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HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE

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Index
Page No. A. Introduction B. Hybrid Electric Vehicle C. Types of HV D. Hybrid components E. Energy Storage Systems 1. Batteries 2. Ultracapacitors 3. Fly Wheels F. Hybrid Power Unit 1. Spark Ignition Engines 2. Compression Ignition Direct Injection Engines(CIDI) 3 4 5 6 7 7 8 9 10 10 12

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3. Gas Turbines 4. Fuel Cells G. Vehicle Propulsion Systems 1. Electric Motor a. Series Configuration b. Parallel Configuration 2. Transmission H. Regenerative Braking I. Hybrid efficiency J. Specifications of HVs K. Conclusion L. Reference

12 13 14 14 15 16 17 17 18 20 21 21

A] Introduction
The increasing level of air pollution due to automobile emissions is becoming the main concern of urban citizens. Also, if we go on using the conventional fuels at the same exponential rate, then certainly they are going to be over within some time. So we need some other type of automobiles which will be Eco-friendly and which will use fuel other than the presently used conventional fuels. They must have the following features: 1) Eco friendly. 3) Less polluting. 5) Easily available. 2) More efficient. 4) Quiet. 6) Safe.

7) Easy maintenance and service. All these features characterize Hybrid electric vehicles. Any vehicle is a hybrid when it combines two or more sources of

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power. A hybrid electric vehicle combines an energy storage system, a power unit and a propulsion system. A hybrid vehicle's efficiency and emissions depend on the particular combination of subsystems, how these subsystems are integrated into a complete system, and the control strategy that integrates the subsystems. A hydrogen fuel cell hybrid, for example, would produce only water as a by-product and run at greater overall efficiency than a battery-electric vehicle that uses wall-plug electricity. An extra advantage of hybrid vehicles is the regenerative braking system and minimum energy losses. Hybrid electric vehicle Energy Storage System Hybrid Power Unit Vehicle Propulsion system Batteries Ultracapacitors Fly Wheels S.I. Engines C.I.D.I. Engines Gas Turbine Fuel Cells Hybrid vehicles like car, submarine, Aircraft, Space Craft are invented. Already the companies like Maini Group- Reva (India), Honda (USA), Toyota (Japan) etc have started the production of hybrid vehicles. Auto manufacturers are making these HEVs with comparable performance, safety, and cost because they know that these three elements are most important to consumers. And by combining gasoline with electric power, hybrids will have the same or greater range than traditional combustion engines. The HEV is able to operate approximately two times more efficiently than conventional vehicles. Honda Insight can go 700 miles on a single tank of gas. The Toyota Prius can go about 500 miles. For the driver, hybrids offer similar or better performance than conventional vehicles Also, Tata Motors are considering to enter the field of HEVs. French military aerospace major Dassault group has initiated talks with them to produce an market electric passenger cars in India. But Hybrid Vehicle is only in its earlier stages and still a lot has to be done Electric Motor (Series / Parallel) Transmission

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in order to make the hybrid vehicles commercially viable.

B] Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)

Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) combine the internal combustion engine of a conventional vehicle with the battery and electric motor of an electric vehicle, resulting in twice the fuel economy of conventional vehicles. This combination offers the extended range and rapid refueling that consumers expect from a conventional vehicle, with a significant portion of the energy and environmental benefits of an electric vehicle. The practical benefits of HEVs include improved fuel economy and lower emissions compared to conventional vehicles. The inherent flexibility of HEVs will allow them to be used in a wide range of applications, from personal transportation to commercial hauling. Hybrid power systems were conceived as a way to compensate for the shortfall in battery technology. Because batteries could supply only enough energy for short trips, an onboard generator, powered by an internal combustion engine, could be installed and used for longer trips. In the old days, we thought that by biasing the system toward battery-electric power and operating on wallplug electricity as much as possible, efficiency and emissions would then be about as optimal as we could hope for until better batteries came along. The natural conclusion of this concept was that, with better batteries, we probably would not need hybrids at all. But after 20 years of study, it seems that hybrids are taking center stage and electric vehicles are only being used in niche market applications where fewer miles are traveled. More efficient cars can make a big difference to society in terms of environmental benefits, and the serious deterioration of urban air has motivated regulators to require cleaner cars. Use of production HEVs will reduce smogforming pollutants over the current national average. Hybrids will never be true zero-emission vehicles, however, because of their internal combustion engine. But the first hybrids on the market will cut emissions of global-warming pollutants by a third to a half, and later models may cut emissions by even more. C] Types of Hybrid vehicles :- Hybrid vehicles are all around us. Most of

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the locomotives we see pulling trains are diesel-electric hybrids. Cities like Seattle have diesel-electric buses -- these can draw electric power from overhead wires or run on diesel when they are away from the wires. Giant mining trucks are often diesel-electric hybrids. Submarines are also hybrid vehicles -- some are nuclear-electric and some are diesel-electric. Any vehicle that combines two or more sources of power that can directly or indirectly provide propulsion power is a hybrid.

The Mercedes-Benz M-Class HYPER -- a hybrid concept vehicle

D] Hybrid Components
Hybrid cars contain the following parts:
1.

Gasoline engine - The hybrid car has a gasoline Engine much like the

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one you will find on most cars. However, the engine on a hybrid is smaller and uses advanced technologies to reduce emissions and increase efficiency.
2.

Fuel tank - The Fuel tank in a hybrid is the energy storage device for the gasoline engine. Gasoline has a much higher energy density than batteries do. For example, it takes about 1,000 pounds of batteries to store as much energy as 1 gallon (7 pounds) of gasoline.

3.

Electric motor - The Electric motor on a hybrid car is very sophisticated. Advanced electronics allow it to act as a motor as well as a generator. For example, when it needs to, it can draw energy from the batteries to accelerate the car. But acting as a generator, it can slow the car down and return energy to the batteries.

4.

Generator - The Generator is similar to an electric motor, but it acts only to produce electrical power. It is used mostly on series hybrids.

5.

Batteries - The Batteries in a hybrid car are the energy storage device for the electric motor. Unlike the gasoline in the fuel tank, which can only power the gasoline engine, the electric motor on a hybrid car can put energy into the batteries as well as draw energy from them.

6.

Transmission - The Transmission on a hybrid car performs the same basic function as the transmission on a conventional car. Some hybrids, like the Honda Insight, have conventional transmissions. Others, like the Toyota Prius, have radically different ones, which we'll talk about later.

E] Energy Storage System

1. Batteries 2. Ultracapacitors 3. Fly Wheels

1. Batteries
Batteries are an essential component of the HEVs currently under development. Although a few production HEVs with advanced batteries have been introduced in the market, no current battery technology has demonstrated an economical, acceptable combination of power, energy efficiency, and life

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cycle for high-volume production vehicles. The Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles program has established technical targets for the program's hybrid battery development efforts for power-assist and dual-mode HEVs. Desirable attributes of high-power batteries for HEV applications are high-peak and pulse-specific power, high specific energy at pulse power, a high charge acceptance to maximize regenerative braking utilization, and long calendar and cycle life. Developing methods/designs to balance the packs electrically and thermally, developing accurate techniques to determine a battery's state of charge, developing abuse-tolerant batteries, and recyclability are additional technical challenges. Lead acid batteries: - used currently in many electric vehicles, are potentially usable in hybrid applications.. Advanced high-power lead acid batteries are being developed for HEV applications. Nickel-metal hydride batteries: - These batteries have been used successfully in production EVs and recently in low-volume production HEVs. The main challenges with nickel-metal hydride batteries are their high cost, high selfdischarge and heat generation at high temperatures, the need to control losses of hydrogen, and their low cell efficiency. Lithium ion batteries: - They also have high specific power, high energy efficiency, good high-temperature performance, and low self-discharge. Components of lithium ion batteries could also be recycled. These characteristics make lithium ion batteries suitable for HEV applications. However, to make them commercially viable for HEVs, further development is needed similar to those for the EV-design versions including improvement in calendar and cycle life, higher degree of cell and battery safety, abuse tolerance, and acceptable cost. Lithium polymer batteries: - with high specific energy, initially developed for EV applications, also have the potential to provide high specific power for HEV applications. The other key characteristics of the lithium polymer are safety and good cycle and calendar life. The battery could be commercially viable if the cost is lowered and higher specific power batteries are developed.

2. Ultracapacitors

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Ultracapacitors are higher specific energy and power versions of electrolytic capacitors-devices that store energy as an electrostatic charge. They are electrochemical systems that store energy in a polarized liquid layer at the interface between an ionically conducting electrolyte and a conducting electrode. Energy storage capacity increases by increasing the surface area of the interface. Ultracapacitors are being developed as primary energy devices for power assist during acceleration and hill climbing, as well as recovery of braking energy. They are also potentially useful as secondary energy storage devices in HEVs, providing load-leveling power to chemical batteries. Current research and development aims to create ultracapacitors with capabilities of Wh/kg and 1,000 W/kg. Additional electronics are required to maintain a constant voltage, because voltage drops as energy is discharged.

3. Flywheels
Although flywheels are being used in some bus applications today, more work needs to be done to make flywheels safe and effective for HEV automotive applications. Current flywheels are still very complex, heavy, and large for personal vehicles. In addition, there are some concerns regarding the safety of a device that spins mass at high speeds. Flywheels store kinetic energy within a rapidly spinning wheel-like rotor or disk. Ultimately, flywheels could store amounts of energy comparable to batteries. They contain no acids or other potentially hazardous materials. Flywheels are not affected by temperature extremes, as most batteries are. Flywheels have been used in various forms for centuries, and have a long history of use in automotive applications. Early cars used a hand crank connected to a flywheel to start the engine, and all of today's internal combustion engines use flywheels to store energy and deliver a smooth flow of power from the abrupt power pulses of the engine. Modern flywheels employ a high-strength composite rotor, which rotates in a vacuum chamber to minimize aerodynamic losses. A motor/generator is mounted on the rotor's shaft both to spin the rotor up to speed (charging) and to convert the rotor's kinetic energy to electrical energy (discharging). A high-

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strength containment structure houses the rotating elements and low-energyloss bearings stabilize the shaft. Interface electronics are needed to convert the alternating current to direct current, condition the power, and monitor and control the flywheel. Flywheels could be used in HEVs in several ways, and all of them exploit the ability to deliver very high power pulses. One concept combines a flywheel with a standard engine, providing a power assist. Another concept employs a flywheel to load-level chemical batteries. Still another uses a large or multiple flywheels to replace chemical batteries entirely (in some uses, a flywheel is referred to as an "electromechanical battery"). For flywheels to have success in HEVs, however, they would need to provide higher energy densities than what is now available.

F ] Hybrid Power Unit :

1. 2. 3. 4.

Spark Ignition Engines Compression Ignition Direct Injection Engines Gas Turbines Fuel Cells

1 . Spark Ignition (SI) Engine

A spark ignition (SI) engine runs on an Otto cycle most gasoline engines run on a modified Otto cycle. This cycle uses a homogeneous air-fuel mixture which is combined prior to entering the combustion chamber . Once in the combustion chamber ,the mixture is compressed , then ignited using a spark plug (spark ignition) . The SI engine is controlled by limiting the amount of air allowed in to the engine . This is accomplished through the use of a throttling valve placed on the air intake (carburetor or throttle body). Mitsubishi is working on the development of a certain type of SI engine called the gasoline Direct Injection Engine .

Advantages :

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A century of development and refinement : For the last century , the SI engine has been developed and used widely in automobiles. Continuous development of this technology has produced an engine that easily meets emissions & fuel economy standards. With current computer controls and reformulated gasoline , todays engines are much more efficient and less polluting than engines built around 20 years ago.

Low cost : The SI engine is the lowest cost engine because of the huge volume currently produced .

Disadvantages : The SI engine has a few weaknesses which havent been posing significant problems in the past , but they might be problematic in the near future.

Difficulty in meeting future emissions and fuel economy standards at a reasonable cost : Technology has progressed & will enable the SI

engine to meet current standards , but as requirements become tougher to meet ,the associated engine cost will continue to rise.

Throttling loss lowers the efficiency : To control an SI engine , the air allowed into the engine is restricted using a throttling plate . The engine is constantly fighting to draw air past the throttle , which expends energy.

Friction loss due to many moving parts : The SI engine is very complex and has many moving parts . The losses through bearing friction and sliding friction further reduce the efficiency of the engine.

Limited compression ratio lowers efficiency: Because the fuel is already mixed with the air during compression, it will auto-ignite (undesirable in a gasoline engine) , if the compression ratio is too high. The compression ratio of the engine is limited by the octane rating of the engine.

2. Compression Ignition Direct Injection( CIDI ) engine :

Progress continues to advance the compression-ignition-direct-injection (CIDI) engine, (more commonly called the Diesel engine), which has the highest thermal efficiency of any internal combustion engine. Challenges

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to improvements include a lower specific power than the gasoline engine; significant particulate matter and nitrogen oxides in the exhaust; and the noise, vibration and smell of the engine. Recent advancements in high-speed automotive diesel engines, which address some of these shortcomings, have made them nearly ideal candidates for HEV applications. These advancements include high-pressure direct fuel injection, low oxides of nitrogen catalysts, and sophisticated electronic controls. With a thermal efficiency greater than 40% and well-understood maintenance, reliability, manufacturing and operating characteristics, the highspeed CIDI engine show great promise as a near-term hybrid power unit (HPU). Fro example, through the HEV program, Ford developed a direct injection, aluminum through-bolt assembly (DIATA) engine to power its P2000 HEV.

3. Gas Turbine Engine :

The gas turbine engine runs using a continuous combustion process. In this cycle, a compressor (usually radial flow for automotive applications) raises the pressure and temperature of the inlet air. The air is then moved into the burner where the fuel is injected and combusted to raise the temperature of the air. Power is produced when the heated, high pressure mixture is expanded and cooled through a turbine. When a turbine engine is directly coupled to a generator, it is often called a Turbo-Generator or Turbo-Altenator. The power output of a turbine is controlled through the amount of fuel injected into the burner. Many turbines have adjustable vanes and/or gearing to decrease fuel consumption during partial load conditions and to improve acceleration. Advantages

The turbine is light and simple The only moving part of a simple turbine is the rotor. A turbine has no reciprocating motion , and consequently runs smoother than a reciprocating machine.

A turbine will run on a variety of fuels Any combustible fuel that can be injected into the airstream will burn in a turbine. A turbine has this

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flexibility because ; the continuous combustion is not heavily reliant on the combustion characteristics of the fuel.

A turbine produces low level of emissions Because of its multi-fuel capacity , a fuel which burns completely and cleanly can be used to reduce emissions.

Disadvantages The turbine engine has a few drawbacks, which have prevented its widespread use in automotive applications.

Turbine engines have high manufacturing costs - Because of the complicated design, manufacturing is expensive.

A turbine engine changes speed slowly A gas turbine is slow to respond (relative to a reciprocating engine) to changes in throttle request.

A gas turbine is less suitable for low-power applications At partial throttle conditions, the efficiency of the gas turbine decreases.

A turbine requires intercoolers, regenerators and/or reheaters to reach efficiencies comparable to current gasoline engines this adds significant cost complexity to a turbine engine.

5.

Fuel Cells
Fuel cells generate electricity through an electrochemical reaction that

combines hydrogen with ambient air. Pure hydrogen or any fossil fuel that has been reformed can be used to produce a hydrogen-rich gas. Methanol is a common fuel choice. For the most part , the fuel cells only emission is water vapor , giving it potential as the cleanest hybrid power unit alternative. Efficient , quiet and reliable, fuel cells are predicted to demonstrate energy conversion efficiencies up to 50%, relatively high in comparison to the 20-25 % efficiency of standard gasoline engines. The choice of fuel for a fuel-cell-powered HEV has important implications for required infrastructure, system accessories, efficiency, cost and design. Although its viability has been well-proven in the space-program, as well as in prototype vehicles developed by DOE and industry partners, very high capital costs , large size, long start-up times and immature technologies make it a

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longer-term enabling technology for an HEV.

G] Vehicle Propulsion System

1. Electric Motor
a. b.

Series Configuration Parallel Configuration

2. Transmission

1. Electric Motor
Motors are the work-houses of HEV drive systems. In a HEV, an electric traction motor converts electrical energy from the energy storage unit to mechanical energy that drives the wheels of the vehicle. Unlike a traditional vehicle, where the engine must ramp-up before full torque can be provided , an electric motor provides full torque at low speeds. This characteristic gives the vehicle excellent off the line acceleration. Important characteristics of an HEV motor include good drive control and fault tolerance, as well as low noise and high efficiency. Other characteristics include flexibility in relation to voltage fluctuations and, of course, acceptable mass production costs. Front-running motor technologies for HEV applications include the permanent magnet. AC induction and switched reluctance motors. These, as well as several other types of motors , are being evaluated in current HEV-related programs.
a.

Series Configuration

Battery Generator IC Engine Fuel Tank

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Transmission Wheels Electric Motor

An HEV with a series configuration uses the heat engine or fuel cell with a generator to produce electricity for the battery pack and electric motor. Series HEVs have no mechanical connection between the hybrid power unit and the wheels. This means that all motive power is transferred from chemical energy to mechanical energy to electrical energy, and back to mechanical energy to drive the wheels. Here are some benefits of a series configuration :

The engine never idles, which reduces vehicle emissions. The engine drives a generator to run at optimum performance. The design allows for a variety of options, when mounting the engine and vehicle components.

Some series hybrids dont need a transmission.

The downside is that series HEVs require larger and therefore, heavier battery packs than parallel vehicles. In addition, the engine works hard to maintain battery charge, because the system is not operating in parallel.

b.

Parallel Configuration

Wheels Transmission

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IC Engine Fuel Tank

Electric Motor Battery

An HEV with a parallel configurations has a direct mechanical connection between the HPU and the wheels, as in a conventional vehicle, but also has an electric motor that drives the wheels. For example, a parallel vehicle could use the power created from an internal combustion engine for highway driving and the power from the electric motor for accelerating. Some benefits of a parallel configurations are :

The vehicle has more power because both the engine and the motor supply power simultaneously.

Most parallel vehicle do not need a separate generator because the motor regenerates the batteries.

Because the power is directly coupled to the road, it can be more efficient.

A combination alternator/starter/flywheel is being considered for parallel HEVs. This is essentially an electric machine that can electronically balance the engine, start the engine and take power from the engine and turn it into electricity. It could also provide extra power to the driveline when power assist is needed for hill climbing or quick acceleration.

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2. Transmission
Hybrid electric vehicle HEVs can use a variety of transmissions, based on the system design of the vehicle. Some transmissions are more efficient than others, however, sometimes less efficient transmissions are used for a variety of reasons. The three types of transmission used in HEVs are:

Continuously variable transmission Automated shifted manual transmission Manual transmission

H] Regenerative Braking
One of the most important differences between an HEVs and conventional vehicle is the HEVs ability to reclaim a portion of the enegy otherwise lost to braking. Regenerative braking recovers useful electricity by putting it back into the batteries. Regenerative braking lets the motor act as a generator, converting the vehicle's momentum into electricity. So, when you take your foot off the accelerator or press the brake, the motor becomes a generator, slowing the car and returning energy to the battery. Since it takes energy to make energy, the vehicle's momentum is consumed and the vehicle slows. The immediate benefit of this process is that it simulates the compression braking (slowdown effect) feature of gas engines, reducing the brake wear normal to most cars. Energy spent climbing uphill is recovered on the way down, rather than wasted burning up brakes!. In Toyota Prius reclaims approximately 30% of the Kinetic energy lost as heat to friction brakes. In Reva, regenerative braking makes driving in stop-and-go rush hour traffic smooth and effortless.

I] Hybrid Efficiency
Besides a smaller, more efficient engine, today's hybrids use many other tricks to increase fuel efficiency. Some of those tricks will help any type of car get better mileage, and some only apply to a hybrid. To squeeze every last mile out

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of a gallon of gasoline, a hybrid car can:

7.

Recover energy and store it in the battery - Whenever you step on the brake pedal in your car, you are removing energy from the car. The faster a car is going, the more kinetic energy it has. The brakes of a car remove this energy and dissipate it in the form of heat. A hybrid car can capture some of this energy and store it in the battery to use later. It does this by using "regenerative braking." That is, instead of just using the brakes to stop the car, the electric motor that drives the hybrid can also slow the car. In this mode, the electric motor acts as a generator and charges the batteries while the car is slowing down.

8.

Sometimes shut off the engine - A hybrid car does not need to rely on the gasoline engine all of the time because it has an alternate power source -- the electric motor and batteries. So the hybrid car can sometimes turn off the gasoline engine, for example when the vehicle is stopped at a red light.

9.

Use advanced aerodynamics to reduce drag - When you are driving on the freeway, most of the work your engine does goes into pushing the car through the air. This force is known as aerodynamic drag. This drag force can be reduced in a variety of ways. One sure way is to reduce the frontal area of the car. Think of how a big SUV has to push a much greater area through the air than a tiny sports car. Reducing disturbances around objects that stick out from the car or eliminating help to improve example, housings reduce drag. them altogether can also the aerodynamics. For covers over the wheel smooth the airflow and And sometimes, mirrors

are replaced with small cameras.

10.

Use low-rolling resistance tires - The tires on most cars are optimized to give a smooth ride, minimize noise, and provide good traction in a variety of weather conditions. But they are rarely optimized for efficiency. In fact, the tires cause a surprising amount of drag while you are driving. Hybrid

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cars use special tires that are both stiffer and inflated to a higher pressure than conventional tires. The result is that they cause about half the drag of regular tires.
11.

Use lightweight materials - Reducing the overall weight of a car is one easy way to increase the mileage. A lighter vehicle uses less energy each time you accelerate or drive up a hill. Composite materials like carbon fiber or lightweight metals like aluminum and magnesium can be used to reduce weight.

Forthcoming HVs
Below are some of the models manufacturers soon plan to integrate into the consumer market. Manufacturer Model Model Year Daimler-Chrysler Dodge Ram 2005 Daimler-Chrysler Mercedes S-class 2006 Ford Escape 2005 General Motors Chevy Equinox 2006 General Motors Chevy Silverado 2005 General Motors GMC-Sierra 2005 General Motors Saturn-VUE 2005 Lexus RX Hybrid SUV 2005 Toyota Highlander 2005

J] Specifications of HVs 1. REVA ( MAINI GROUP BANGLORE, INDIA)

Type : Payload : Top Speed : Charge time : Two-door hatchback 2 adults and 2 children 65 Km/hr 80% charge in 2.5 hrs; 100% in 6 hrs

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Integrated Power System

Motor : peak Controller : Charger : EMS : Power pack :

High Torque (70NM), separately excited DC motor, 13 KW 400 Amp microprocessor-based with regenerative braking 220 V, 2.2 kW, High frequency switch mode type Microprocessor based battery management system 48V, 200 (C-5) Amp-Hr, EV tubular lead acid batteries

DC - DC Converter : 48V to 13.5V, 400W Dimensions Length : Width : Height : Wheel Base : Turning Radius : Curb Weight : 2638 mm 1324 mm 1510 mm 1710 mm 3505 mm 670 Kg

Ground Clearance : 150 mm

k] Conclusion
Thus , HEVs have several advantages over conventional vehicles:

Regenerative braking capability helps to minimise energy losses and recover the energy used to slow down or stop a vehicle.

Engines can be sized to accommodate average load, not peak, which reduces the engines weight.

Fuel efficiency is greatly increased (hybrids consume significantly less fuel then vehicles powered by gasoline alone).

Emissions are greatly decreased. HEVs can reduce dependency on fossil fuels because they can run on alternative fuels.

Special lightweight materials are used to reduce the overall vehicle weight of HEVs. More important, because of such performance is available now,

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hybrids are a practical way for people to choose a cleaner drive today.

L] Reference :
IEEE journal spectrum www.hybridcars.com www.howstuffworks.com www.renewingindia.org www.ott.doe.gov www.fuelcell.com ################################################################