Design and evaluation of a directional algorithm for

transmission-line protection based on positive-

sequence fault components
H. Gao and P.A. Crossley
Abstract: A directional relay algorithm for EHV transmission lines using positive-sequence fault
components is presented. By comparing the phase relationship between the voltage and current
measured at the relay point, the algorithm can determine correctly whether a fault is in the forward
or backward direction. Specially designed techniques and logic are adopted to solve the difcult
problems that exist in a real system. The signal-processing procedure for extracting the required
fault components is provided in detail. Extensive simulation studies were conducted on a 500kV
system model using EMTDC. Theoretical analysis and simulation results show that the proposed
algorithm provides adequate sensitivity, reliability and a fast operating response under a variety of
system and fault conditions. In addition, it provides signicant advantages over conventional
directional relays, and these are discussed in the paper.
1 Introduction
Directional-comparison protection is the most common
type of pilot relaying scheme used on EHV transmission
lines. The directional relays, used in the scheme, normally
operate using the negative- or zero-sequence components or
the compensated post-fault voltages [1, 2]. These relays are
generally reliable, but have inherent drawbacks, such as
their inability to respond to all types of fault and their slow
operating time. To reduce the operating time, directional
relays based on the fault-generated high-frequency signals
(travelling waves) have been proposed [35]. Such relays are
able to achieve an ultra-high-speed response (quarter of a
cycle), but the uncertainty of the travelling waves makes
them difcult to apply on a real network. How to design a
reliable, high-speed directional relay is an important goal
for protection engineers. This requires the selection of the
appropriate power-frequency components and the use of
fast digital ltering algorithms [610].
A new directional-relay algorithm based on positive-
sequence fault components (PSFC) is proposed in this
paper. PSFC has inherent advantages in identifying fault
direction when compared with techniques based on
fundamental-frequency components. This includes im-
proved sensitivity, enhanced reliability and faster operating
times. This paper starts with the concept of PSFC, then
describes in detail the operating principle of the algorithm,
and nally presents a variety of EMTDC based simulation
results obtained on a typical 500kV system model.
2 Concept of positive-sequence fault components
The principle of symmetrical components, applied to the
forward fault F
1
on the line shown in Fig. 1, is used to
develop the positive-sequence composite network shown in
Fig. 2a. Where Z
M1
, Z
L1
, Z
N1
are the positive sequence
impedances of the source M, the line and the source-N, and
DZ
1
is a fault-type-related impedance. The circuit shown in
Fig. 2b is the equivalent network of Fig. 2a, where
_
U
F
is
the prefault voltage at the fault point. By applying the
superposition principle to Fig. 2b, the PSFC network (the
fault-generated state) can be derived [6], as shown in Fig. 2c.
Similarly, the PSFC network for a backward fault (F2) is
shown in Fig. 2d. The term
_
U
F
is called the fault-source
voltage, which is opposite to the prefault voltage at the fault
point. Both the voltages and the currents in the above
PSFC networks are so-called positive sequence fault
components, which have following features:
(a) exist for any type of fault;
(b) are independent of load conditions;
(c) the highest voltage is seen at the fault point , and is zero
at the system neutral; and
(d) the phase relationship between voltage and current at
the relay point is determined only by the positive
sequence impedance between the relay location and the
system neutral.
These unique features make positive-sequence fault compo-
nents suitable for use in protective relaying, especially
directional protection.
~ ~
Relay M N
1
F
2
F
Fig. 1 Diagram of transmission system E-mail: houlei.gao@qub.ac.uk
H. Gao is with the School of Electrical Engineering, Shandong University,
Jinan, 250061, China
P.A. Crossley is with the School of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, Queens
University of Belfast, Belfast, BT9 5AH, UK
r The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2006
IEE Proceedings online no. 20050379
doi:10.1049/ip-gtd:20050379
Paper rst received 23rd August 2005 and in nal revised form 1st March 2006
IEE Proc.-Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 153, No. 6, November 2006 711
3 Operating principle
3.1 Basic directional criteria
For a forward fault, and with reference to Fig. 2c, the
voltage at the relay location is
_
U
1

_
I
1
Z
M1
1
For a backward fault, the voltage is
_
U
1

_
I
1
Z
L1
Z
N1
2
Since the positive-sequence impedances are predominantly
reactive, the phase relationships between voltage and
current at the relay location are
arg
_
U
1
_
I
1

90

or 270

for forward fault

90

for backward fault

3
If we now consider the errors involved in the measuring
process and the sensitivity of the relay, the directional
criterion for a forward fault is designed as
180

yoarg
_
U
1
_
I
1
o360

y 4
and, for a backward fault,
yoarg
_
U
1
_
I
1
o180

y 5
where y is called the blocking angle. Obviously, if y is 01,
the criteria will have highest sensitivity or largest operating
region, but may fail to identify the fault direction when the
phase difference between
_
U
1
and
_
I
1
is near 01 or 1801. To
prevent the relay from maloperation, the blocking angle is
set as 0

oyo30

. The setting for y will be decided by the

real conditions of the relay and the power system it protects.
The typical setting is 101. The operating characteristic of the
criteria is shown in Fig. 3.
According to the features of the PSFC, the above
directional criteria have the following advantages over
conventional directional relays: they are suitable for any
type of fault, are not affected by load and fault resistance,
have no voltage dead zone for close-up faults and can hold
their fault direction decision stably.
3.2 Special problems and solutions
Two types of directional-comparison pilot-protection
schemes based on the directional criteria in (4) and (5)
were applied on the Chinese 220kV and 500kV transmis-
sion networks in 2002 [11, 12]. The operating results show
that the criteria can provide adequate sensitivity and
reliability for most of the fault cases. Unfortunately, in
February 2004, one of the protection schemes maloperated
during an internal fault on the 150km line between
Chayuan and Zaijintang. The directional relay at Chayuan
Substation failed to detect the forward fault due to the small
magnitude of
_
U
1
. This and other similar difcult cases can
be summarised as follows:
(i) If source M is strong (low impedance) and a forward
fault is located near the remote end of a long line,
_
U
1
will be
too small to provide correct phase comparison.
(ii) If source M is weak (high impedance) and the fault is
both forward and remote,
_
I
1
will be too small to provide
correct phase comparison.
(iii) For some high resistance faults, both
_
U
1
and
_
I
1
may be
inadequate for correct phase comparison.
To solve problem (i), we use a compensated voltage
_
U
0
1
to
replace
_
U
1
in (4) and (5).
_
U
0
1
is designed as
_
U
0
1

_
U
1

_
I
1
Z
c
6
where Z
c
is a compensation impedance in phase with Z
M1
.
For a forward fault with small Z
M1
, the compensated
voltage is
_
U
0
1

_
I
1
Z
M1
Z
c
7
If Z
c
is sufciently large,
_
U
0
1
can hold a phase angle which is
approximately 2701 leading
_
I
1
, i.e. it ensures correct phase
Operating region
for
backward faults
Operating region
for
forward faults
2
2
+ j
1
I
.
Fig. 3 Operating characteristic of the directional criteria
1
F
1 M
Z
1 L
xZ
1 N
Z
1
Z
1
) 1 (
L
Z x
1 M
E
1 N
E
1 M
Z
1
F
1 N
Z
1
Z
1
) 1 (
L
Z x
1 M
E
1 N
E
F
U
.
F
U
.

1 L
xZ
1 M
Z
1 N
Z
1
U
.
.
1
I
.
1
F
1
) 1 (
L
Z x
1 L
xZ
1
Z
F
U

2
F
F
U
.

1
U
.
1
I
.
1 M
Z
1 L
Z
1 N
Z
1
Z
a
b
c
d
Fig. 2 Decomposition of positive sequence network
712 IEE Proc.-Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 153, No. 6, November 2006
comparison. For a backward fault, the compensated
voltage is
_
U
0
1

_
I
1
Z
L1
Z
N1
Z
c
8
To ensure correct directional detection in this case, Z
c
must
satisfy
Z
c
oZ
L1
Z
N1
9
Hence, to ensure appropriate relay sensitivity for both
forward and backward faults, Z
c
is taken as 0.5 Z
L1
. So (6)
becomes
_
U
0
1

_
U
1
0:5
_
I
1
Z
L1
10
The phase relationship between
_
U
1
,
_
U
0
1
and
_
I
1
is shown as
Fig. 4a. Figure 4b shows how the method operates correctly
when
_
U
1
has a small magnitude and the wrong phase
relationship with
_
I
1
for a forward fault.
To cope with problems (ii) and (iii), we use magnitude
comparison instead of phase comparison. The compensated
voltage
_
U
00
1
is dened as
_
U
00
1

_
U
1

_
I
1
Z
0
c
11
where Z
0
c
is a compensation impedance in phase with Z
M1
.
For a forward fault, the compensated voltage is
_
U
00
1

_
I
1
Z
M1
Z
0
c
12
If Z
0
c
is sufciently large, the magnitude relationship
between
_
U
00
1
and
_
U
1
is
j
_
U
00
1
j4j
_
U
1
j 13
For a backward fault, the compensated voltage is
_
U
00
1

_
I
1
Z
L1
Z
N1
Z
0
c
14
Comparing (14) with (2), if Z
0
c
is less than 2Z
L1
Z
N1
,
then
j
_
U
00
1
joj
_
U
1
j 15
To meet the requirements of both (13) and (15), Z
0
c
is taken
as Z
L1
. Hence (11) becomes
_
U
00
1

_
U
1

_
I
1
Z
L1
16
The magnitude relationship between
_
U
1
and
_
U
00
1
is shown as
Fig. 5a. Figure 5b shows that the method works well when
_
I
1
has small magnitude and the wrong phase relationship
with
_
U
1
for a forward fault.
3.3 Practical operating logic and criteria
Combining the basic criteria with the techniques to solve the
problems created by inadequate voltage and/or current, the
practical operating logic and the corresponding directional
criteria for the proposed relay are shown in Table 1.
Here U
min1
, I
min1
are the minimum thresholds (start-up
values) of
_
U
1
and
_
I
1
, and U
min 2
, I
min 2
are the second
thresholds of
_
U
1
and
_
I
1
, at which
_
U
1
and
_
I
1
are just able to
perform correct phase comparison. Basically, the settings
for U
min 2
and I
min 2
are based on the resolutions of the CT,
the PT and the A/D used in the relay scheme. The settings
for the minimum thresholds are based on the random
outputs from the extracting process of the fault components
(discussed in Section 4) seen during frequency variations or
power-system normal operating conditions. According to
our test results and the data analysis for the trial
maloperation, the practical settings for these thresholds
are selected as U
min 1
0:5 $ 1:5 V, I
min 1
0:1 $ 0:2I
n
,
U
min 2
2 $ 3U
min1
and I
min2
3 $ 5I
min 1
, where I
n
is
the rated secondary current of the CT.
4 Extraction of fault components
The fault component is dened as the fault-generated
voltage or current. This is the difference between the voltage
or current during the fault and the prefault voltage or
current, respectively. The signal-processing procedure for
the proposed algorithm is as follows.
1
I
1
U
1
U
1
U
1
U
.
'
'
'
.
1
I
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
5 . 0
+ j
forward fault forward faults
backward faults
I Z
L

1
U
1
U
a b
Fig. 4 The phasor diagrams for
_
U
1
and
_
U
0
1
a Phase relationships
b Method operating correctly
1
+1
I
1
U
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
U
1
U
backward faults
forward faults
forward fault
1
U
1
U

1
U
1
I
1
I Z
L

a b
Fig. 5 The phasor diagrams for
_
U
1
and
_
U
00
1
a Magnitude relationship
b Method operating correctly
Table 1: Practical operating logic and corresponding criteria
Conditions
j
_
U
1
j ! U
min2
and j
_
I
1
j ! I
min2
U
min1
j
_
U
1
joU
min2
and j
_
I
1
j ! I
min 2
I
min1
j
_
I
1
jI
min2
and j
_
U
1
j !
U
min1
Directional
criteria
180

y arg
_
U
1
_
I
1
360

y !forward fault 180

y arg
_
U
0
1
_
I
1
360

y !forward fault
j
_
U
00
1
j4j
_
U
1
j !forward fault
y arg
_
U
1
_
I1
180

y ! backward fault
y arg
_
U
0
1
_
I
1
180

y !backward fault
j
_
U
00
1
joj
_
U
1
j !backward fault
Notes 0

oyo30

oyo30
_
U
0
1

_
U
1
0:5
_
I
1
Z
L1
_
U
00
1

_
U
1

_
I
1
Z
L1
IEE Proc.-Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 153, No. 6, November 2006 713
Step 1:
Equation (17) is used to extract the fault component
samples for each phase:
x
fk
x
k
x
k2N
x
k2N
x
k4N
17
where x
k
is the present voltage or current sample; N is the
number of samples in one power-frequency cycle; x
fk
is the
extracted fault component sample; and k is the sample
number, 0,1,2yetc.
After fault inception, this algorithm is able to provide
two cycles of fault component data, which includes the DC
offset, harmonics and the steady-state fault component. In
addition, it can reduce the unbalanced output efciently
during a frequency disturbance or power swing; this is
particularly benecial if a fault instigates a power swing or
occurs during one.
Step 2:
The full-cycle DFT algorithm is used to extract the steady-
state fault components for each phase, this can be described
mathematically as:
_
X
f

2
p
N

N1
k0
x
fk
cos
2p
N
k

j

N1
k0
x
fk
sin
2p
N
k


18
where,
_
X
f
is the estimated fundamental-frequency fault
components of voltage or current during the present data
window.
Step 3:
Equation (19) is used to calculate the required positive
sequence fault components,
_
U
1
and
_
I
1
_
X
1

1
3

_
X
fa
e
j120

_
X
fb
e
j240

_
X
fc
19
where,
_
X
fa
;
_
X
fb
and
_
X
fc
are the fundamental frequency
fault components of the phase a, b and c voltage or current
obtained from step 2.
5 Simulation results and analysis
To evaluate the performance of the proposed algorithm,
many simulations were carried out using the EMTDC
package. The simulated model is a typical Chinese 500kV
transmission line, as shown in Fig. 6, and the relay was
applied at bus M.
The power frequency of the model system is 50Hz, the
phase difference between source M and N is 201 and the
ratios of the PTs and CTs are 500kV/100V and 1250A/5A
respectively. The secondary data from the PTs and CTs are
used to perform the simulation. An analogue antialiasing
lter (low-pass Butterworth lter) with a cut-off frequency
of 300Hz is applied to each signal channel used in the
model. The sampling frequency is 800Hz and a full-cycle
DFT is used to estimate the fundamental-frequency
components. In all the simulation studies, fault inception
was set at t 0.2s. The required parameters used in the
directional criteria are: y201, U
min1
0.5V, I
min1
0.2A,
U
min2
1.5V, I
min 2
1A.
5.1 Responses for forward faults
Figure 7 shows a typical operating response for a forward
AG fault at F
1
with 15O resistance in the fault path. The
primary voltage and current waveforms of the faulted phase
are shown in Fig. 7a. The fault-component voltage and
current extracted using (17) are shown in Fig. 7b. Figure 7c
and d show the magnitudes of
_
U
1
and
_
I
1
and their phase
difference based on a full-cycle DFT algorithm for two
cycles after fault inception. As expected, one cycle is
required for the estimated magnitudes and phases to reach a
stable value, but the phase difference begins to satisfy the
operating condition (4) half a cycle after fault inception.
Simulation results for various forward faults show that the
relay detects all types of forward fault successfully within
811ms.
5.2 Responses for backward faults
Figure 8 shows a typical operating response for a backward
AG fault at F
3
with 15O fault resistance. The phase
difference between
_
U
1
and
_
I
1
begins to satisfy operation
condition (5) half a cycle after fault inception. Other
simulation results show that the backward looking relay
detects all types of backward fault successfully within
812ms.
5.3 Responses for high-resistance-faults
Figure 9 shows the operating response for a forward
BG fault at F
1
with 300O fault resistance. When Fig. 9a is
compared with Fig. 7c, the magnitudes of both
_
U
1
and
_
I
1
can be seen to have decreased signicantly. Since j
_
I
1
j is less
than 1A, the directional criterion based on magnitude
comparison is applied to the decision process. According to
Table 1, the relay provides a correct and fast forward
response for this high-resistance fault (see Fig. 9b).
The response to a backward BG fault at F
3
with 300O
fault resistance is shown in Fig. 10. The relay also provides
a correct and fast reverse response.
5.4 Responses for different system
conditions
This simulation study was used to investigate the inuence
of source impedance on the relay. Figure 11 shows the
response to a remote forward AG fault at F
2
with Z
M1
of
10O (i.e. source M is relatively strong). In this case, the
magnitude of
_
U
1
is smaller than 1.5V half a cycle after fault
inception, so the phase difference between
_
U
0
1
and
_
I
1
is used
to make the directional decision. As shown in Fig. 11b,
the phase difference satises the forward-fault criterion
correctly [200

oarg
_
U
0
1
=
_
I
1
o340

]. Figure 12 shows the

~ ~
M Relay N
300km
170km 100km
3
F
2
F
1
F
Fig. 6 Simulated transmission system
System parameters:
Z
m1
1:05 j43:18 O
Z
m0
j29:09 O
Z
n1
1:06 j 44:92 O
Z
n0
j37:47 O
Line parameters:
R
1
0:021 O/km
R
0
0:115 O/km
L
1
0:898 mH/km
L
0
2:289 mH/km
C
1
0:013 mF/km
C
0
0:005 mF/km
714 IEE Proc.-Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 153, No. 6, November 2006
response to the same fault but with Z
M1
of 160O (i.e. source
M is relatively weak). In this case, since the magnitude of
_
I
1
is smaller than 1A half a cycle after fault inception, the fault
direction is determined by magnitude comparison. It can be
seen from Fig. 12b that the fault direction is correctly
identied within half a cycle.
5.5 Response for fault with power swing
This simulation study is used to investigate the relays ability
to detect fault direction during a power swing. Figure 13
shows the response of the relay to a forward AG fault at F
1
during a power swing ( frequency difference between source
M and N is 1Hz). Figure 13a shows the swing phenomena
of the primary three-phase currents and Fig. 13b the
extracted three-phase fault-component currents. The results
indicate that the proposed fault-component-extracting
algorithm can reduce the unbalanced outputs signicantly
in the steady state and extract the required fault
components effectively during the rst two cycles after fault
inception. Figure 13c and d indicate that the relay is able to
provide satisfactory response to a fault that occurs during a
power swing. Other simulation studies have shown that the
maximum acceptable frequency difference between sources
M and N is 1.6Hz, i.e. the relay has an appropriate level of
immunity to the effects of a power swing.
Fig. 7 Operating response for a forward AG fault at F
1
a Primary voltage and current
b Secondary fault components
c Magnitudes of PSFC
d Phase difference
e Forward relay signal
Fig. 8 Operating response for a backward AG fault at F
3
a Primary voltage and current
b Secondary fault components
c Magnitudes of PSFC
d Phase difference
e Backward relay signal
IEE Proc.-Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 153, No. 6, November 2006 715
5.6 Responses for other fault types
In addition to single-phase-to-earth faults, all other types of
fault were investigated using the simulation. All the results
here shown that the algorithm can work correctly under
realistic fault conditions. Figure 14 displays three typical
cases.
6 Other considerations
6.1 Fault detecting[12], [13]
As any disturbance can cause fault components, a fault
detector is necessary to activate the proposed directional
algorithm. Equation (20) shows a practical fault-detection
method. When any three successive samples satisfy the
equation, a fault will be indicated immediately:
i
k
i
kN
j j i
kN
i
k2N
j j j j ! 0:2I
n
20
where i
k
is the present current sample; N is the number of
samples in one power frequency cycle; k is the sample
number, 0, 1, 2yetc., and I
n
is the rated current of the
protected line.
Disturbances, such as load change, loss of excitation or
switching operations, may cause system frequency deviation
or power swing. Investigation study showed that, if the
frequency deviation is within 3Hz, the maximum unba-
lanced output of the detector is less than 0.15 I
n
. For the
situation of power swing, if the frequency difference
between two terminals is within 1.8Hz, the detector can
maintain stability for most cases, so the proposed detection
algorithm has adequate stability under normal conditions
and disturbances. However, it may operate falsely as a
result of serious frequency deviations or power swings,
which can be solved by adding a oating threshold [12].
6.2 Faulted phase identication
The proposed scheme cannot identify the faulted phase.
Therefore, if single-phase autoreclosing needs to be
implemented, a additional faulted phase selector must
be used. A fault-component-based algorithm can be used
to cope with this problem. This algorithm compares
the amplitudes of the following fault components of
Fig. 9 Response for a forward BG fault at F
1
with fault resistance
of 300O
a Magnitudes of PSFC
b Magnitude comparison
Fig. 10 Response for a backward BG fault at F
3
with fault
resistance of 300O
a Magnitudes of PSFC
b Magnitude comparison
Fig. 11 Response for a remote forward AG fault (F
2
) with
strong source M
a Magnitudes of PSFC
b Phase difference
Fig. 12 Response for a remote forward AG fault (F
2
) with weak
source M
a Magnitudes of PSFC
b Magnitudes comparison
716 IEE Proc.-Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 153, No. 6, November 2006
phase-current differences:
D
_
I
A

_
I
B

D
_
I
C

_
I
A

D
_
I
B

_
I
C

21
For a case of phase earth fault, the comparison result will be
D
_
I
A

_
I
B

D
_
I
C

_
I
A

; D
_
I
B

_
I
C

0 22
The three increments shown in (21) can be extracted by (18).
This algorithm has been proved very effective [6].
6.3 Negative and zero-sequence
components
Negative- and zero-sequence components have been used in
traditional directional relays for many years. Each of them
can identify fault directions for certain types of faults. To
enhance the reliability of the directional-protection scheme
on asymmetrical phasephase or earth faults, both negative-
and zero sequence component-based schemes could be used
as a back up for the PSFC-based scheme.
7 Conclusions
The design and operating performance of a directional
algorithm based on the PSFC have been described in
this paper. Combining the basic principle of this algorithm
with the operating experience on several real networks,
the paper provides an integrated solution for detecting the
direction to a fault. Theoretical analysis and simulation
results conrm that the proposed relay algorithm has
signicant advantages over more traditional directional-
relaying techniques.
First, it is suitable for all types of fault, including high-
resistance faults, and is not affected by the load or the low-
voltage dead zone seen with close-up faults. Secondly, it
has an operating time of typically half a cycle though the
full-cycle DFT is used to estimate fundamental frequency
components. Thirdly, it has adequate sensitivity and
reasonable immunity to the effect of power swings.
Moreover, it can detect all types of faults reliably on long
or short lines and is not affected by the strength of the
sources.
Consequently, the proposed algorithm is inherently
suitable for use in a directional-comparison pilot-protection
scheme for EHV transmission lines.
8 Acknowledgments
This research was funded by the Scientist Research
Foundation of Shandong Province, China. The authors
thank Shandong University and Queens University Belfast
for their support.
Fig. 13 Response for a forward AG fault at F
1
with power swing
(Df 1Hz)
a Primary current
b Secondary-fault component currents
c Magnitudes of PSFC
d Phase difference
Fig. 14 Phase-difference responses for non-single phase-to-earth
faults at F
1
and F
2
a Forward AB fault
b Forward ABC fault
c Backward ABG fault
IEE Proc.-Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 153, No. 6, November 2006 717
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