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3
Demand for labor
As the diagram below illustrates, it is argued that there is an inverse relationship between the wage rate and the quantity of labor demanded. This negative relationship between the wage and the quantity of labor demanded is the result of two effects: o a substitution effect, and o a scale effect. Suppose that the wage rate increases. The substitution effect of the wage increase involves the substitution of other resources (such as capital, energy, materials, and other categories of labor) for the category of labor that has become more expensive. As the wage rate rises, the substitution effect results in a reduction in the quantity of labor demanded. The scale effect resulting from a wage increase is a bit more complex. As the wage rate rises, the scale effect involves the following chain of effects: higher wages result in higher average and marginal costs of production, higher average and marginal and average costs result in an increase in the equilibrium price of the product, as the price of the product rises, the equilibrium quantity of the product demanded declines (a reduction in the "scale" of production), and the reduction in output results in a reduction in the quantity of all inputs used to produce this product (including this category of labor). Thus, both the substitution and scale effects result in a reduction in the quantity of labor demanded when the wage rate rises. Be sure to not confuse a change in the quantity of labor demanded with a change in the demand for labor. A change in the wage changes the quantity of labor demanded, but does not affect labor demand. Labor demand changes only if the labor demand curve shifts in some manner (as discussed below). Changes in labor demand The labor demand is affected by: o the demand for the product, and o the prices of other resources. Let's examine how each of these factors affects labor demand. The demand for labor (and any other resource) is a derived demand. This means that the demand for a resource is derived from the demand for the output that the resource produces. For example, the demand for workers
Demand for labour : a derived demand Demand for labour is a derived demand, From macro economic view point the demand for labour mainly depends on the level of the aggregate demand. But at the firm level it depends on Marginal Revenue Product if others thing remain constant. Consequently, The Firms demand for labour or any other input is derived indirectly from the consumer demand for its product.
Substitution and income effects of a wage change A change in the wage results in two effects on an individual's labor supply: a substitution effect, and an income effect.
As the wage rate rises, the opportunity cost of leisure time rises. In response to this higher wage, individuals consume less leisure time and spend more time at work. This is the substitution effect resulting from a higher wage. An increase in the wage, however, also raises an individual's real income. This leads to an increase in the consumption of all normal goods. Since leisure is expected to be a normal good for most individuals, a higher wage will generally induce individuals to consume more leisure time (and reduce hours of work). Individuals who receive a higher wage can afford to take more time off from work. This is the income effect resulting from a wage increase. If we assume that leisure is a normal good, an increase in the wage will cause the quantity of labor supplied to: increase if the substitution effect is larger than the income effect, and decrease if the income effect is larger than the substitution effect.
This may result in a backward-bending labor supply curve. In the diagram, it is suggested that, at relatively low wages, individuals respond to an increase in the wage by working additional hours (since the substitution effect exceeds the income effect). Eventually, though, when the wage
Labor supply to individual firms In a perfectly competitive labor market, the labor supply curve facing each firm is horizontal. Recall that there are so many buyers and sellers in a perfectly competitive market that each buyer and seller is a "price taker." In this case, each firm may hire as many or as few workers as it wishes at the prevailing market wage rate. This possibility is illustrated in the diagram below.
An equilibrium occurs in a labor market at the combination of wages and employment at which market demand and supply intersect (as illustrated in the diagram below). In this example, the equilibrium wage is w* and the equilibrium level of employment is L*.
If the wage rate is above the equilibrium, the quantity of labor supplied exceeds the quantity demanded and a surplus occurs. In this case, the existence of unemployed workers will be expected to result in downward pressure on the wage rate until an equilibrium is restored.
Shifts in equilibrium Shifts in demand and supply curves have been covered extensively in chapter-2, so there's no need to discuss these concepts in great detail here (if you are not comfortable with this, you may wish to review this material). Let's just note that: o an increase in labor demand results in an increase in both the equilibrium wage and the equilibrium level of employment, o a reduction in labor demand results in a decrease in both the equilibrium wage and the equilibrium level of employment, o an increase in labor supply results in a lower equilibrium wage, but a higher equilibrium level of employment, and o a reduction in labor supply results in a higher equilibrium wage, but a lower equilibrium level of employment. (You may wish to draw these possibilities on a piece of paper to be sure that you understand these concepts)