave been numbered in clockwise direction as a, b, c, d. In Figure 10.19 (a) these spaces would be the spaces a, b on either side of force PB and the spaces c, din the triangles BCD and ABC. Figure 10.19 (a) is called as the space diagram. Each force is designated by the spaces on either side of it, counting the spaces around the joint in a fixed direction. Thus using a clockwise direction and referring to Figures 10.19 (a) and (b), the forces acting at joint B can be written as PB = ab; NBD= be; NBCz cd; NBA = da We know that the forces acting at any joint are in equilibrium. Thus, if two of the forces acting at joint B, say PB and NBAare known, then a closed force polygon can be drawn for the the joint as shown in Figure 10.19 ic). Once again, in constructing the force polygo~l, forces are considered in the same direchon as that used in numbering of the spaces,

Figure 10.19

Stmctursl

The bow11 forces PB and NRAare represented by the vectors $and $drawn in Figure 10.1Y (c) to a suitable scale.,From the points b and d, lines bc and dc are drawn parallel to the forces NBn and NBCwhich are acting along the lines BD and BCrespectively.

The point of intersection of these lines determine the point C. Since the joint B is in equilibrium, the force polygon abcd must close. Hence the vectors 2 and d o f the force polygon represent to s a l e tile forces NBo and Nsc. The actual directions of the forces are also obvious from the force polygon. Thus the force + NBn r bc acting from b to c in the force polygon pushes on joint B and hence the member BL) is in compression. Similarly, the force NBC -- cd acting from c to d i n Figure 10.19 (c) is also compressive. It should be noted that a closed polygon car1 be drawn if not more than two forces at a joint are unknown. The graphical analysis of a truss can now be completed by repeating the basic In construction explained above for each of the jo~nts. the above case of the cantilever truss, the analysis can start from joint A and then proceed to joint5 B and C in that order. In addition to the force polygon shown in Figure 10.19 (c) for joint B, two additional force A polygons for jo~nts and C will have to be drawn. Time can be saved and duplication and graphical errors can be avoided if all the force their common sides coinciding. The resulting polygons are superimposed or]each other w~th figure, which is the superposibon of all force polygons, is called the Maxwell Diagram. The construction of Maxwell diagram for a typical truss will become clear from the following example.
Example 10.5

Determine the magnitude and nature of the forces in all the members of the truss of Example 10.1 by graphical method by constructing the Maxwell diagram.
Solution

For the sake of convenience, the truss of Example 10.1 is drawn in Figwe 10.20 again. Before commencing the Maxwell diagram for any truss, the reactions of the truss at the supports have to be calculated. hi this case, they have already been found as VA = 45kN'T', HA = 21rN + & V F = 4.51cN '' I
,

According to Bow's notation, the spaces between any two forces are des~gnated m sequence a, b, c, .,.. etc. as discvssed earlier or 1,2, 3,...etc. as used for th~s problem. The spaces between the known external forces and reactions are designated first as a to$ See Figure 10.20 (a). Since forces exist in the various members of the truss, the triangular spaces between the members are assigned numbers g to j. Figure 10.20 (a) thus represents h e space diagram for the external and internal forces in the truss.

6kN

3kN

The Maxwell diagram can now be commenced by drawing the polygon of forces for the external loads including reactions.

Plane Trusses

$=

4.5 k N

? and fl;)= 2 kN +

Since these forces are in equilibrium, the force polygon ubcdefa must close as shown in Figure 10.20 (b). The polygon of forces for determining the internal axial forces in the members can now be drawn starting from joint A. Going round the joint in a clockwise direction, the forces acting on the joint are $, and The first two know11 forces have already been drawn while completing the force polygon for the known external forces and reactions. From the points a and e, lines ug and eg are drawn parallel to the members AC and AB. Their point of intersection determines the point g. Theii agefa is the closed polygon for this joint from which the values, of 3 + NAB = ge = 6.4 kN and NAC = ag = 6.5 kN. It can also be seen that the force NAB = &?actfirom g to e in the Maxwell diagram. In the actual truss in Figure 10.20 (a), the force acting in this direction would exert a pull on the joint A. + Hence the member AR is in tension. Again, the force NAC = ag acts from u to g pushes on the joint A and thus the member AC is in compression.

2,

2.

At the next joint B, forces de = 2 kN, eg = 6.4 kN, and gh = NBC and h d = NBD are acting. The force polygon for this joint will be deghd . Referring to the Maxwell diagram it will be seen that 3 vertices d, e and g of this polygon are already known. The vertex h is found by drawing lines gh and dh parallel to members BC and BD respectively. The forces N B = g and NBD = dean now be scaled ~ $ off. Arguing as before, it will be clear that members BC and BD will be in compression and tension respectively. Proceeding in this manner, it will be seen that at every joint, one missing vertex of the closed force polygon relating to that joint has to be located. This can be done without 'any difficulty for joints C and E as explained above in detail for joints A and B. Finally when we come to joint D, only unknown force is the internal force Nm in member FD which has to be represented b y g in force polygon. But both the points j and d are already located earliey. It should therefore, be verified as a check that linejd is parallel to member FD. It can be seen that there are as many vertices or points in the Maxwell diagram as there are spaces marked in the space diagram in Figure 10.20 (a). Though each side of a polygon is used more than once to denote an axial force, no confusion should arise as to the nature of this axial force, whether it is tensile or compressive. For example consider the force NCn represented by vector z i n the Maxwell diagram. Referring to space diagram it will be seen that one remembers to go round any joint + in a clockwise direction, ih refers to the form NcD acting at joint E. This force acts in the direction i to h and hence pushes on joint E. Therefore, the member C D is in compression. On the other hand, the vector h, refers to the force NDc acting at joint D. Again this force, which acts in the direction h to i in the Maxwell diagram pushes on joint D and again the same conclusion is reached that the member D C is in compression. The magnitude of forces in various menlbers can be scaled off from the Maxwell diagram and their nature also verified as explained above. The results are indicated in Table 10.2 and they can be compared with results obtained analytically by method of joints earlier in Example 10.1.

* .

The student will realise after attempting a few problems that drawing the Maxwell diagram is much simpler than explaining it in words. In the case of large trusses with several joints, it is advisable to check a few results by using method of sections and verify that it agrees with the result given by Maxwell diagram.

Table 1 . 02
Member

1 Force kN
6.4 (tension) 6.5 (compression) 4.5 (compression) 6.5 (tension) 2.5 (compression) 4.5 (compression)

3.0 (compression)
4.5 (compression) 6.4 (tension)

SAQ 3
a) Analyse graphically the truss shown in Figure 10.21 and check the answers by method of joints.

b)

Analyse the truss of Example 10.3 (Figure 9 (a)) shown again in Figure 10.22 below graphically and compare the results with those shown in Table 10.1 on page 56.

6kN

VD= 3kN
Figure 10.22

10.8 GEOMETRIC STABILITY AND INDETERMINACY

S'RATIC

In the illustrative examples used in this unit, we have assumed that thb configurations of the trusses were capable of supporting the loads and the member forces coukd be determined from equations of statics.

It was stated earlier that the basic element of a truss is a triangle composed of three straight members pinned together at their ends such an element is geometrically stable. Geometric stability can also be maintained if the basic element is expanded as discussed earlier i n section 10.2 by adding two members to the existing system for each new joint established. The stability of a truss also depends on proper support conditions. In general, we can state that for stability, the structure must be supported by at best three reaction forces, all of which are neither parallel nor concurrent. m- = number of members If r = number of reaction components and j = number of joints then the following general statements can be made concerning the relations between m, randj: 1) 2)
m + r = 2 j . The structure is statically determinate and the unknowns c be h obtained from the 2j equations. m + r > 2 j. There are too many unluiowns to be determined from the

available equations. The structure is therefore, statically indeterminate. To analyse statically indeterminate structures, we need additional relationships such as compatibility of deformations. Statically indeterminate structures will be treated in later courses.

m + r < 2 j. The number of available equations are more than the unknowns. The structure is unstable. These are three simple statements which are generally acceptable but may not be correctly justified for specific truss configurations and support conditions. For a more complete understanding of the above three statements and to find out possibilities of misusing the statements, the reader will find it interesting to learn the same in later courses in structural analysis. Until then, the reader should consolidate his analytical capabilities by understanding clearly the basic concepts introduced in this unit by continuous practice of solution of a variety of problems of plane trusses.

3)

10.9 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have made yourself familiar with the application of the principle of statics to determine the axial forces in different members of plane trusses which is extensib 'v uskd in civil engineering structures. You have been introduced to the definition of plane truss, geometrically stable and unstable configurations,type of trusses used in practice. conditions for static determinacy and indeterminacy and the assumptions made in the analysis. You have studied in detail the following methods of analysis of plane trusses Method of joints Method of sections Graphical method The learner has to keep in mind that the ability to find quickly and correctly the magnitude and nature of forces in various members of a plane truss is not only important for design of the various components and joints but will also greatly facilitate the calculation of deflections due to external loads and temperature changes which is also necessary for analysing statically indeterminate trusses.

10.10 KEY WORDS

Truss
:
A structure whose members are connected arranged and supported in such a manner that they are primarily subjected to axial forces.

Latroduetion t Simdural o Mechanics

Geometrically stable truss

There is no relative movement between the members of the trusses when it is subjected to extemal loads. The truss can be analysed completely including determination of reactions, internal forces in members, deflections etc. with the help of only members, deflections of statics or equilibrium. The calculation of internal forces in the various memebrs of a truss subjected to external loads. The numbering of spaces between extemal loads, reactions and the various members by short letters or numerals to facilitate drawings of force polygon. The diagram obtained by superposition of a11 force polygons constructed for maintaining equilibrium at every joint.

Statically determinate truss

Analysis of truss

Bow's notation

Maxwell Diagram

SAQ 1 1 tan 0 =2

1 sin 0 = -

6
2

cos0=-

Figure 10.23

Considering equilibrium of Joint E,

V=Ogives gives

N2sin0=100 (compression) N1=N2cos0 (tension)

: .

N2 = 1 0 0 6 = 223.6 kN
x H = O
2 = 100 6 x -- 200 k~

6-

Considering equilibrium of Joint D, V= 0 gives

N3 = N2 sin 0
=

~ $j==kN xo 0 l

(tension)

H=

gives
= 1 06 x

-&

= 200 kN

(compression)

Considering equilibrium of Joint C and assuming both members 5 and 6 to be under tension,

V = 0 gives

N6 sin 0 - Ns sin 0 - N~ = 0

. . . (a)
x H = O gives N6cosO+N5cosO-N1=O

. . .(b)
From equations (a) & (b), N5 = 0 ;N6 = 1 0 0 6 = 223.6 kN (tension)
Chec!k

Considering equilibrium of Joint A, reactionRA ( equal & opposite to N6) = 100\15-kN

& considering equilibrium of Joint B,

reaction RB ( equal & opposite

N4 since N5 = 0) = 2WhN

Now .considering overall equilibrium of structure (external loads and reactions)

~ H = R ~ C O S ~ - R ~ = ~ M X 0 - ~ ~ ~ = ~ (OK)

figure 10.24

i)

Calculation of Reactions VA, VB and

C; u

HB

span L = ------ - 6.93 m cos 30

H =

gives HB = (20 + 10 + 10) coo m0

z
Check

MA= 0 gives, vB~6.93-1oX6-20X3= 0

C V = VA + VB - (10 + 20 + 10)cos 300 = 17.32 + 17.32 - 34.64 = 0

ii) Determination of forces in members V = 0 gives,

(OK)

At Joint A,

N1 sin 60 = VA

: .

NI = 17.32 x

20 E= kN (compression)

1 H = 0 gives N = NI cos 600 = 20 x - = 10 lcN (tension) 2 2 =N1- 10=20- 10= 10

At Joint C, resolving all forces in direction CA, N3 c-6O0

: .

N3 = 10 x 2 = 20 kN (tension) N = N3 cos 30' = 20 x 0.866 = 17.32 4

= 17.32 kN (compression)

Now, resolving all forces along CD ,

At Joint D, Ns = N4 = 17.32kN (compression)

& N = 20 kN (compression) 7

At Joint E,

H = 0 gives,

N6= N2+ N3 cos60+ N7 cos 60 1 1 = 10+20x-+20x-=30kN 2 2

Check @ Joint B

(tension)

H=N6+~ O C O S ~ O ~ - N ~ C O S ~ O ~ - H ~ 1 = 3 0 + l o x 2 - 17.32~0.866-20

z
c)

=30+5-15-20=0

(OK)

v = v ~ - N ~ s ~1 ~ ~ h 6- 0 ~ 0o ~

= 17.32 - 8.66 - 8.66 = 0 (OK)

Generally as was mentioned earlier in the case of cantilever trusses, we can proceed from the free end and find the forces in all the members without determining the reactions at supports. In this problem, starting with joint C, we can find the forces in members (1) & (2) using two equations of equilibrium But we cannot proceed to joint B or D since there are 3 unknown forces at each of these joints. Therefore, we can try joints A or E where there are: only two unknown forces provided we determine the reactions at A & E from overall equilibriumof the truss.
-

Alternatively, we determine reactions at A & E first. Then, starting with joints A lk E, we proceed to B & D for finding the froces in all members. Finally, we can check the equilibrium at joint C.

E l p r e 10.25

Determination of Reactions At hinge support A, there are two reactions HA & VA. At roller support E, there is only one reaction VE.
H = 0 gives HA = 540 kN

1
I

x x x

V= 0 gives the sum of the vertical reactions equal to zero. ME = 0 gives

Therefore, the reactions VA & VE will be equal & opposite as shown

VAx3 = 540x6

...
: .

VA=1080kNL V = 1080 kN I E '

Determination of internal forces

. :

2.4 tan 8 = -= 1 2.4

: .

8 = 45'

1 sin 8 = cos 8 = -- 0.707

6-

Again, $ = L BAE = L DEA

cos $ =

-=

0.2425

Inti-aduction to Structural Mechdmics

At Joint A, assuming both members (4) & (6) in tension

C V = o gives N4 sin I$ + N~ sin 6 = VA

: 0.9702 N4 + 0.707 N6 = 1080 .

C H=OgivesNq~~~$+N6~~~O=HA
0.2425 N4 + 0.707 N6 = 540 Solving (a) and (b), we get N4 = 742 kN (tension)
& N6 = 509 kN (tension)

At Joint E, assuming member (5) in compression and member (7) in tension, H = 0 gives N7cos0=NScosI$

: .

0.707 N7 = 0.2425 N j =

: .

N7 = 0.343 N5

...(c)

V= 0 gives,

N5sinI$=N7sinO+VE Ns x 0.9702 = N7 x 0.707 + 1080 N x 0.9702 = 0.343 x 0.707 N5 + 1080 g 0.970 Ns = 0.243 N5 + 1080

. :

N5 = 1485 kN (compression) N7 = 509 kN (tension)

At Joint B, assuming member (I) in tension and member (3) in compression, V = o gives,

N1 sin$-N4sin$ -N7sinO=0

: .

0.9702 N1 - 742 x 0.9702 - 509 x 0.707 = 0

: . : .

0.9702 N1 = 720 + 360 = 1080 N1 = 1113 kN (tension)

C H = o gives,
N3 -N1 ens$+ N4cos$-N7cos 0 = O : N3 = (1113 - 742) 0.2425 + 509 x 0.707 .
= 371 x 0.2425 + 509 x 0.707 = 90+360=450

: .

N3 = 450 kN (compression)

At Joint D, assuming member (2) in compression

C H = O gives,

: N2 = 1113 kN (compression) .
Check

At Joint C, ~H=(N~+N~)cos~-~~o
= (1113 + 1113) 0.2425 - 540 = 2226 x 0.2425 - 540 = 540-540~0

O.K.

SAQ 2

5 5 kN

55 kN

Calculation of Reactions

H = o gives,

V = 0 gives,

Determination of forces In members DE(1) and DC(2) by method ofsections

Consider section a-a crossing members DE (1). DC (2) & AC (3) and the free-body of the part-frame to the right of the section line revealing the forces N1, N2& N3 assumed to be in tension. Taking moments of all forces acting on the part-frame to the right of section a-a, about C, we get 20x4-55x2+IV1 ~ 2 6 ~ 0 N1 = + 5 6 = 5 6 k N tension Now, resolveg all forces acting on the right part in the vertical direction,

V = o gives,

; .

N - + 7 0 - 1 0tension ~
2-

F-6

Figure 10.27

b) Calculation of Reactions Since there are no external horizontal forces acting on the truss, HI,, 0 =

ML, o gives, =
Vb>c24=(2~4)+(3~8)+(4x16)+(6~20)

: .

VL0= 9 rn V = 0 gives,

V L o + V L , = 6 + 4 + 3 + 2 =15

: .

V4=15-9=61rN

Determination of forces in members

U2U3(I), U &

(2)& L2L3(3)

Draw section a-a crossing the members (I), (2) & (3) and consider the equilibrium of the free-body of the frame to the left of the section revealing the internal forces N1,N2 & N3 assumed to be in tension.
Force N3

Taking moments of all forces acting on the left-part about U2, we get 9x8-6x4-N3x6=0
: ,

N3 = + 8 kN tension

Force N1

tan 8 = - = 4; sin 8 = 0.97; cos 8 = 0.2425

Taking moments of all forces acting on the left part about L3,

4 1 A h = U3 h sin 8 = 7 x 0.97 = 6.79 m

Plane Trusses

Force N2

From Figure 19.26,it carn be seen bat lines L -6: h U3 U2meet at G . OC is drawn j perpe~dicular &U2.PJso U2B is drzv~n to perpendiculu to U3L3. From proportiorral triangles OU3& & U2U3B, get we

: .

sin I$ = 0.835& ccs 4 = 0.555

Now, taking moments of all rorces acting on the left-parr about 0, we get N 2 ~ A C + 4 ~ 2 4 + 6 ~ 2 0 -= ~ 1 6 9O

= 3.08 kN (compression)

Check Considering equilibrium of the left part

~ ~ = 9 - 6 - 4 + ~ ~ c o s ~ - ~ s i n g

= 9 - 6 - 4 - 6.48 x 0.2425 + 3 0 x 0.835 .8

=9-6-4- 1 5 + 2 5 .7 .7 =-1 -1.57+2.57=0

SAQ 3

a)

For the sake of convenience, the truss is shown in Figure 1 . 8(a). 02

(a) Space Diagram

Intmduction to Stmctural Mechanics

(b) Maxwell Diagram

Rgure 10.28

Figure 10.28 (a) shows the space diagram with spaces marked a to f starting with a & b on either side of known vertical load at C , c on the right space of known vertical load at E and finally the spaces d , e, f for the triangular portions. The Maxwell diagram is commenced with known external forces a7f (10 kN) and @ (10 drawn to a suitable scale. Looking at joint E, lines bd and cd are drawn in the Maxwell diagram parallel to members CE and DE. These two lines will meet at d . Then coming to joint D, lines de and ce are drawn in the Maxwell diagram parallel to members CD and BD respectively. These two lines will intersect at point e . Finally at joint C, lines ef and af are drawn parallel to members AC & BC respectively. These two lines will meet at point f . Now the Maxwell diartram is ~ 0 m ~ l e t eThe magnitude of internal forces in members can d. be scaled off and the iature of the-force can be ghged by moving round every joint in a clockwise direction. The results are indicated below in Table 10.3.
Table 10.3
Member CE ED ~ o r (kN) d 25 (tension) 28 (compression) 10 (tension) 25 (compression) 14 (compression) 42 (tension)

CD BD

The reader is advised to check the above values by method of joints. b) Figure 10.29 is again represented below in Figure 10.29 (a) for convenience of explanation.

(a) Space Diagram

scale

0.7

ib) Maxwell Diagram

Figure 10.29

Figure 10.29 (a) shows the space diagram with spaces marked cs to h as shown. The reactions at two supports A & D have already been calculated earlier. They are v A = 3 k ~ I. H A = 3 k ~ andt v D = 3 k ~ ? . ' The Maxwell diagram can be started at any joint where not more than two unknown internal forces have lo be determined. Let us start with joint A where there are two unknown forces NAB& NACand two known forces V = 3 kN I' and HA = 3 kN t A The Maxwell diagram can be started by drawing the forces & (= VA = 3 kN I') and . (= HA = 3 kN t) the force polygon to a suitable scale. Through a and d draw lines d in parallel to members AB and AC to meet at f. Now, looking at joint B , Nm =@and external d load of 6 kN = i are known. Through h and fin the force polygon, draw lines parallel to members BC and BD to meet at g. Then coming to joint C , NBC= 8 and external load of -3 3 kN = bc are known. Through c and 8, draw lines parallel to lnemers CD and CA to meet at h. Finally j o u ~ and d and check that line hd is parallel to member BD. The Maxwell h diagram has thus been completed. The magnitude of internal forces in the members can be ~caled and the nature of the forces be found by moving round every joint in a clockwise off direction. The results are indicated in Table 10.4 and can be compared with those obtained by method of joints and shown in Table 10.1.
Table 10.4

Member

Force (kN) 2 2.80 (compression) 13.30 (Lcnsion) 14.70 (compression) 08.60 (comprebsion)

II I I
i

06.80 (tension)