A Snapshot To Computer Application in Management

MBA-I Semester (Batch: 2009-2011)

By: Mr. Tanmay Pattanayak

Detailed Syllabus (Unit1)

Unit I Basics of Computer and its evolution Evolution of computer, Data, Instruction and Information, Characteristics of computers, Various fields of application of computers, Various fields of computer (Hardware, Software), Advantages and Limitations of computer, Block diagram of computer, Function of different units of computer, Classification of computers i) On the basis of technology (Digital, Analog and Hybrid) ii) On the basis of processing speed and storage capacity (Micro, Mini, mainframe and Super),

Different Generation of computers (I to V), Types of software (System and Application)

Brief History About Computers

Prior to the Industrial Revolution Computers were used only for Scientific Researches. Their potential was first recognized during the world war by US ARMY to keep track of the movement of arms. Following the Industrial revolution people started using computers for commercial purposes. Then different branches of engineering come up. Among them one such engineering technology i.e., Information Technology (IT) . This demand led to a revolution in the industry of IT, keeping in mind the need of modern era which believed in quick storage and retrieval of information at any point of time. By which an effective and efficient working environment developed.

What is a Computer?
Definition: It is an electronic data processing device which is used to generate information.

What is Data?
Whatever input we are giving to the computer through keyboard is known as Data.

Data Types:
1. Character :
Which includes all the alphabets like (A-Z), (a-z) and any special

character like (-,$,%,^,&,*,(,),!,@,# etc.).

2. Numeric: Which inculdes all the digits starts from (0---9). 3. Alphanumeric:
E001 It is the combination of alphabets as well as numeric. Ex.

What is Information?

Whatever the result we are getting out of the computer after processing is called information. OR Processed data is called Information.

Characteristics of Data:
It is unlogical It is not processed

Characteristics of Information:
It is logical It is processed

So on the basis of our definition, computer is devided into 3 main blocks. Input Process Output

What is Instruction? Instruction is specifying what must be done by the computer. Example : Basic Sal DA = 5000 = 500 = HRA = 750 Basic Salary +DA+HRA

Gross salary

Charcteristics of Computer:
Deligent : It can work up to unlimited time without taking any rest. It can repeat a task N no. times without degrading the processing speed of the computer. Speed: Its processing speed is very fast. Accuracy: correctly. Versatality: Computer can be used in many fields like education, engineering, Medical, Defence. It provides accurate results if the data and instructions are entered

Storage: It can store huge amount of data in a particular area.

Manual Storage System Electronic

Manual Vs. Electronic Storage Systems:

We store information in our day to day lives in files, notebooks and diaries. storage is the Manual Storage System. The same can be stored in a much more organised way in the computer which help us to easy and quick retreival of information. This storage is known as Electronic Storage System. This

Manual Filing System Accounts Deptt. File Personal Deptt. Emp. File

Electronic Filing System Accounts Deptt. Personal Dept . Emp.

Computer

NO I.Q : The computer has no intellegence of its own. machine. Applications of Computer: Business Education

The user has to give

instruction what and when to do a particular task. So overall a computer is an idle

Graphics Meterology Science

Various Fields of Computer:

Software Hardware

Software:
Set of programs form a Software Set of Instructions is known as Program.

Hardware:
The physical part of the computer is known as Hardware Ex. Keyboard, Mouse, Printer etc.

Advantages of Computer:
Perform repetitive tasks Generate accurate Information Work at constant speed and efficiency Are used in almost every field Effective and efficient data storage and retreival

Limitations of Computers:
Dependent upon human beings.

Having no imagination of its own

Task has to be described in detail.

COMPLETE BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER

STORAGE DEVICE

DATA AND INSTRUCTION MEMORY UNPROCESSED DATA INPUT DEVICE

OUTPUT

(PROCESSED DATA) CONTROL UNIT OUTPUT DEVICE

A.L.U

Functions of different units of a computer:

Input Unit : Data and instructions must enter to the computer system before any computation can be performed on the supplied data. This task is performed by the input unit that links the external environment with the computer system.

Functions of Input Unit :

It accepts the set of instructions and data from the external software. It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable form i.e, in the form of binary language.

 It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further processing.

Output Unit : The function of an output unit is just the reverse as that of an
input unit. It supplies information and results of computation to the outside world. Thus it links the computer with external environement.

Functions of Output Unit :

It accepts the results produced by the computer which are in coded form and hence cannot be understood by us It converts these coded results to human acceptable form. It produces the converted results to the external environment.

CPU (CU +

ALU +

Memory)

CU (Control unit):
This is the core part of the computer. Basically it controls the funtions of each and individual unit that conects to a compute sytem. It perform the following functions: It acts as a central nervous system for all the compenents. It manages and coordinates entire computer system It obtains instructions from the program stored in memory interprets the instructions and issues signals to other units to execute them.

ALU (Arithmatic and Logic Unit)

All the arithmatical and logical function is being performed by this unit.

Functions:
Execution of instruction takes : Actual place in this unit.

 ALUs are designed to perform the four basic arithmatic operations equal to (or) greater than etc.

- add,

subtract, multiplay, divide and logic opertions (or) comparisions such as less than,

Memory Unit:
The data and instructions that are entered into the computer system need to store before the actual processing starts. At the same time it need to store the final result before releasing through a output device.

Functions:
It stores all the data to the processed and the instructions required for processing. It stores intermediate results of processing. It stores final results of processing before these results and released to an output device.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Basically computers are classified into two broad catagories: a) b) On the basis of input. On the basis of Processing Speed and storage capacity. On the Basis of Input: On the basis of input, that we are giving to the computers, there are again three types.

I.

a)

DIGITAL COMPUTERS : In our day to day life we are using digital computers. It measures digital data and performs arithmatic and logical operations on such data. It deals with binary (0,1) language. It takes descrete input which is not contineous. It is based on two states. 0 1 l l OFF ON l l

0 Example : PCs

b)

ANALOG COMPUTERS : A Computer which measures contineously changing conditions such as voltage, temperature, pressure and converts them into quantities. It is based on contineous input. These computers are used in scientific, engineering and medical fields.

C)

HYBRID COMPUTERS : Computer Systems that combine features of both analog and digital computers. Otherwise it is known as anadigi computer. Basically it is used in large production plant, chemical units etc. where there is a requirement of both analog and digital unit.

II.

On the basis of Processing Speed and Storage Capacity. Micro Computers : Micro computers are the smallest comuters systems. All personal Computers are micro computers. The micro computer CPU is a micro processor. The micro processor manufactured by a company named Intel Corporation was extensively used in micro computers. Example : Intel PI, PII, PIII. etc.

a)

b)

Mini Computers: These are also small general purpose systems, but unlike micros they typically serve multiple users. Such systems are called multi user systems. These computers have higher processing Speed storage capacity and expensive in comparision to Micros. It is used in large business house, manufacturing unit where a large no. of data has to be handled by various people. Example : VAX by Digital Equipment Corporation. MC 68000 series by MOTOROLA.

c)

Mainframe Computer : Mainframe computers can process several million instructions per second. Mainframes are mainly used by insurance companies, banks, airline and railway reservation systems etc. These are also multiuser systems. Example : S/390 by IBM

d)

Super Computers: These are the most powerful computers among all. These computers are designed to process scientific jobs like weather forecasting artifical intellegence research, defence etc. One of the Super Computer available in Indian Army is called PARAM. Example : CRAY I, CRAY II- CRAY Research Incorporation.

Generations of Computer: Generation in computer means a step in technology which enables the growth of the computer Industry. till date. I Generation Computers (1945 1955) : that could control and amplify electronic Signals. Example : ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC 1 Advantages : Vaccume tubes were the only electronic components available during those days through which the advent of digital computer made possible. Disadvantages : I generation computer used around 1700 vaccume tubes, weighed 30 tons and occupied a area of a big hall. Thousands of vaccume tube were emitted large amount of heat and burnt out frequently. Air conditioning required. Non portable. Constant maintenance required. Commercial production was different and costly. Limited comercial use. The main compenent used inside I Basically the termGeneration was used to distinguish between various hardware technologies. There are totally 5 generations in computer

generation computer was Vaccum Tube (or) Valve which was a fragile glass device

II Generation Computers (1955 1965) : 1/50th of a valve, perform better. Advantages : Smaller in size. Better processing speed Better portability More reliable Wider commercial use. Reduced manufacturing cost Disadvantages : Air conditioning required. Frequently maintenance required. Example : IBM 7000 Services, IBM 1620 III Generation Computers (1965 1970) :

The successor for the I generation is about

computer was transistor which is a tiny semi conduction device, size

III generation computer was based on Ics (Integrated circuit) - Technology which is a small silicon chip consists of no. of electronic components. Advantages : Smaller in size as compred to previous generation computers. Better Processing Speed. Less power consumption. Widly used as commercial purchase all the world. Commercial production was easier and cheaper. Low maintenacne cost. Disadvantages : Air conditioning required in many case. Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of IC chip. Example : IBM 360, IBM 370

IV Generation Computers (1970 on wards): IV generation computer was based on Microprocessor Technology which is again a small single chip consists of whole computer circuit under VLSI Technology. used inside the CPU Unit. In todays day to day life we are using this computer named after the microprocessor

Advantages : Smalledst in size becaure of high component density. Reliable, less heat generate. Air conditioning requirement is not compulsory. Protable because of small size Cheapest, highest processing speed among all generations computer. Disadvantages : Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of VLSI. Example : 80386, 80486, 80586 etc.

V Generation Computers : Still scientist are working on this generation computer. This is based on AI (Artifical Intellegence) technology. In real life it yet to came which will be totally different from other 4 generations. It will be based on real I.Q having real knowledge and reason logically. SOFTWARE Software is defined as the sets of programmes. A programme is a set of logical instructions that is required to accomplish a particular task. The instructions may be given using any of the many computer languages.

TYPE OF SOFTWARES a. APPLICTION SOFTWARE: Application Software is a collection of Application programs. An application program is one which is develop to a solve a specific data processing task. Software that is developed as per the users requirement comes under this category. Example : Payroll, Financial Accounting, inventory control, Ticket reservation may be termed as application software. These program are developed computer professionals called Application Programmers. Some of the application software can also be standardized to used by anyone which is known as Standard Application Package. Example: MS-Word, MS-Excel, FoxPro etc. b. SYSTEM SOFTWARE System Software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself. It is loaded by the manufacturer at the time of manufacturing which helps basically to start up the computer system during the booting processor. These programs are developed by computer professionals called System Programmers. Example : Operating System, Compilers, Interpreters.

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Detailed Syllabus (Unit2)

Unit-II Input and Output Devices Keyboard, Mouse, Joystick, Digitizer, Scanner, MICR, OCR, OMR, Light Pen, Touch Screen, Bar Code Reader, Voice Input Device, Monitor and its type (VGA, SVGA and XGA), Printer and its type (Impact and Non-Impact with example), Plotter

Computer Memory : Primary Memory (ROM & RAM), Secondary memory- SASD, DASD Concept, Magnetic Disks Floppy disks, Hard disks, Magnetic Tape, Optical disks CD ROM and its type (CD ROM, CD ROM-RW, DVD ROM ) INPUT DEVICES
1. KEYBOARD:

It is an input device which consists of some extra keys which are available in TypeWriter. There are four types of keys in Computer Key board. a) b)
c)

d)
2.

Type Writer Keys : (A Z), (a-z), (0-9) Functional Keys : F1, F2, F3,..F12 Cursor Movement Keys : Additive Keys : CAPS LOCKS, Esc, Ctrl, Alt, Shift etc.

MOUSE : Its a Pointing device which controls the movement of a cursor. It is basically ulternate to a keyboard and much more useful in GUI based Package. As we move the mouse on a hard surface, the cursor will move in the same direction on the screen. Generally it contains 1 3 buttons which have different functions depending on what program is running. Basically the movement of the cursor depends upon the ball which available on the backside of the mouse called Trackball.

3.

JOYSTICK : A lever that moves in all directions and controls the movement of a pointer. It is similar to a mouse. The only difference is that in case of mouse the cursor stops moving as soon as we stop the mouse. But in case of Joystick, the pointer continues moving in the direction the Joystick is pointing. To stop the pointer, we must return the Joystick to its up right position. Most of the Joystick contains two buttons called triggers. Joysticks are used mostly for Computer Games.

4.

DIGITIZER / DIGITIZING TABLET: This is an input device that enables us to enter drawing and sketches into a computer. It consists of a tablet which is a work surface that contains hundred of copper lines that from a grid and a pen called stylus which looks like a ball pen but uses electronic head instead of ink. As the pen touches the surface it converts the movement to digital signals, that sends to the computer.

5.

SCANNER: It is an input device which is used to insert text and object from a outer source into the computer. Now these days it plays a vital role in our day to day life.

6.

MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Reader/Recognition):

MICR allows the computer to recognize characters, printed using magnetic Ink. Basically it is used in Banks to check the magnetic Pattern of the cheque no. which is used to check the Validity / genuinety of a cheque no. One more example is through MICR the account transaction is possible through any Debit/Credit card. 7. OCR (Optical Character Reader) IT is an input device which is used to read text from the paper and translating the images to computers manipulating code such as ASCII code. It enables us to insert any text and graphics to a computer and manipulate them. 8. OMR (Optical Mark Reader / Recognition) It is an input device which is used to read the presence or absence of mark in terms of pencil and convert them in terms of digital signal to the computer. This process is basically useful where responses are one out of a small number of alternatives and volume of data to be processed is large. It is uses to evaluate multiple choice answer Sheets that is used in entrance test, market surveys, population survey, order forms for items where response can be restricted to one or more out of a few possibilities. 9. LIGHT PEN : Light Pen is an input device that uses a light sensitive detector to select object on a display screen. A light pen is similar to a mouse but with the help of a light pen we can move the pointer and select object on the display screen by directly printing to the objects with the pen. 10. TOUCH Screen: It is a type of display screen that has a touch sensitive transparent panel covering the screen. Instead of using any of the pointing device directly we can use our figures to point the objects on the screen. 11. BAR CODE READER : It is an input device used extensively by the super markets, book shops or any commercial shop to convert the bar code which is available on a product display the item code, name, Price etc and insert the same to the computer. It is basically a Photoelectric scanners. 12. VOICE INPUT DEVICE: It is an input device which converts humans speech into digital form. These input devices, when combined with appropriate software form voice recoginition systems. These systems enable users to operate PCs with voice command.

OUTPUT DEVICES
1. VDU (Visual Display Unit) It is an output device used to display information. Otherwise it is known as console (or ) monitor. Characteristics of a Monitor: a. Size: One of the most important aspects of a monitor is its Screen Size. Actually the size of the monitor is measured diagonally. The standard size of the monitor is 14. A standard monitor consists of 25 rows and 80 cols. Resolution: Resolution means how densely the Pixels are packed. Pixel : The screen of the monitor consists of no. of rows and cols. Of tiny dots, squares or cell which represents a Pixel. So higher is the dense of Pixel higher is the resolution. Hence quality and clarity of the picture would be high. Basically a Pixel is the combination of 3 colours i.e., red, greed and blue.

b.

II.

Classification of monitors based on Signals: Based on the types of Signals,that the monitor accept it is of two types: 1. Digital Monitor 2. Analog Monitor

III.

Based on Resolution: 1. VGA (Video Graphics Array) : VGA stands for Video Graphics Array,a graphics display system. VGA systems provide a resolution of 720 by 400 Pixels in text mode, 640 by 480 with 16 colours and 320 by 200 with 256 colours in graphics mode. It is one of the oldest standard monitor and cheapest. 2. SVGA (Super Video Graphics Array):

 It stands for Super Video Graphics Array. It provides better resolution than VGA. There are several varieties of SVGA, each providing a different resolution : 3. 800 by 600 pixels 1024 by 768 pixels 1280 by 1200 pixels

It displays 16 to 1 million colours depends upon video memory. XGA (Extended Graphics Array) It stands for Extended Graphics Array It is a high-resolution graphics monitor introduced in 1990. It provides 256 to 1 million colours.

Printers:
Printer Impact Character Printer 1. Dot Matix 2. Daisy Wheel Line Printer 1. Chain 2. Band 3. Drum Character Printer 1. Ink-Jet 2. Thermal Non-Impact Page Printer 1. Laser

Impact Printer Non-Impact Printer 1. Printing takes place by means 1. Printing takes place by means of printing head. of non-impact Technology like 2. It produces sound during Laser, Spray etc. printing. 2. It does not produce any sound 3. Does not produce high quality during printing. of output. 3. Printing quality is very high. 4. Slow Speed. 4. Higher speed. PLOTTER

It is also a type of high quality printer but instead of printing head it uses pen to print on the paper. General printer prints by series of dots on the paper but in this case it prints by drawing lines. So printing quality is higher in comparison to other printers. Also cost of plotter is very high. Multicolour plotters use different coloured pens to draw different colours.

COMPUTER MEMORY
A computer memory is used to store programs and the data processed by programs. A memory is made up of large no. of cells, with each cell capable of storing one bit. A character (or) any symbol is stored within the memory in the form of group of 8 bits called 1 byte. Each byte of information, which is stored within the memory, is identified by the unique memory address and also be retrieved by the same memory address. This memory organisation is called RAM (Random Access Memory), is used as the main memory of the computer.

MEMORY TYPES So far as Computer memory is concerned it is of 2 types. 1. PRIMARY MEMORY

Computer own/main memory system which is used to start up the system and helps during the execution of instructions is called Primary Memory. Example : ROM and RAM.

2.

SECONDARY MEMORY

The additional memory which is used to store information permanently is called secondary memory. Example : Floppy disc, Hard disc, CD ROM etc. I. ROM (Read only Memory) ROM Stands for Read only Memory. As the name suggests Read only memory, the storage elements in the ROM is read only and is not available to the user. ROM stores certain pre coded instructions, which is used by the computer during start up process of the system.

It is a non-Volatile memory where data is stored permanently and cant be change. But now these days certain ROM Chip are available which can be reprogrammed.

a)

PROM (Programmable Read only Memory) It stands for Programmable Read only Memory. A PROM is a memory Chip on which data can be written once there after it retains forever. The main difference between ROM and PROM is that, ROM contains pre coded set of instructions during the manufacturing where as PROM chip are manufactured as blank memory. Latter on a PROM can be programmed through a special device called PROM Burner and the process of programming a PROM is called burning the PROM.

b)

EPROM (Erasable PROM) It stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. The contents of ERPOM retain until it exposed to ultraviolet light. Through ultra Violet light a EPROM can be erased and can be reprogrammed according to users requirement. The main difference between PROM and EPROM is that, a PROM can be written to only once and cant be erased. Where as EPROMs are reprogrammed again and again EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM) It stands for electrically Erasable programmable Read only memory. This also a special type of PROM which can be reprogrammed by erasing the previous information by means of electrical charge. In EEPROM only 1 byte of data can be erased and written at a time. RAM (Random Access Memory) It stands for Random Access Memory. As the name suggest Random Access, data which is stored in RAM can access randomly not sequentially. It is volatile in nature.

c)

II.

It is otherwise known as Read Write Memory. Data that needs to be processed and the instructions which are used for processing are stored in the RAM RAM is a cluster of semiconductor devices. Each element of RAM is a memory location which has a unique memory address, through which data can be directly retrieved (or) stored. The size of RAM i.e, the capacity to store data is measured in KB, MB and GB. The contents of RAM need to be stored periodically on to a secondary memory since power failure will erase the contents of RAM.

MEMORY UNITS 1 1 1 1 1 byte = 8 bits KB = 1024 bytes MB = 1024 KB GB = 1024 MB TB = 1024 GB

SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES There are two types of secondary storage devices. I. DASD (Direct Access Storage Devices)

Example : Disk Drives where data is stored on curricular disks made of magnetizable material. The data stored in DASD storage units can be accessed by the processor directly. Whatever the data file we are storing into a disk has a file name and disk address (storage location). When data is needed by the processor, the R/W head of the disk drive identifies the disk address of the data file and moves to the specified tracks then into the sector where the data is stored exactly. Floppy disc, CD ROM , Hard disc are the example of DASD.

II.

SASD (Sequential Access Storage Device) Data stored in SASD units can be accessed by the processor sequentially. Example : To access 50th record, it has to read through the previous 49th records.

Magnetic Tape drives are sequential access storage devices. stored data on magnetic tapes.

These devices

SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

1.

Magnetic Disks Magnetic Tapes Hard Disk Optical Disk DVD ROM MAGNETIC DISKS All magnetic disks are round platters coated with ferromagnetic material. They can be of different sizes and storage capacities. The disks are made of rigid material (Hard Disk) or flexible plastic material (Floppy Disk). Data is stored on all disks in a number of invisible concentric circles called Tracks. These tracks begin at the outer edge of the disk and continue towards the center, independent of each other. Each track has a designated number. The number of each track per inch varies depending on the capacity of the disk. Each track in the disk is divided into sectors and each sector is given an unique identification number. The number of sectors per track varies depending on the capacity of the disk. The storage capacity of the disk system also depends on the bits per inch of the track and tracks per inch (TPI) on the surface. That is, the storage capacity depends on the number of bits that can be stored on an inch of track and the number of tracks that can be placed on an inch of surface. A motor rotates the disk at a rapid speed, measured in terms of rotations per minute (rpm). Data is recorded on the tracks of the spinning disk surface and is read from the surface by the read/write head of the disk drive. The floppy disk is made to rotate at speeds of 300 rpm and more. Data is written as tiny magnetic spots on the disk surface.

OUTER JACKET TRACK INDEX HOLE SECTOR

READ/WRITE PROTECT

2.

MAGNETIC TAPES Magnetic tapes are used where sequential processing and accessing is required. It is a medium to store large files and also for backup purposes. In large organizations, tapes are used as back-up storage. Data is stored as tiny spots on the magnetizable material that coats one side of a plastic tape. Since tape is a continuous-length medium, to differentiate between different data records gaps or spaces are left in between records called inter record gaps (IRG). Several records are combined together and written as one block blocking of records to avoid wastage due to IRGs. The records are read sequentially, one at a time, until the file ends. The capacity of the magnetic tapes is 120 MB, 350 MB etc.

3.

HARD DISK A hard disk consists of several platters mounted on a spindle. This unit of multiple disks is made to rotate at speeds of 3000 rpm and more. When multiple disks are packaged together a number of read/write heads are used, to write or retrieve data. Information is recorded on the surface of a disk as it rotates about its axis. Thus it is oh circular tracks on each disk surface. A set of concentric tracks are recorded on each surface. A set of corresponding tracks in all surfaces of a disk pack is called a cylinder. If a disk pack has n plates, there are 2n surfaces. Thus the number of tracks per cylinder is 2n.

SPINDLE SURFACE 1 SURFACE 2 DIRECTION OF MOTION OF ARM ASSEMBLY Read / Write Head

CYLINDER

SURFACE 2N

4.

OPTICAL DISK It is one of the secondary storage media from which data is read and write into the disk trough a laser beam. Optical disks have a very large storage capacity (600MB 6GB) and more reliable in comparison to other disk.

Example:- CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory) There are 3 different types of CD-ROM 1. CD-ROM:In this type data is already encoded on to them. The data is permanent and can read any no. of times, but it cant be modified.

Example: Audio CDs, all software CDs etc.

2.

CDROM-R (WORM) These are the recordable CD-ROM and otherwise it is known as write once read many disks. With a WORM disk drive, we can write on to a WORM disk, but only once. After that the WORM disk behaves like a simple CD-ROM. ERASABLE (EO) Optical disk that can be erased and loaded with new data, like any magnetic disk. These disks are called EO (Erasable Optical) disks.

3.

Note:- These above mentioned technologies are not compatible with one another, each requires a different type of disk drive and disk. 5. DVD ROM (DIGITAL VERSATILE DEVICE)

DVDROM uses the same principle as a CDROM for reading and writing. However, a lens system to focus the laser beam is used which can focus on two different layers on the disk. On each layer data is recorded. Thus the capacity can be doubled.

Further the recording beam is sharper compared to CDROM and the distance between successive tracks on the surface is smaller. The total capacity of DVDROM is 8.5 GB.

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Detailed Syllabus (Unit3)

Concept of Data Communication and Networking Networking Concepts, Advantages & Disadvantages of Networking ,Types of networking (LAN,MAN AND WAN), , Different Topologies, Elements of Network

Internet: Network, Client and Servers, Host & Terminals, TCP/IP, World Wide Web, Hypertext, Uniform Resource Locator, Web Browsers, IP Address, Domain Name, Internet Services Providers,

Internet Security, Internet Requirements, Web Search Engine, Net Surfing, Internet Services, Intranet

NETWORK CONCEPT AND CLASSIFICATION

Communication using computer has brought a revolution in the world of Information Technology, particularly in the field of personal computer. We have always heard of networking or the term network. A network is a way or means of transmitting or receiving (exchange) information from one or more sources. As an example, car salesmen, after years in the business, have developed a network of associates. When the car salesman needs to locate a car to make a sale, the car salesman calls out to his network to retrieve information on the location of the car. Employment agents also develop a network. Their customers become their networks. Employment agents will frequently keep in touch with their clientele for possible openings or to locate a candidate for an opening. Without the capability of networking, these two people would have a difficult time. It is the same in computing. Networks provide the means for locating and transporting information. In computing networks, the origin of the information request utilizes the services of a network to locate and return the information. This is done with addresses. In the two previous examples of the car salesman and the employment agent, a telephone number can be considered the address of their associate or client. Addresses in computer networking are used in the same manner. These addresses identify the network resource.

A standalone computer in todays context is not very useful, but coupled with communication technology, it opens up an enormous repository of information to its users. Information is carried in data communication systems as signals between two or more points, which could be at distance of a few inches or several thousand kilometers.

These signals are subject to various effects while they are in transits which alter their characteristics to some degree. The data communication technology ensures that information between two communicating entities is transferred in a reliable and orderly manner.

DEFINITIONS
In data communications, four basic terms Data, Signal and Transmission are frequently used. Data are entitles that convey meaning. Information is obtained by processing data using desired functions. Signals are electric or electromagnetic encoding of data, and signaling is propagation of signal along suitable communication medium. Transmission is communication of data achieved by the propagation and processing of signals.

Computer System & its Type:

Broadly computer system is divided in to two categories: Standalone System The system which works independently and act as single user is known as Standalone System. Network System When multiple computer attached to a centralized computer that type of system is known as Network based system. Advantages of Networking:

 Sharing of both hardware & software resources Reduced Cost Increase efficiency Disadvantages of Networking: If the centralize system is down then whole systems attached to the network would be down Required frequent maintenance

CLASSIFICATION OF NETWORK
The entire computer network can be classified into two board categories (However, elaborate categorization exists). They are: (a) (b) LAN (Local Area Network) WAN (Wide Area Network)

LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)

As number of systems grows within an organization, a need is felt for sharing expensive resource and exchanging data and information between systems. This need of information exchange and resource sharing within an organization has resulted in development of Local Area Network or LAN.

A LAN is a data communication network, which connects many computers or workstations (computers terminal, printer etc.) and permits exchange of data and information among them, within a localized area, typically confined to a building, or a cluster of buildings. The distance between two communication points connected on the same LAN channels, is usually upto 02-05 kms.

LANs are not rigidly defined but tend to share most of all of the following characteristics: (a) All the connected devices in the network share the transmission media.

(b)

Each device connected in the network can either operate standalone or in the network.

(c) (d)

Area covered is small. Data transfer rates are high, usually 1 Mbps-100 Mbps. (Million of bits per second)

(e)

Each device connected in the network can communicate with any other device in network.

(f)

Cost of setting up the network is usually low.

WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)

As the name suggests, WAN spread across countries and continents, satellites being one of the transmission media. A Wide Area Network or WAN, is a network that links separate geographical locations. A WAN can be a public system such as the Public Switched Telephone Network (the PSTN) or one of the various packet switched services provided by the public telecommunication authorities. WANs can also use most other types of circuit including satellite networks, ISDN, Value Added Networks (VANs/VADs).

The network can be a private system made up from a network of circuits leased from the local Telephone Company or set up using public systems as virtual private networks. A Virtual Private Network is one which operates in the same way as a private network but which uses public switched services for the transmission of information. The main distinguishing feature between a WAN and LAN is that, the LAN is under the complete control of the owner, whereas the WAN needs the involvement of another authority like the Telephone Company. LANs are also able to handle very high data transfer rates at low cost because of the limited area covered. LANs have a lower error rate than WANS.

LAN Topology
A network topology refers to the physical layout of the network in which all the devices are connected. This includes all the hardware that makes up the network. The points of connection to the network by the stations are called Nodes or link stations. There are several types of topographical design and strategies used to implement LAN. The majority of these are based on three types of topologies: (a) (b) (c) Star Bus Ring

Each topology has its advantages and disadvantages.

Star Topology
In this topology, a number of stations are connected directly to a central station called Server. Communication on the connecting links between the stations and the central system of a star topology can be bi-directional and are point-to-point. A station on this type of network passes an information frame to the server, which then forwards the information to the destination station. The server manages and controls all communication between stations on the network.

NODE

NODE

NODE

NODE

NODE

Bus Topology
A bus topology is shown in Figure . All stations are connected to a single communication line. This single communication line is referred to as a bus.

Information frames originating at a station are propagated away from the station in both directions on the bus. Each station on the bus interrogates the information frame destination address field for its own address. If the destination field does not match the stations address, the station discards the information frame back on to the bus. If the destination address matches the station address, it accepts the information frame and processes the frame. An extension to the bus topology is tree topology and is depicted in Figure 2. Tree topology extends the branches of the bus topology allowing more stations to access the

NODE

NODE

NODE

Ring Topology
A ring topology is shown in figure . Local area networks that have each station attached to an adjacent station using point-to-point links form a physical ring. Each station attached and active to the ring regenerates the information frame, then retransmits the information frame on the ring. The ring itself is logically circular and the information travels in one direction. Failure of a station in a ring topology disrupts the ring because the information frame is not regenerated Additions or deletions of stations to the ring can be disruptive, if the changes are not managed properly.

NODE

NODE NODE

NODE

Elements of Network
Here we will discuss briefly the basic hardware components of LAN, these are : (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Transmission Channel / Communication Channels Network Interface Unit (NIU) Servers Workstations LAN Software / Operating System

(A)

Transmission Channel / Communication Channels

The most basic hardware required for communication is the media through which data is transferred. There are sever4al types of media, and the choice of the right media depends on many factors such as cost of transmission media, efficiency of data transmission and the transfer rate. We will describe some of these transmission media. 1. Two wires open line

This is the simplest of all the transmission media. It consists of a simple pair of metallic wires made of copper or sometimes aluminium of between 0.4 and 1 mm diameter, and each wire is insulated from the other. There are variations to

this simplest form with several pairs of wire enclosed in a single protected cable called a multicore cable or moulded in the form of a flat ribbon. This type of media is used for communication within a short distance, upto about 50 meters, and can achieve a transfer rate of upto 19200 bits per second. 2. Twisted Pair Cable

A twisted pair consists of a pair of insulated conductors that are twisted together. The advantage of a twisted pair cable over the two wire open lines is, it provides better immunity from spurious noise signals. As the two wires are close to each other, both pick equal interferences caused by extraneous signal sources and this reduces the differential signal added by the noise. Twisted pair cable is used for communications upto a distance of 1Km. and can achieve transfer rates of 1-2 Megabytes per second. But, as the speed increased the maximum transmission distance is reduced, and may require repeaters. Twisted pair cable is widely used in telephone networks and is increasingly being used for data. The hub based Ethernets normally use UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) cable. 3. Coaxial Cable

A coaxial cable consists of a solid conductor running coaxially inside a solid or braided outer annular conductor. The space between the two conductors is filled with a dielectric insulating material. Larger the cable diameter, lower is the transmission loss, and higher transfer speeds can be achieved. A coaxial cable can be used over a distance of about 1 Km. and can achieve a transfer rate of upto 100 megabytes per second. A coaxial cable is of two types a 75-ohm cable, which is used by the cable TV operators and the 50-ohm cable, which is used in high-speed broadband networks and are low loss cables.

4.

Fibre Optic Cables

A fibre optic cable carries signals in the form of fluctuating light in a glass or plastic fibre. An optical fibre cable consists of a glass or plastic core surrounded by a cladding made of a similar material but with a lower refractive index. The core transmits the light while the change in refractive index between the core and the cladding causes total internal reflection, thus minimizing the loss of light from fibre. As light waves gave a much wider bandwidth than the electrical signal and are immune from electromagnetic interferences, this leads to high data transfer

rates of about 1000 megabytes per second and can be used for long and medium distance transmission links. 5. Radio, Microwave and Satellite Channels

Message switching in an alternative switching technique, where it is not necessary to establish a dedicated path between the sending and receiving devices. In Message Switching, the sending device appends the destination address to the message and passes it to the network; the message is then passed through the network from one node to another till it reaches the intended destination. Each switching node receives a message, stores it briefly and then transmits it to the next node. Examples of a message are electronic mails, computer files, telegrams and transaction queries and responses. A complete exchange may consist of several message. The basic disadvantage of message switching is the variable delay at intermediate switching nodes.

(B)

Network Interface Units (NIU) Network interface unites connect each device in the LAN network to shared transmission device. It contains the rules or logic to access the LAN. NIU is also used to implement LAN protocols and for device attachments. Its function depends on the type of topology used in LAN. In microcomputers, NIU may be installed as an add-on card.

(C)

Servers One of the major benefits of implementation of LAN is sharing expensive resources such as storage devices, printer etc. This is achieved through providing servers on the LAN. It is a dedicated computer, which controls one or more resources. This contains both hardware and software interface for LAN. Three major categories of servers used in LANs are:

(i) (ii) (iii)

File Server Printer Server Modem Server

In a networking file server is used to share storage space for files. Besides providing storage space for files in a LAN environment, it is used for taking periodical backup, and also to provide gateway to other servers within and between LANs.

Similarly printer server is used to handle printing works of all workstation connected in the network. In LAN environment also modem is required to get connected to other network or simply to use a telephone. A modem server is used to share few telephone lines and modems by all connected workstations in a network.

(D)

Workstation The individual system attached to the Server is called Workstation.

(E)

LAN Sortware / Operating System

As the name suggests, LAN Operating System is required to operate on the LAN system, manage the tremendous work load with a number of various types of server attached to it. It has basically two-aspect (i) Server Software & (ii) Workstation Software. As in case of other multi-user operating systems, LAN operating System also facilitates the sharing of expensive resources such as printer, storage space etc. among all LAN users, provides security for data and permits connection to other networks. There are various types of LAN operating system for example Novel Netware, WINDOWS NT, etc.

INTERNET
Brief History
Its a global network based on WAN technology. It is otherwise known as network of Networks. Internet have enabled virtually all computers to be networked together. It was first developed by US Defence Academy in the name of ARPANET during 1960.

In 1970s ARPANET switched to a new technology called TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) a communication standard which helps to send particular kinds of message between different computers. It enables exchange information between dissimilar computers. At last during 1986 it came up with a new adventure in the name of Internet governed by various companies like AT&T, VSNL, SPRINT, NETCOM etc. This technology leds to the unlimited growth in the size of the computer network hardware. By 1983 this TCP/IP technology was adopted by all computers.

Applications of Internet
Exchange e-mails (Electronic Mails). Send or receive sound, animation and picture files all over the world. Browse through resources of private or public information services that are on the Internet. Joint specific topic-oriented discussion groups. Search for, retrieve and, read files stored on computers throughout the world. Send and receive program data files such as desktop publishing files, spread sheets, CAD files or word processor files. Sell product and services Communicate in real time, with others connected to the Internet. Setup a site with information about your companys product and services. Purchase items on-line, and Distribute / read electronic publications.

FEATURES OF THE INTERNET

The World Wide Web (WWW) The World Wide Web is a vast collection of documents that are linked together. It uses hyper text and multimedia techniques and supports many kinds of documents such as text, formatted text, pictures, audio and video.

Web Page A web page is a document on the Web. It can contain text, pictures, audio, video and small interactive programs.

Web Site A Web Site is a collection of Web Pages maintained by a Company, University, Government or an individual.

Web Server As the web is a Client/Server System, a Computer known as the Web Server hosts the contents, which can be viewed by special graphical software available on the Client System.

HTML ( Hypertext Markup Language) Web Pages are hypertext documents, which contains multiple windows linked with each other and is written in Hypertext Mark up Language (HTML). HTML is a language for designing Web Pages.

HTTP ( Hypertext Transfer Protocol)-The Webs Native Protocol HTTP stands of Hypertext Transfer Protocol. The Web is a wide area Hypermedia system aimed at universal access. Web uses embedded documents developed in HTML, which links to different types of files, images, sound files, movies etc. By clicking on an item, the user can move through hyperspace, to that item using a special Internet Protocol called HTTP. Basically HTTP is a standard Protocol which helps to transfer information from Webserver to the Client. At the Client site actually through browser we get information from the Webserver using HTTP Protocol. HTTP means users request commands called methods, to manipulate resources. It is based on client request and Server response actions. A single HTTP operation is known as a transaction. It contains four steps: a. Establishing a connection; b. Issuing of request by Client; c. Issuing of response by Server and d. Termination of connection by Server.

Web Browsers Basically it is a client Software that allows us to display and interact with a hypertext document resides on the Web Server. When we access a document using a browser, the document is transferred to local host and the link is broken, thereby reducing the amount of traffic on the Internet. There are two types of browser available: a. Text based Example: Lynx Which provides only hypertext not graphics (or) sound.

b.

GUI based Example: Netscape Navigator, Internet Explorer etc. Which supports both graphics and sound.

Web Search Engine If we dont known the site address / URL of a particular site, the other alternative method is to go through web search Engine. Search Service is a company that runs a complex program to keep track of all sites popping up on the Internet. Users can access a Servers listing to try to find sites of interest by using keywords and names. Some popular Websites for search engine are Lycos, Yahoo, Rediff, Infoseek etc.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) FTP is an abbreviation for File Transfer Protocol and the file Transfer Program that uses the Protocol. FTP is basically used to download and upload a file.

Telnet People at one location frequently want to use a computer in another location. They may go to access data on the computer in another branch (or) in the main office or look at a library catalog to see if a certain book has been published. Telnet is the Internet tool that lets us travel from one workstation out into cyber space to land on another computer. We can also use certain facilities even if we dont have clients for those servers in our host system. When we are connected to a remote host via Telnet, we interact with that computer and operating system and issue commands as if we are directly connected to that computer. So Telnet is an Internet tool which enables us to access to a remote system.

Internet Addressing Conventions An Internet E-mail address is made up of three parts: a. The first part identifies the user name. b. The second part identifies the host computer (or server) the person receives mail on. c. The third part identifies the sub-domain of the host the Computer. Example: amit@giasban01 vsnl.net.in Here the username is amit

The host computers name is giasban01 The vsnl.net is the sub domain of national domain in. Here the sub domain net identifies VSNL as a network service provider. The Domain Name System (DNS)

In order to exchange information between computer to computer through Internet we need to know the address of individual computer which is practically impossible. The Domain Name System (DNS) was developed to solve this problem. It is a distributed database. Every computer on the Internet can have both a domain name and an IP address, and when we use a domain name, the computers translate that name to the corresponding IP address. The name of the domains describe either organisational or geographic relations. Basically they indicate what country the network connection is in, what kind of organisation owns it, and sometimes more details. There are two types of domains: a. Non Geographic Domains. There are six common Top- level domain types that are non geographical. Com for Commercial Organisations (i.e., Business) Net Network resources e.g. Internet Service Provider. Gov Government Organisations (Non military). Edu Educational Organisations (Universities, Schools etc.) Mil Miltary (Army, Navy, Airforce etc.) Org Other Organisation. Example: WWW.timesofindia.com Geographic Domains : The geographically based top level domain types use two-letter country destinations. Example: Au Australia Ca Canada Fr France UK United Kingdom In India Example: www.san.ans.edu.au It is in Australia (the geographically based domain is .au), in the educational area (.edu), at the Australian National University (.ans), and the host Computer is named san.

Internet Protocol (IP) Address Every terminal that connects to Internet have names and unique identifying address that obey certain conversion are called Internet Protocol (IP) Addresses. The Computer (or) Server is known as host, and IP address, which identifies its physical network connection, is known as the host addresses. Its virtually impossible to remember the IP address of the Computer. Thats why the DNS System has been implemented.

The IP address is a set of numbers that expresses the exact physical connection between a computer and a network like the Internet. Always IP address contains four sets of numbers separated by periods or dots. Example: 124 . 124 . 12 . 238

Account Type To get connected to the Internet we need to get register an account with an Internet Service Provider. There are basically two types of accounts and depending on out status. Example: a) Student b) Professional (or) Commercial Organisation In both the case cost will vary We can access to the Internet by a dial-up or a leased telephone line.

Dial up Account An inexpensive modem based connection, which set up only when it is needed, is the ideal solution for occasional use on the Internet. In this case the accessing speed, cost of using the network as well as Hardware / Software cost is less.

Leased Line Its an expensive, permanent connection to the net and higher accessing speed through higher band width up to 2 MBPS account. It is basically used to running a Web Server, handling large volume of mail, and connecting an entire network of users (or) offering some other information services. Seting up an leased line connection is very high as both Software and Hardware requirement is expensive as well as the network cost is also high.

URL (Uniform Resource Locate) URL stands for Uniform Resources Locator. It is an address of a document on the web. Otherwise it is known as web site address through which document being retrieved. Example : http://www.timesofindia.com

Internet Service Providers (ISPs)

ISPs are the companies that connect us to the Internet. In order to access Internet we need to register an account with an ISP to get either TCP/IP (or) shell account. Some of the top ISPs in India are VSNL, Satyam, Mantra online etc. ISPs Vary in their services, price, hours Package etc. Before going for an Internet connection through any ISPs we need to consider following point: 1. If its service can be accessed with local phone call. 2. Is the connection price competitive. 3. Does the ISP have enough phone lines. 4. Is the accessing speed fast enough. 5. Does it provide you space for launching your web page.

Hardware and Software Requirements PC (Minimum Pentium) Internet connection Modem Telephone line Softwares PC : For better Internet accessing we require a PC minimum Pentium II, 32 64 MB RAM, 4 8 MB AGP card. Internet Connection : Basically there are two types of connection available in Internet: 1. TCP / IP which supports text as well as graphics. 2. Shell which supports only text. Modem : it is otherwise non as Modulator /Demodulator it is connected between computer and telephone line. The telephone line deals with analog signal whereas computer deals with digital signal. So it is a device which converts digital signal to analog and vice versa. Telephone Line : One telephone line or ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network Connection is required to connect to Internet. Softwares : 1. Dialer to getting connected to ISP. 2. Browser through which we can access information from different websites.

INTRANET
An Intranet provides Internet Services within an organisation. The Intranet client is universal browser using TCP / IP Protocol. Unlike ISPs Intranet is also provided by some localized company. An Intranet has to design for the specific functions requirements for an organization such as a. Mail Service b. Audio / Video Service c. File Transfer etc.

The essential components of an Intranet include the following: a. A network b. TCP / IP on servers and clients. c. Hardware for hosting Intranet services. d. Software mail server and web servers. e. Browsers f. Proxy servers g. E-mail ID through Intranet Service provider. The basic application of Intranet help in saving costs, which is, realised from reductions in printing and distribution costs. But one of the largest benefit is the increased access to information. An Intranet achieves the following in an organisation. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. Reduced costs in printing, paper, software distribution, mailing, order processing. Reduced telephone expenses. Easier, faster access to technical and marketing information. Easier, faster access to remote locations. Increased access to competitive information. Latest and up-to-date research base. Easier access to customers and partners. Collaborative, group working. Increased accuracy and timelines of information. Just in time information.

INTERNET SECURITY
Introduction
Internet security is one of the major issues now these days. Internet is a huge place that this hosts several millions of people. So any type of criminal activity raises that damages both software as well as hardware.

Type of Computer Criminals

1.

2.

3.

4.

Hacker : Hacker is a person who has good knowledge about computers and tries to open the data packets and steal the information transmitted through the internet. Cracker: is someone who specifically breaks into computer systems by bypassing or by guessing login passwords. These persons enter into the network as authenticated users and can cause any harm to the system. Phreaks: are persons who hack phone systems. These people specifically try to scam long distance phone-time for them to control phone switch capability or to hack company automated EBX systems to get free voice-mail accounts or to raid companies existing voice-mail messages. Phracker: is the combination of freak and cracker. A Phracker breaks into phone systems and computer systems and specializes in total network destruction.

Security Issues
Some hacker may break into your server and modify the files kept here. Every day hundreds of viruses are created which can freely flow through Internet. Due to electronic commerce, the credit card credentials can be read by a professional hacker. This is a dangerous situation. Secret military and government data can be stolen.

Preventive Measures
If you attach your local area network directly to the Internet through a router, you risk intrusion into your network from the Internet. Many routers now function as devices called firewalls, which allow your to restrict the information flowing through the firewall by type (for instance, only HTTP or FTP information), IP address of the computers, and many other factors. Firewalls are the best way to protect your network from instruction via the Internet. Some ISPs provide a firewall service. They will automatically filter traffic to and from your network by type; if you desire. Always keep the latest version of any good virus scanning software e.g. Mcafee, Norton, dr. Soloman, etc. Whenever you download any material from Internet, get it thoroughly scanned by the virus scanner software. I may contain a virus, which may effect your files or computer as a whole.

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Additional Topic Operating System Concept

What is an Operating System?

It is an integrated set of specialized program used to manage all the Resources available and make interface possible between the user and the system. Or It is an interfacing media between the user and the system.

Functions:
1. Controls the execution of program

It controls the execution of program. If any error will occur inside the program, it will be detected by the O/s. 2. Manage all the Hardware Resources

It manages all the Hardware Resources attached to the system. Any improper (or) mishandling of the hardware resources will be detected by O/s. Structure of an Operating System

Software

User

Operating System Hardware

So Operating System means a medium that can operate the system.

Operating System as Resource Manager: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Memory To To To

Management keep track of the memory size. keep track of used, unused and bad sectors. allocate memory when a Process requests for it.

Process Management Schedules which program is to be executed and when. Device Management To keep track of the resources such as printer, keyboard, mouse etc.

Information Management To keep track of the file, its allocation, used and status. This is collectively known as File System. 5. User - Interface The Operating System provides the user can interface so as to communicate his/her requirements to the Operating System. TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM There are two types of Operating Systems Single-user Operating System and Multi-user Operating System. Single-user Operating System A Personal Computer (PC) is a popular single-user system. The PC is a small,

general purpose system that can execute programs to perform a wide variety of tasks. The PC, however, was designed to use by one person at a time. Example : MS DOS, Windows 95/98. Multi-user System As opposed to single-user systems, there are also larger systems, which can be used by more than one person at a time. Example : Window NT, UNIX,LINUX etc.

BASIC CONCEPT

A multi-user system consists of a single computer with several terminals attached to it. This computer can be a PC-AT, a mini or a mainframe. Various users can work on this machine through the attached terminals. These terminals can be of two types: smart or dumb. A dumb terminal consists of a VDU and a keyboard. It has no CPU of its own, and the processing is done only by the central unit. A smart terminal has its own CPU and peripherals, and can work independent of the central unit. The advantage is that other OSs can be loaded onto its own hard disk. Connection to LINUX can be established when required.

Different types of Operating System

1. 2. 3.

MS-DOS DOS was written by Bill Gates and Paul Allen in early 1980. DOS was introduced by IBM for their Personal Computer in 1981. It is a single user Operating System. It is a single tasking Operating System. DOS is the first Operating System produced by Microsoft Inc. Windows 95/98 It is a single user multitasking Operating System. It is a GUI based Operating System. It is more users friendly. It is easy to use.

Windows NT After windows 95/98 a new O/s has been introduced as Windows NT(Windows New Technology) It consists of a pair of O/s products Windows NT Server and Windows NT workstation. Windows NT Server is designed to operate as Network Server. Windows NT workstation is designed to operate as client in network based environment as well as desktop operating system. It supports multiprocessing as well as it is compatible with MS-DOS 5.0, Windows 3.1X, Windows 95/98 etc.

Booting Process (MS-DOS)

Booting is the process by which the computer starts itself, loads the operating system into the memory and gets ready to process the commands.

Two sets of programs are required in the starting and running a computer. They are: ROM based Disk based ROM Based Instructions ROM based software again categorized into two types of routines i.e, BIOS Routines Basic Input Output Systems (BIOS) helps CPU in communicating with the hardware. the instructions available on ROM the instructions available on the Disk

Startup Routines Starts the booting process.

POST - Power On Self Test routines, which checks and initializes hardware devices, such as keyboard, printer and monitor. Initialization Routines - Sets the equipment connected to the computer in a ready to operate condition. Bootstrap Loader Loads the operating system files from the bootable disk to RAM. These are the set of instructions available in the first sector i.e sector 1 of track 0. This sector is also called Boot Sector of the disk.

System Files: IO.Sys, MSDOS.Sys and Command. Com Disk Based Instructions The disk, which contains all the system, files IO.Sys, MSDOS.Sys and Command. Com is called Bootable or System Disk . These files are known as System Files. IO.SYS It has two modules. The first is the DISK BIOS module, which contains the device drivers used for communicating with the CPU, Printer, Keyboard etc. The second, module called SYSINIT loads the second file MSDOS.SYS from the disk into the memory.

MSDOS.SYS and provides an interface between software and

This file is known as the Kernel hardware.

COMMAND.COM

This file is the command processor and is responsible for the interpretation and carrying out of instructions. It is also called the SHELL, and displays the system prompt like A:\> / C:\> on the screen. It has got three portions. The first portion is the Initialization Portion, and its main function is to look for the existence of the file called AUTOEXE.BAT. The initialization portion is transferred into the memory when the control is transferred to COMMAND.COM and AUTOEXE.BAT gets executed.

The second portion is the Resident Portion. This resident portion of COMMAND.COM stays in the memory throughout. This portion is responsible for performing some basic tasks such as error handling, loading and unloading of transient portion whenever required.

The third portion is the Transient Portion. This portion contains instructions, for executing some commands which the user commonly use. These commands which are stored in the transient portion of COMMAND.COM are called Internal or Resident commands.

BOOTING SEQUENCE
ROM startup portion checks and initializes the hardware. The ROM startup routine performs memory check to calculate the memory size. Then it loads all system files from boot sector of the disk into the main memory The bootstrap loader loads the file IO.SYS from the disk into the memory. The SYSINIT module of IO.SYS loads the file MS.SYS into the memory Then it loads COMMAND.COM into the memory. COMMAND.COM executes AUTOEXE.BAT file if it is present. The transient portion of COMMAND.COM displays system prompt.

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