QUESTION BANK Asynchronous Transfer Mode (CS-306)

Short Answer Type Question Answers:

1. What is an ISDN? Ans: Circuit-switched network based on 64 kbit/s channels with a common user network interface for access to a variety of services. ISDNs have out-of-band signalling capabilities which allow for provision of new and improved services relative to plain old telephony. 2. What does B-ISDN denote? Ans: Broadband-ISDN, ATM based high speed network based on certain ISDN principles such as common access to many services via standardized user-network interfaces, out-of-band signalling, and ISDN numbering schemes. 3. What is the function of AAL? Ans: ATM Adaptation Layer. A limited no is AAL types (AAL 1-5) has been defined to link the ATM Layers to higher layers. AAL functions are segmentation and reassembly of information and other functions. 4. What does asynchronous mean in the term ATM? Ans: ATM is asynchronous in the sense that transmission capacity (ATM Cell) is provided for an individual connection only if actually demanded. 5. What is ATM virtual connection? Ans: ATM is a connection-oriented networking technique. Virtual connections are established link by link either by signalling protocols or by subscription. It is unidirectional and having dynamic bandwidth. 6. What is ATM cell? Ans: information unit of ATM: a cell is a fixed size slot comprising 53 octets 5 of which are allocated to cell header and 48 to the information field. 7. What is ATM cell header? Ans: the first 5 octets of an ATM cell containing address information and additional control data. 8. What is ATM ARP? Ans: The protocol is used for address resolution between IP addresses and ATM addresses.

9. Define Payload. Ans: It is that part of ATM cell which carries actual user information. It is of 48 octets. 10. What are the important functions of TC sublayer? Ans: Transmission convergence sublayer functions: Header Error Control Cell rate Decoupling Cell Delineation Cell Scrambling Transmission Frame Adaptation 11. What do you understand by Cell Delineation? Ans: Cell Delineation is the mechanism that enables the receiver to recover the cell boundaries. 12. What do you understand by Cell Rate Decoupling? Ans: It is the mechanism to insert idle cells in order to adapt the rate of ATM cells to the payload capacity of the transmission system. 13. What is ATM connection oriented service? Ans: Prior to the exchange of data between two entities an end to end connection is established onto which all data are sent. 14. What is ATM connectionless service? Ans: ALL data are sent via a pre-established ATM virtual connection to a connectionless server which then establishes connections to the destinations. 15. What is ATM network-node/network-to-network interface? Ans: Several types interfaces exist: NNI between ATM nodes of a public network, PNNI between private network nodes, BICI between public networks, AINI to connect any two ATM networks which may employ different internal network protocols. 16. What do understand by BUS? Ans: It is broadcast and unknown server used for LAN emulation which transmits all broadcast/multicast and unknown traffic over the emulated LAN. 17. What is CDV? Ans: A quality of service parameter describing the variations of the cell transfer delays of a single connection. 18. What is CLP? Ans: A bit in the ATM cell header marking those cells which should be discarded prior to other cells in the case of congestion.

19. What is CBR? Ans: An ATM transfer capability with guaranteed cell loss ratio and cell transfer delay 20. What do you understand by Cell Scrambling ? Ans: Cell scrambling is the mechanism whereby the desired patterns in data are changed at the source and the changes reverted back at the destination. 21. What do you understand by Transmission Frame Adaptation? Ans: The cells may be carried on the physical layer either within a frame or just transported over the physical link as a bit sequence. When a framed transport is used, a structure is defined at the physical layer. The cells are mapped onto this structure and carried across the network. This mapping of cells into a framed physical layer structure is called transmission frame adaptation. 22. How can virtual channels/paths be identified? Ans: Virtual channels/paths can be identified by the values in the VCI and VPI fields of an ATM cell header respectively. 23. What is the difference between VP switching and VC switching? Ans: VP switches terminates VP links and therefore have to translate incoming VPIs to the corresponding outgoing VPIs according to the destination of the VP connection. VC switches terminates both VC links and VP links and therefore VPI and VCI translation is performed. As VC switching implies VP switching, in principle a VC switch can also handle mere VP switching. 24. What are the main network performance parameters defined for ATM networks? Ans: Main network performance parameters defined in ATM networks are: Cell Loss Ratio Cell Misinsertion Rate Cell Error Ratio Severely Errored cell block ratio Cell transfer delay 25. What is meant by QOS? Ans: A description/specification of the Quality of an ATM connection using a set of parameters like CLR, CDVT, and CTD bit rate. Different end user applications require ATM connections with different levels of QOS. Several ATM transfer capabilities have been specified each offering a different QOS. 26. What is ATM Data Exchange Interface (DXI)? Ans: The DXI allows a Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) such as router to be connected via Data Circuit Terminating Equipment (DCE) to an ATM Switch.

27. Write functions of ATM layer. Ans: Main functions of ATM Layer are: Cell multiplexing Cell demultiplexing VPI and VCI translation Cell header generation/extraction 28. What is cell multiplexing? Ans: Cells from individual VPs and VCs are multiplexed into one resulting cell stream by the cell multiplexing function. 29. Define any two QOS parameters? Ans: CLR: ratio of lost cells to sent cells CTD: the time needed by a cell from its source to its destination. 30. What do you understand by the term Signalling? Ans: A means of establishing connections on demand by end user equipment or network equipment. Dialing a number for establishing a call is one form of signalling. 31. What planes and layers build up the B-ISDN/ATM PRM? Ans: Layers are: Physical Layer ATM Layer ATM Adaptation Layer Upper Layers Planes are: User Plane Control Plane 32. What is an idle cell? Ans: A cell that is inserted/extracted by the physical layer in order to adapt the cell flow rate at the boundary between the ATM layer and the physical layer to the available payload capacity of the transmission system used. 33. What is the HEC field used for? Ans: HEC field is used for error control. The HEC field contains the checksum calculated over the first four bytes of the cell header using a generator polynomial. 34. What is the PTI field used for? Ans: Three bits of PTI in header are used for the Payload Type Identification. 35. What is the CLP field used for? Ans: CLP field consists of one bit which is used explicitly to indicate the cell loss priority. If the value of the CLP bit is 1 the cell is subject to discard.

36. What are ATM OAM functions? Ans: The operation and maintenance functions are: Performance Monitoring Defect and failure detection System protection Failure and performance information Fault localization 37. Why is there a need for LANE? Ans: (LAN Emulation) The basic operation of LANE is to set up a point to point ATM connection between two LANE end systems instead of broadcasting and filtering data frames. 38. What is CAC? Ans: An algorithm used in ATM switches which checks if enough resources within the switch and/or the network are available for carrying the requested connection without affecting other, already established connections. 39. What is EFCI? Ans: A bit in the ATM cell header which might be set by network elements in case of congestion. End terminals are expected to lower their cell emission rate if this bit is set. 40. What do you mean by Meta-signalling? Ans: ATM uses out of band signalling via specific signalling channels. Unless preestablished, signalling channels are allocated by a Meta-signalling protocol via a predefined Meta signalling virtual channel. 41. What is Policing? Ans: The set of actions taken by the network to delimit the actual cell rate of a connection entering that network to the negotiated cell rate. 42. What is SDH? Ans: Synchronous Digital Hierarchy. This allows the hierarchical mapping of quiet different information streams into a common transmission frame. 43. What is CES? Ans: Circuit emulation service. Transport of a constant bit rate signal e.g. 15/2 Mbits meeting the specified requirements on delay bit error rate etc. , for such signals. 44. What is MPOA? Ans: Multiprotocol over ATM. Based on a set of ATM forum specifications for running a layer 3 protocols over ATM exploiting ATMs quality of service offerings.

45. What is PNNI? Ans: Private network-to-network interface.Based on a set of ATM forum specifications for addressing, signalling and routing within a private network. 46. What is EPD? Ans: Early Packet Discard: In case of congestion ATM switches may discard entire data frames instead of single ATM cells. 47. What is resource management? Ans: All actions taken for sharing network resources like transmission capacity, buffer space etc. among connections. 48. What is ABR? Ans: Available Bit Rate. An ATM transfer capability where the network controls the senders cell emission rate through the use of resource management cells. 49. What do you understand by MIB? Ans: Management Information Base. An abstract description of a specific network element or connection and transmission parameters which can be manipulated and evaluated for network management purposes. 50. What is UPC/NPC? Ans: The set of actions taken by the network to delimit the actual cell rate of a connection entering that network to the negotiated cell rate.

Medium and Long Answer Type Question Answers:

ATM adaptation layers

51. What are the various ATM Adaptation layers? Ans: In order for ATM to support many kinds of services with different traffic characteristics and system requirements, it is necessary to adapt the different classes of applications to the ATM layer. This function is performed by the AAL, which is service-dependent. Four types of AAL were originally recommended by CCITT. Two of these have now been merged into one. 52. Define briefly the various ATM Adaptation layers? Ans: Briefly the four ATM adaptation layers (AAL) have been defined: AAL1 - Supports connection-oriented services that require constant bit rates and have specific timing and delay requirements. Examples are constant bit rate services like DS1 or DS3 transport. AAL2 - This adaptation is a method for carrying voice over ATM. It consists of variable size packets (max: 64 bytes) encapsulated within the ATM payload. This was previously known as Composite ATM or AALCU. The ITU spec which describes this is called ITU-T I.363.2. AAL3/4 - This AAL is intended for both connectionless and connection oriented variable bit rate services. Originally two distinct adaptation layers AAL3 and 4, they have been merged into a single AAL which name is AAL3/4 for historical reasons. AAL5 - Supports connection-oriented variable bit rate data services. It is a substantially lean AAL compared with AAL3/4 at the expense of error recovery and built in retransmission. This tradeoff provides a smaller bandwidth overhead, simpler processing requirements, and reduced implementation complexity. Some organizations have proposed AAL5 for use with both connection-oriented and connectionless services.

53. Comment how an "AAL0" which refers to a 'null' AAL? Ans: Some folks talk about an "AAL0" which normally refers to a 'null' AAL, i.e. the case where the payload is directly inserted into a cell. This typically requires that the payload can always be fitted into a single cell so that the AAL is not needed for upper layer PDU delineation when the upper layer PDU bridges several cells. 54. How does AAL5 work?

Ans: Here is is a very simplified view of AAL5 and AALs in general. AAL5 is a mechanism for segmentation and reassembly of packets. That is, it is a rulebook which sender and receiver agree upon for taking a long packet and dividing it up into cells. The sender's job is to segment the packet and build the set of cells to be sent. The receiver's job is to verify that the packet has been received intact without errors and to put it back together again. 55. Give the composition for AAL5. Ans: AAL5 (like any other AAL) is composed of a common part (CPCS) and a service specific part (SSCS). The common part is further composed of a convergence sublayer (CS) and a segmentation and reassembly (SAR) sublayer. +--------------------+ | | SSCS +--------------------+ | CS | | ------------------ | CPCS | SAR | +--------------------+ 56. How segmentation is done at SAR? Ans: SAR segments higher a layer PDU into 48 byte chunks that are fed into the ATM layer to generate 53 byte cells (carried on the same VCI). The payload type in the last cell (i.e., wherever the AAL5 trailer is) is marked to indicate that this is the last cell in a packet. (The receiver may assume that the next cell received on that VCI is the beginning of a new packet.) 57. What is the role of CS? Ans: CS provides services such as padding and CRC checking. It takes an SSCS PDU, adds padding if needed, and then adds an 8-byte trailer such that the total length of the resultant PDU is a multiple of 48. The trailer consist of a 2 bytes reserved, 2 bytes of packet length, and 4 bytes of CRC. 58. Give an example of service provided by SSCS. Ans: SSCS is service dependent and may provide services such as assured data transmission based on retransmissions. One example is the SAAL developed for signalling. This consists of the following:

+--------------------+ | SSCF | | ------------------ | SSCS | SSCOP | +--------------------+ | CS | | ------------------ | CPCS | SAR | +--------------------+

59. Which Layer assures data transfer? Ans: SSCOP is a general purpose data transfer layer providing, among other things, assured data transfer. 60. What is SSCF? Ans: ASSCF is a coordination function that maps SSCOP services into those primitives needed specifically for signalling .Different SSCFs may be prescribed for different services using the same SSCOP. 61. What can be the problems during cell transmission? Ans: There are two problems that can happen during transit. First, a cell could be lost. In that case, the receiver can detect the problem either because the length does not correspond with the number of cells received, or because the CRC does not match what is calculated. Second, a bit error can occur within the payload. Since cells do not have any explicit error correction/detection mechanism, this cannot be detected except through the CRC mismatch. It is up to higher layer protocols to deal with lost and corrupted packets. This can be done by using a SSCS which supports assured data transfer, as discussed above.

Questions about ATM cells

62. Are ATM cells delivered in order? Ans: Yes. The ATM standards specify that all ATM cells will be delivered in order. Any switch and adaptation equipment design must take this into consideration. 63. How come an ATM cell is 53 bytes anyway? Ans: ATM cells are standardized at 53 bytes because it seemed like a good idea at the time! As it turns out, during the standardization process a conflict arose within the CCITT as to the payload size within an ATM cell. The US wanted 64 byte payloads

because it was felt optimal for US networks. The Europeans and Japanese wanted 32 payloads because it was optimal for them. In the end 48 bytes was chosen as a compromise. So 48 bytes payload plus 5 bytes header is 53 bytes total. CCITT chose 48 bytes as a compromise. As far as the header goes, 10% of payload was perceived as an upper bound on the acceptable overhead, so 5 bytes was chosen.

ATM traffic shaping

64. What do people mean by the term "traffic shaping"? Ans: Definition: Traffic shaping is forcing your traffic to conform to a certain specified behavior. Usually the specified behavior is a worst case or a worst case plus average case (i.e., at worst, this application will generate 100 Mbits/s of data for a maximum burst of 2 seconds and its average over any 10 second interval will be no more than 50 Mbit/s). 65. What are various traffic parameters? Ans: There are a number of parameters and functions that need to be considered: PARAMETERS There are lots of traffic parameters that have been proposed for resource management. The more important ones are: mean bit rate peak bit rate variance of bit rate burst length burst frequency cell-loss rate cell-loss priority

These parameters exist in three forms: actual measured, or estimated declared (by the customer) 66. What are various functions to be considered during traffic shaping? Ans: FUNCTIONS (a) Acceptance Function (b) Policing Function

(c) Charging Function (d) Traffic Shaping Function 67. What is Acceptance Function? Ans: Each switch has the option of accepting a virtual circuit request based on the declared traffic parameters as given by the customer. Acceptance is given if the resulting traffic mix will not cause the switch to not achieve its quality of service goals. The acceptance process is gone through by every switch in a virtual circuit. If a downstream switch refuses to accept a connection, an alternate route might be tried. 68. What is Policing Function? Ans: Given that a switch at the edge of the network has accepted a virtual circuit request, it has to make sure the customer equipment keeps its promises. The policing function in some way estimates the parameters of the incoming traffic and takes some action if they measure traffic exceeding agreed parameters. This action could be to drop the cells, mark them as being low cell-loss priority, etc. 69. What is Charging Function? Ans: The function most ignored by traffic researchers, but perhaps the most important for the success of any service! Basically, this function computes a charge from the estimated and agreed traffic parameters. 70. What is Traffic Shaping Function? Ans: Traffic shaping is something that happens in the customer premise equipment. If the Policing function is the policeman, and the charging function is the judge, then the traffic shaper is the lawyer. The traffic shaper uses information about the policing and charging functions in order to change the traffic characteristics of the customer's stream to get the lowest charge or the smallest cell-loss, etc. For example, an IP router attached to an ATM network might delay some cells slightly in order to reduce the peak rate and rate variance without affecting throughput. An MPEG codec that was operating in a situation where delay wasn't a problem might operate in a CBR mode. 71. What is CLP=0+1 all about? Ans: The cell flow in a connection can be logically split into various cell flows depending on the CLP value of the cell, whether it is 0 or 1. The following are the cell flows:

- CLP=0 cell flow - CLP=1 cell flow - CLP=0+1 cell flow (also called aggregate cell flow)

CLP=0+1 cell flow is for both CLP=0 cells and CLP=1 cells. So logically, a CLP=0 cell travels in 'CLP=0 cell flow' and 'CLP=0+1 cell flow' while a CLP=1 cell travels in 'CLP=1 cell flow' and 'CLP=0+1 cell flow'.

72. How the connection and cell flows can be represented? Ans: The connection and cell flows may be represented as follows: Connection | V ----------------------------------------| CLP=0 Cell Flow | --------------CLP=0+1 Cell Flow --------------| CLP=1 Cell Flow | --------------| --------------------------73. What are the terms to be considered before establishing a connection? Ans: To establish a connection we have to specify Peak Cell Rate (PCR), Sustained Cell Rate (SCR), and Maximum Burst Size (MBS) in forward and backward directions, for each cell flow. So PCR, SCR, etc are not single values to a connection! We must specify these values for the cell flows CLP=0, CLP=1 and CLP=0+1. Usually CLP=0+1 values will be equal to or more than the sum of PCR, etc values of CLP=0 and CLP=1 cell flows.

Questions about ATM protocols/standards

74. Relationship between interface standards? Ans:

75. Information about B-ISDN Ans: B-ISUP provides the signalling requirements to support basic bearer services and supplementary services (for Capability Set 1 and Capability Set 2 B-ISDN) for BISDN applications. In the ATM scenario, the introduction of this protocol meets the needs to support the Switched Virtual Connections (SVCs), whereas initial ATM service supported only the Permanent Virtual Connections (PVCs). This protocol is

conceptually the natural evolution of the ISDN User Part (ISUP) in the Broadband field, but many important changes have been introduced: the substitution of the concept of circuit (identified by the CIC) with that of Virtual Path/Virtual Circuit (VP/VC) the substitution of the concept of connection with that of Virtual Path Connection (VPC) a new structure of the protocol, which is now modular and, therefore, open for future enhancements, in terms of Supplementary Services. the possibility to manage point-to-multipoint connections/calls. it can manage both E.164 and AESA addresses.

B-ISUP runs over this protocol stack: SS7 MTP-Level 3 Q.2140 Q.SAAL ATM and contains a specific module, called "Compatibility Process", for managing both unrecognized signalling information and networking issues with an N-ISUP (Narrowband ISUP, i.e. ISUP). 76. Information about B-ICI. Ans: B-ICI stands for Broadband Inter Carrier Interface and is the broad term for the interface and B-ISUP stack as described and documented by ATM Forum. This is a standard interface (based on the ITU-T B-ISUP) which has been chosen by both ITU-T and ATM Forum for interconnecting *public* ATM networks (whereas P-NNI is the standard non-SS7 non-ITU-T based interface for interconnecting *private* ATM networks). This protocol takes many features from ANSI B-ISUP (T1.648.1-4), especially those needed for routing signalling messages through different vendor networks (like the Exit Message and the Carrier Identification Code, Charge Number, Carrier Selection Information, Outgoing Facility Identifier, Originating Line Information parameters).

77. How to establish VPCs by signalling? Ans: ATM Forum UNI 4.0 provides for switched VPs. This is done by:

 adding a new bearer class code point in bear Cap IE for "VP service", and adding a new pref/exc code point in connId IE for "exclusive VPCI, no VCI" The ATM Forum also has a Private-NNI SWG. Currently they have worked on a protocol (called PNNI) for distributing link and node state information, and a call setup procedure, to support intra-network routing and switching. Overall, the protocol is designed for source routing, where the first switch in the network has enough information about the topology of the network to determine a route, and then the path information is added to the signalling message (SETUP) and routed along the path. The overall protocol is considerably more complex than this, as its necessary to minimize the view of the topology of a network from the sources point of view (a topological hierarchy is used, among other things), but thats basically the approach. 78. With regard to a carrier ATM network What is an "M4" management interface. Ans: The ATM Forum Management WG defines "management information flows" M1 to M5. A management information flow exchanges information between an ATM management system and a part of a prototypical ATM network. For instance, the M2 interface defines the information flow between a private ATM switch and the local private network management system. The management information flow includes a conceptual view (requirements) and a MIB. Ideally the MIB can be used by SNMP or CMIP. 79. What are various management information flows? Ans: The management information flows relate to the above network: M1 = flow between the private management system and the end ATM device M2 = flow between the private management system and the switches making up the local private ATM net M3 = the flow between the private management system and the public management system M4 = the flow between the switches in the public ATM network and the public management system M5 = the flow between two public management systems

Questions about VPI, VCI, VPCI

80. What are VPI and VCI? Ans: ATM is a connection orientated protocol and as such there is a connection identifier in every cell header which explicitly associates a cell with a given virtual channel on a physical link. The connection identifier consists of two sub-fields, the Virtual Channel Identifier (VCI) and the Virtual Path Identifier (VPI). Together they are used in multiplexing, demultiplexing and switching a cell through the network. VCIs and VPIs are not addresses. They are explicitly assigned at each segment (link between ATM nodes) of a connection when a connection is established, and remain for the duration of the connection. Using the VCI/VPI the ATM layer can asynchronously interleave (multiplex) cells from multiple connections. 81. Why both VPI and VCI? Ans: The Virtual Path concept originated with concerns over the cost of controlling BISDN networks. The idea was to group connections sharing common paths through the network into identifiable units (the Paths). Network management actions would then be applied to the smaller number of groups of connections (paths) instead of a larger number of individual connections (VCI).Management here including call setup, routing, failure management, bandwidth allocation etc. For example, use of Virtual Paths in an ATM network reduces the load on the control mechanisms because the function needed to set up a path through the network are performed only once for all subsequent Virtual Channels using that path. Changing the trunk mapping of a single Virtual Path can effect a route change for every Virtual Channel using that path. Now the basic operation of an ATM switch will be the same, no matter if it is handling a virtual path or virtual circuit. The switch must identify on the basis of the incoming cell's VPI, VCI, or both, which output port to forward a cell received on a given input port. It must also determine what the new values the VPI/VCI are on this output link, substituting these new values in the cell. The algorithms for selecting which switch output port a given input VPI/VCI should be mapped to is done at the time the call is set up, and is part of the overall call routing algorithm. The port to be used depends on what other switches that port is connected to. Call routing is addressed by protocols like P-NNI (private networknetwork interface), just being completed by the ATM forum. The choice of an outbound VPI/VCI value, on the other hand, is partially a function of the switch architecture, and partially a function of the interface. The UNI spec dictates which side of a link, user or network, selects values. The PNNI spec also has rules for this. Within the switch designated as the one selecting the values, the choice

depends on switch internals (what space does it support, are VPI/VCI spaces on all ports fully independent, what is the switch software's policy for value reuse, etc).

82. With respect to the assignment of VPI/VCIs for an ATM Forum 3.1, consider two users A and B which will communicate across a network. Are there really four VPI/VCIs that must be assigned by the call setup process: 1. 2. 3. 4. The VPI/VCI A uses to send to B The VPI/VCI that B will receive from A The VPI/VCI B uses to send to A The VPI/VCI that A will receive from B?

Ans: According to the ATM Forum UNI 3.1 specification, User A will request a VCC via a SETUP message. The Network will either respond with (if there are no problems) a CALL PROCEEDING message or a CONNECT message. In either case, it must respond with a Connection Identifier (VPI/VCI) in the first response to the User (see the section labeled "Connection Identifier Allocation/Selection -Origination in the ATM Forum UNI specification). At the Called User side (B), the Network will allocate a Connection Identifier (VPI/VCI) for the Called user and will be SETUP message sent to the Called User. In both cases (according to UNI 3.0/3.1) the Network allocates the VPI/VCI. Also, the VCC can be bidirectional or unidirectional based on how the VCC was established. The rationale is simple: it is always the "network" side of the UNI that allocates all VCCs for communication on that UNI. It is the master and the "user" is the slave. Hence, the switch always knows which VCCs are available for use at the UNI. The range of valid VCCs is setup using ILMI. 83. Are VP and VC unidirectional? Ans: This has been discussed at some length in the past in this group. Here is one way to look at the situation: each link in the ATM network can be split into two parts, one in each direction. Each directional sub link has the entire range of VCCs (pt-pt links can distinguish between directional data streams). In this context, VCs and VPs can be considered unidirectional. However, one always allocates the same VPI/VCI in both directions for a connection. This may be considered a limitation of the signalling spec or a simplification. 84. Is it necessary to allocate same Bandwidth in both directions?

Ans: Nevertheless, there is no constraint that the same bandwidth must be allocated in both directions. In fact, each direction is an independent traffic stream and has its own traffic parameters and QoS. Some connections may assign the same parameters to both directions if the traffic flows are symmetrical but this is certainly no requirement. Irrespective of all the above, implementation wise, VPs and VCs must be bidirectional and some bandwidth must be allocated in both directions to order to support OAM flows. Maybe this is hidden from a user but it needs to be done just the same. 85. What is VPCI and how does it differ from VPI? Often in SVC context, we see the terminology VPCI used in Connection Identifier IE. How does VPCI differ from VPI? Ans: "The Connection identifier information element is used in signalling messages to identify the corresponding user information flow. The Connection identifier information element contains the Virtual Path Connection Identifier (VPCI) and the Virtual Channel Identifier (VCI). The VPCI is used instead of the Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) since virtual path cross connects may be used in the access and multiple interfaces could be controlled by the signalling virtual channel. Both the user and the network must understand the relationship between the VPCI used in the signalling protocol and the actual VPI used for the user information flow. VPCIs only have significance with regard to a given signalling virtual channel. If the signalling virtual channel only controls a single interface at the user side, the VPI and the VPCI have the same numerical value at the user side.

Questions about ATM efficiency

86. What is Goodput? Ans: When ATM is used to transport cells originating from higher-level protocols (HLP), an important consideration is the impact of ATM cell loss on that protocol or at least the segmentation process. ATM cell loss can cause the effective throughput of some HLPs to be arbitrarily poor depending on ATM switch buffer size, HLP congestion control mechanisms, and packet size. This occurs because during congestion for example, and ATM switch buffer can overflow which will cause cells to be dropped from multiple packets, ruining each such packet. The preceding and the remaining cells from such packets, which are ultimately discarded by the frame reassembly process in the receiver, are nevertheless transmitted on an already congested link, thus wasting valuable link bandwidth.

87. What is Badput? The traffic represented by these "bad" cells may be termed as BADPUT. Correspondingly, the effective throughput, as determined by those cells which are successfully recombined at the receiver, can be termed as GOODPUT. 88. What is early packet drop? Ans: One method of increasing the efficiency of ATM over AAL5 is to drop all remaining cells for a given packet if one of the cells is lost. This functionality is sometimes referred to as "early packet drop." 89. What is Partial/Early Packet Discard (PPD/EPD) Ans: PPD stands for Partial Packet Discard and EPD stands for Early Packet Discard. These two are actually ATM cell discard techniques which maximize "Goodput" by taking advantage of the notion that some types of ATM traffic are made up of large packets that are segmented into a series (or burst) of ATM/AAL5 cells. This notion holds true for classic IP over ATM and for LAN emulation (LANE). 90. PPD/EPD interaction with Traffic Policing? Ans: One action of traffic policing is to CLP=1 mark (TAG) cells which exceed a VCs specific traffic parameters. As these cells traverse an ATM network they will be discarded IF congestion occurs at some place in the network. Implicitly this gives CLP=0 (not TAGed) cells priority in that the CLP=1 cells will be dropped first. It is the result of traffic policing and the operation of CLP tagging that causes cells to be discarded, which can then trigger EPD/PPD. However it is also possible for policing to be doing the right thing and, for example, not tagging any cells, yet still output queues are congested and the need for EPD emerges. 91. How does ATM perform in transporting IP packets? Ans: It is important to consider payload size when estimating IP efficiency. Typical packet size on Internet is between 0 - 512 bytes Almost 70% of TCP datagrams are approximately 40 bytes (TCP ACKs) Almost 80% of UDP datagrams are less than 48 bytes Unfortunately, the transmission efficiency of ATM networks in transporting typical Internet Traffic does not seem all that encouraging. This is primarily because ATM chops a variable size packet into fixed-size 48-bytes cells. Usually the last cell of the packet will be padded with dummy bytes (Cell padding) adding to inefficiency.

The efficiency drops considerably as the payload size nears 48-bytes.The type of Physical link. (SONET/DS3 etc) does not seem to have any effect on the efficiency factor. 92. Give some of the commonly used datagram sizes. Ans: Following table gives an indication of this for some of the commonly used datagram sizes. IP datagram 40 bytes 576 bytes 1500 bytes Efficiency ~ 42% ~ 92% ~ 97%

Questions about Emulation and Interoperability

93. What is the ATM Forum's LAN Emulation all about? Ans: The ATM Forum has published their LAN Emulation (LANE) V1.0 specification. Reference that spec for complete details. Here are the basics on the requirements and general approach. The organizations who worked on it thought LANE would be needed for two key reasons Allow an ATM network to be used as a LAN backbone for hubs, bridges, switching hubs (also sometimes called Ethernet switches or Token Ring switches) and the bridging feature in routers. Allow end stations connected to "legacy" LANs to communicate though a LAN-to-ATM hub/bridge/switch with an ATM-attached device (a file server, for example) without requiring the traffic to pass through a more complex device such as a router. Note that the LAN-attached device has a conventional, unchanged protocol stack, complete with MAC address, etc. 94. Does LANE replace Routers? Ans: LANE does not replace routers or routing, but provides a complementary MAClevel service which matches the trend to MAC-layer switching in the hubs and wire closets of large LANs. 95. What are three main areas required to emulate 802 LANs? LANE defines the three main areas required to emulate 802 LANs (connectionless, broadcast/multicast, 802 hardwired MAC addresses) over ATM networks (connection-oriented, point-to-point, network-defined telephone-like addresses).

96. How LANE emulate 802 LANs? Ans: LANE specifies: The address resolution procedures and protocols used to first discover the ATM address that corresponds to a given MAC station address (whether the station is directly ATM-attached, or sitting behind an Ethernet/ATM device) and then to set up a virtual circuit between the end points (or to the Ethernet/ATM device in front of the Ethernet end station). The protocols and procedures to send broadcast and multicast 802 packets over the network, using a LANE server with point-to-point circuits inbound and point-to-multipoint circuits back out to the clients. Same for how to "flood" (bridging term) packets across ATM, through Ethernet/ATM devices to reach Ethernet end stations, even those which have not sent a packet yet (thus making the Ethernet switch aware of them). The packet formats/encapsulations. 97. Can lane work on Token Ring? Ans: LANE also works for Token Ring so substitute Token Ring for Ethernet in the above. LANE also defines how an ATM adapter in a host can present an Ethernet or Token Ring logical interface to the protocol stack above. This enables applications and LAN protocols which were implemented to run above the aforesaid Ethernet or TR LANs to operate without change over an ATM network. 98. How does LANE work? Ans: Here is a brief on how LANE works with ATM:

LANE Client (LEC) Software resides on End System LANE Server (LES) Software resides on the Switch

On boot the ATM adapter registers with the local switch and exchanges management information. Switch provides a prefix to the ATM adapter which in combination with the MAC address of the adapter becomes the ATM address of the adapter. Switch also provides its ATM address. At this point the 2 ATM addresses are known so the LEC establishes a virtual circuit connection (VCC) with the LES. The LEC Registers its ATM/IP/MAC Address with the LES and joins the Emulated LAN. The LES adds the new LEC to the ARP distribution tree. The LEC now queries the LES for the broadcast/Unknown Server (BUS) for multi- cast. LES provides BUS address. LEC establishes VCC with BUS and registers its ATM/IP/MAC Address to multicast distribution tree.

99. What is DXI? Ans: The ATM DXI (Data Exchange Interface)is basically the functional equivalent of the SMDS DXI. Routers will handle frames and packets but not typically fragment them into cells; DSUs will fragment frames into cells as the information is mapped to the digital transmission facility. 100. What is SMDSDXI?

Ans: The DXI, then, provides the standard interface between routers and DSUs without requiring a bunch of proprietary agreements. The SMDS DXI is simple because the router does the frame (SMDS level 3) and the DSU does the cells (SMDS level 2). The ATM DXI is a little more complicated since it has to accommodate AAL3/4 and/or AAL5 (possibly concurrently). 101. Specs on how Frame Relay frames gets mapped to ATM cells.

Ans: There are at least four. One is the mapping defined for Frame Relay/ATM network interworking as defined in Version 1.1 of the ATM Forum's B-ICI spec (network interworking allows Frame Relay end users to communicate with each other over an ATM network). In this case frames are mapped using AAL 5 and the FRSSCS (Frame Relay specific service-specific convergence sublayer). Despite the long-winded name, the essentials of the mapping are quite simple to describe: remove the flags and FCS from a Frame Relay frame, add the AAL-5 CPCS trailer, and segment the result into ATM cells using AAL 5 SAR rules. The spec defines additional details such as the mapping between FECN/BECN/DE in the Frame Relay header and EFCI/CLP bits in the ATM cell headers. 102. How Mapping is done in ATM DXI mode?

Ans: A second mapping is ATM DXI (data exchange interface) mode 1a. This is not strictly a Frame Relay to ATM mapping but rather uses an HDLC frame structure identical to that of Frame Relay frames with a two-byte address field (i.e. a 10-bit DLCI). The HDLC DXI frame address (called DFA in the spec) gets stripped off and the 10 bits of the "DLCI" get mapped in a funny way to the VPI and VCI of the ATM cells. The remainder of the DXI frame gets an AAL 5 CPCS trailer and is chopped up into cells by standard AAL 5 rules. 103. What is ATM/Frame Relay service interworking?

A third mapping is used for ATM/Frame Relay service interworking. This version allows for conversion between the RFC 1490 multiprotocol encapsulation and the RFC 1483 multiprotocol encapsulation. It uses AAL5 with the RFC 1483 encapsulation within the network. It allows a Frame Relay user to communicate with a user of a different service (e.g. SMDS/CBDS) across the ATM network.

104.

What is MPOA?

Ans: The ATM Forum's Multiprotocol Over ATM (MPOA) sub working group is developing an approach to support seamless transport of layer 3 protocols across ATM networks. Layer 3 protocols meaning things like IP and IPX. MPOA, operating at layer 2 and 3, will use the ATM Forum LAN Emulation for its layer 2 forwarding. As such, MPOA can be seen as an evolution beyond LANE. LANE basically connects together a single legacy LAN subnet across ATM. MPOA will take this further by allowing direct ATM connectivity between hosts in different subnets. 105. What is the proposed architecture of ATM connectivity?

Ans: The proposed architecture consists of edge devices and route servers. An edge device (not necessarily user equipment) would forward packets between the LAN and ATM networks, establishing ATM connections when needed, but would not be involved directly in routing. Edge devices would query a Route Server when an unknown host address is encountered. Route Servers would be able to map a host address into the information needed by the edge device to establish a connection across the ATM network. That would be the layer 3 address of the optimal exit point from the ATM network as well as the ATM address of that exit point. Route servers would also be able to forward packets on to the exit point on behalf of the edge device while they are establishing their own ATM virtual circuits. (This last part is LANE.) 106. Info about classical IP over ATM

Ans: RFC1483 defines the encapsulation of IP datagrams (or other protocols) directly in AAL5. Classical IP and ARP over ATM, defined in RFC1577, is targeted towards making IP run over ATM in the most efficient manner utilizing as many of the facilities of ATM as possible. It considers the application of ATM as a direct replacement for the "wires" and local LAN segments connection IP end-stations and routers operating in the "classical" LAN-based paradigm. A comprehensive document, RFC1577 defines the ATMARP protocol for logical IP subnets (LISs). Within an LIS, IP addresses map directly into ATM Forum UNI 3.0 addresses. For communicating out a LIS, an IP router must be used - following the classical IP routing mode. 107. What is a Logical IP Subnet (LIS) and how does it differ from any other subnet? Ans: RFC1577 is the document which defines LIS, but it doesn't make the concept as obvious as one might wish, although the info is in there in section 3.

The short Ans is that Logical IP subnets are identical, in all "protocol" aspects, to conventional LAN etc media subnets. The key aspects that matter in this context are that ATM-attached systems in the same LIS have the same network numbers and subnet masks, just as on an Ethernet or other conventional media. Also, two ATMattached systems not in the same LIS cannot communicate via RFC1577 except through a router, even though they are both attached to the same ATM physical network, with ATM-level connectivity available (PVC or SVC) between them. This second limitation was a significant factor in the creation of RFC1577. The issues of "cut-through routing", or communications between two systems in different IP subnets on a common ATM network (as well as other connection-oriented networks) were found to be complex, and there was a desire to define at least the standard or "Classical" means of running IP over ATM before all those issues were resolved.

ATM signalling and SVC

108. Define PVC.

Ans: First lets define the three terms, PVC, Soft PVC, and SVC. PVC in the usual meaning is a VC that is not signaled by the end points. Both of the endpoint (user) VC values are manually provisioned. The link-by-link route through the network is also manually provisioned. If any equipment fails, the PVC is down, unless the underlying physical network (SONET, for example) can re-route below ATM. So PVC is a VC which is statically mapped at every point in the ATM network. A failure of any link that PVC crosses results in the failure of the PVC. 109. Define Soft PVC.

A Soft PVC also has manually provisioned endpoint (user) VC values (which as defined above do not change), but the route through the network can be automatically revised if there is a failure. Historically this feature pretty much required a singlevendor network. A vendor may employ signalling (invisibly to the endpoints) within the network, or may just have a workstation somewhere sending proprietary configuration commands when it detects a failure. However, the PNNI 1.0 spec defines a standard way of doing this which does not require a vendor proprietary solution. So a Soft PVC is a VC that is programmed to be present at all times (like a PVC), but does not use static routes to determine its path through the ATM network. Failure of a link causes a Soft PVC to route around the outage and remain available. 110. Define SVC.

A SVC is established by UNI signalling methods. So an SVC is a demand connection initiated by the user. If a switch in the path fails, the SVC is broken and would have to be reconnected.

111.

Differentiate between PVC, Soft PVC and SVC?

Summarizing, the difference between a PVC and a Soft PVC is that a Soft PVC will be automatically rerouted if a switch or link in the path fails. From that perspective a Soft PVC is considered more robust that a simple PVC. The difference between a SVC and a Soft PVC is that a SVC is established on an "as needed" basis through user signalling. With a Soft PVC the called party cannot drop the connection. 112. I have not been able to find information about how connections in the ATM layer of ATM are set up. Since ATM is connection oriented the AAL somehow must signal to the ATM layer that it wants to have a connection open to another host. How is this signalling done? Ans: Actually, it's not the AAL layer that originates the request for a connection (although if one were a strict believer in network layering, one might assume so :-). AAL just defines how information of a given type is packaged for transporting over the ATM network. There is a signalling protocol (which, by the way, uses AAL5) which defines a protocol which includes the end stations, plus any relevant ATM switches along the path. There are various entities above AAL that could determine a connection is needed, including the LAN Emulation Client, an IP-ATM end station, a direct video-overATM application, or a human network operator. If the connection is set up via Switched Virtual Circuits (SVC's), then the protocol used is most likely most commonly referenced via the ATM Forum's specs:

UNI 3.0 (most commonly in use for ATM/data interoperability

today), UNI 3.1 (the update for Q.2931 compatibility, no functional changes) UNI 4.0 (approved in 1996)

If the connection is set up by manual means, then the management interface of your nearby switch is most relevant.

113. Ans:

What does a point-point SVC call setup trace look like?

114. Ans:

What does a point to multipoint SVC call setup trace look like?

115.

What is proxy signalling?

Ans: Proxy signalling capability allows a user, called the Proxy Signalling Agent (PSA), to perform signalling for one or more users that do not support Signalling. This enables End Systems that do not understand ATM Signalling to set up signal and set up SVC calls with the help of the Proxy Sig Agent.

PSA uses VPI/VPCI mapping to determine the destination User (that does not support signalling).

VPCI 1 2

UNI interface ID 10 11

VPI 0 0

Referring to the VPI/VPCI table above, if the signaled VPCI is 1, the PSA now understands that the SVC call is destined for UNI interface 10 on VPI=0.

ATM Physical Level Questions.

116. Whats the difference between SONET and SDH?

Ans:SONET and SDH are very close, but with just enough differences that they don't really interoperate. Probably the major difference between them is that SONET is based on the STS-1 at 51.84 Mb/s (for efficient carrying of T3 signals), and SDH is based on the STM-1 at 155.52 Mb/s (for efficient carrying of E4 signals). As such, the way payloads are mapped into these respective building blocks differ (which makes sense, given how the European and North American PDHs differ). The following table shows how the US STS and the European STM levels compare:

Questions about ATM service types

117. What is the meaning of CBR, VBR, ABR, UBR?

Ans: CBR (constant bit rate) The CBR service classs is intended for real-time applications, i.e. those requring tightly constrained delay and delay variation, as would be appropriate for voice and video applications. The consistent availability of a fixed quantity of bandwidth is considered appropriate for CBR service. Cells which are delayed beyond the value specified by CTD(cell transfer delay) are assumed to be significantly less value to the application. For CBR, the following ATM attributes are specified:

PCR/CDVT(peak cell rate/cell delay variation tolerance)

Cell Loss Rate CTD/CDV CLR may be unspecified for CLP=1.

118.

What is the meaning of VBR? Real time VBR The real time VBR service class is intended for real-time applications, i.e., those requiring tightly constrained delay and delay variation, as would be appropriate for voice and video applications. Sources are expected to transmit at a rate which varies with time. Equivalently the source can be described "bursty". Cells which are delayed beyond the value specified by CTD are assumed to be of significantly less value to the application. Real-time VBR service may support statistical multiplexing of real-time sources, or may provide a consistently guaranteed QoS. For real time VBR, the following ATM attributes are specified:

PCR/CDVT CLR CTD/CDV SCR and BT(sustainable cell rate and burst tolerance)

Non-real time VBR The non-real time VBR service class is intended for non-real time applications which have 'bursty' traffic characteristics and which can be characterized in terms of a GCRA. For those cells which are transferred, it expects a bound on the cell transfer delay. Non-real time VBR service supports statistical multiplexing of connections. For non-real time VBR, the following attributes are supported:

PCR/CDVT CLR CTD SCR and BT

119.

What is the meaning of UBR?

Ans: UBR (unspecified bit rate) The UBR service class is intended for delay-tolerant or non-real-time applications, i.e., those which do not require tightly constrained delay and delay variation, such as traditional computer communications applications. Sources are expected to transmit non-continuous bursts of cells. UBR service supports a high degree of statistical

multiplexing among sources. UBR service includes no notion of a per-VC allocated bandwidth resource. Transport of cells in UBR service is not necessarily guaranteed by mechanisms operating at the cell level. However it is expected that resources will be provisioned for UBR service in such a way as to make it usable for some set of applications. UBR service may be considered as interpretation of the common term "best effort service". For UBR, the following ATM attributes are specified: 120. PCR/CDVT What is the meaning of ABR?

Ans: ABR (available bit rate) Many applications have the ability to reduce their information transfer rate if the network requires them to do so. Likewise, they may wish to increase their information transfer rate if there is extra bandwidth available within the network. There may not be deterministic parameters because the users are willing to live with unreserved bandwidth. To support traffic from such sources in an ATM network will require facilities different from those for Peak Cell Rate of Sustainable Cell Rate traffic. 121. What are different names for similar services classes?

Class A is CBR with accurate timing (e.g. phone calls) Class B is VBR with timing (e.g. pocketsize phone calls) Class C is VBR without accurate timing Class D is connectionless VBR without accurate timing Class X is UBR Class Y is ABR

122. Ans:

What are DBR and SBR?

DBR - Deterministic Bit Rate SBR - Statistical Bit Rate

How does ATM differ from SMDS? Ans: SMDS is the Switched Multi-megabit Data Service, a service offering interface from Bell core. SMDS provides a datagram service, where a packet has about a 40octet header plus up to 9188 octets of data. The packets themselves may or may not be transported within the network on top of a connection- oriented ATM service. SMDS uses E.164 (ISDN) addresses. Therefore SMDS is a connectionless packet switched *service*, not a cell-relay service.

However, the SMDS Subscriber Network Interface is currently defined to use IEEE 802.6 Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB) access across the SMDS user-network interface. DQDB itself *is* a form of cell relay. The lower layers of SMDS fragment the packets into cells with a 5-octet header and 48-octet payload. The payload itself has a 2-octet header, 44-octets of data, plus a 2-octet trailer. An SMDS cell therefore is nearly identical in form to an AAL3/4 cell. Note that while DQDB is used as the access protocol, either DQDB or AAL3/4 may be used for the switch-to-switch interface.