Phanerozoic Petroliferous Basins of India

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Phanerozoic Petroliferous Basins of India

P.K. BHOWMICK*

Keshav Deo Malviya Institute for Petroleum Exploration, Oil and Natural Gas Commission, 9, Kaulagarh Road, Dehradun - 248 195 The term Phanerozoic or revealed life, which is applied to Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras, represents a relatively brief geological period of half-a-billion years that constitutes the age of multi-cellular animal life on Earth, and which left a detailed fossil record and built up complex and diverse ecosystems. Though there was complex Late Precambrian (Vendian/Ediacaran) biota, the Phanerozoic period defines the period of development and evolution of higher groups of organisms like arthropods, mollusks, vertebrates, etc. The sedimentary basins of India have received attention of geoscientists due to increased activities for petroleum exploration since 1950s. Sophisticated geophysical technique together with drilling made it possible to obtain vast amount of subsurface data, and tied wherever possible with surface geology. These gave new insight into the mechanisms of various types of basin formation and their relationship with the different petroleum occurrences. In India, hydrocarbons have been struck in different basins ranging in age throughout the Phanerozoic. The most relevant feature has been the occurrence of most of the commercial hydrocarbons within the Cenozoic successions both on land and offshore. The Mesozoic, comprising a shallow marine Jurassic succession in Kutch-Rajasthan and poorly developed shallow shelf facies of the Cretaceous in most parts of the eastern coastal basins between Assam and southern tip of India, have had relatively lesser hydrocarbon finds till date. We have, however, the Gondwana successions in several parts of the country which contains rich coal deposits where exploration for coal bed methane (CBM) has taken off in a big way. Not all the Phanerozoic sedimentary basins in India are equally prospective, as borne out by the oil exploration programme and a small number of basins produce most of the hydrocarbons. Proven petroliferous sedimentary basins with commercial production include the Mumbai offshore, Cambay, Assam-Arakan, Cauvery, KrishnaGodavari and Tripura-Cachar basins. Sedimentary basins with known occurrence of hydrocarbons but lacking commercial production include Andaman-Nicobar, Bengal, Mahanadi, Himalayan Foothills and Rajasthan basins. Basins which on general geological grounds appear fairly prospective but where significant amounts of hydrocarbon have not yet been found, the Kutch-Saurashtra and KeralaKonkan basins. Lastly, basins like Arunachal Foothills, Deccan syneclise, Ganga Valley, Karewa (Kashmir Valley), Mizoram-Manipur and Narmada basins, could still be considered in the initial phase of exploration. The geoscientific studies by ONGC in the petroliferous basins of India from are summarized in the present contribution, and
* E-mail: bhowmick_pk@ongc.co.in

takes into account, the interpretations based on real well data, the seismic and other geophysical information, multimicrofossil bio-stratigraphy, sedimentology and geochemistry. More specifically, we deal with, 1. Sedimentary petroliferous basins along the Western margins: viz. Rajasthan, Cambay, Kutch, Mumbai Offshore and Kerala- Konkan 2. East Coast Basins: Cauvery, Krishna-Godavari, Mahanadi and Bengal basins 3. Northeast Basins: Assam and Assam-Arakan basin 4. Central Indian Basins: Ganga and Purnea basins Each basin has been discussed with reference to its basin architecture, sedimentary fill, major unconformities, sequences and petroleum system, in light of latest understanding of these basins and their hydrocarbon prospectivity. SEDIMENTARY PETROLIFEROUS BASINS ALONG THE WESTERN MARGINS Two important phases of basin evolution are recorded along the western continental margin. There is an initial record of the Mesozoic basins in Jaisalmer, Bikaner-Nagaur, Barmer (Rajasthan Basins), Kutch, and Cambay that could be traced to the Mesozoic basins occurring along the western margin of Madagascar. (Fig. 1). The first stage of separation of the Western Gondwanaland (South America and Africa) from the Eastern Gondwanaland (Madagascar, IndiaSeychelles, Antarctica and Australia) is recorded during Late Triassic/Jurassic (~196-203Ma) and is closely associated with Karoo volcanism in South Africa, the conjugate of which is seen in Antarctica. The second stage was the separation of Seychelles-India from Madagascar in Late Cretaceous (~93Ma), associated with minor volcanism found on conjugate margins of southwestern India and southeast Madagascar. The final breakup of Seychelles at KTB (~65Ma) contiguous with the Deccan volcanism is associated with a series of rift basins along the western continental margins in which the Cenozoic basins evolved viz. Barmer basin, Cambay Basin and its southern continuation in Mumbai Offshore. A description of these basins is given from the north to the south. Basins in Rajasthan The western Rajasthan shelf located to the west of Aravalli ranges, possesses three important basins viz., Jaisalmer, Bikaner-Nagaur and Barmer, stretching over an area of about 1,20,000 sq. km. The Jaisalmer Basin This is the westernmost is separated from the BikanerNagaur basin (Fig. 2) by the Pokaran-Nachana high to the northwest and from the Barmer basin by the Barmer-DevikotNachana high in the south. A pronounced NW-SE-trending

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Glimpses of Geoscience Research in India

Fig. 2: Structural map of western Rajasthan Fig. 1: Paleo-tectonic reconstruction of the Madagascar-Seychelles India during the Mesozoic, showing the structural trends, the Jurassic outcrops (in grey) and the Mesozoic rifts (in red) regional step-faulted Jaisalmer-Mari high zone, marked by the Kanoi and Ramgarh faults that traverse the centre of the basin and divides it into the Shahgarh sub-basin, the Miajalar sub-basin and the Kishangarh sub-basin. This basin in the northwestern Indian shield extends as far as the Mari region of Pakistan, and is tectonically related to the Indus Basin from the beginning of the Triassic. The aerial extent is over 30,000 km2.This basin is controlled by wrench-fault tectonics. The outcrop and the well-data indicate sedimentation from the Cambrian to the Tertiary (Fig. 3). Three distinct sequences are identified, based on the basin forming tectonic events namely, the Proterozoic to early Cambrian rift sequence comprising mainly the thickly bedded sandstone with shale intercalations in the lower part and dolomitic and cherty limestone with shale and sandstone interbeds in the upper part, Permian to Eocene shelfsag, and Pleistocene to Recent sequences. The Proterozoic-early Cambrian succession unconformably overlies the Precambrian basement rocks, while the unconformable upper contact of the sequence with Permian, has a hiatus span of about 190 Ma. Exploration by ONGC & OIL in Jaisalmer basin has resulted in discoveries of several gas fields, namely Mahera Tibba from the Cenozoic and Cinnewala Tibba from Cenozoic and Cretaceous reservoirs, respectively. The gas from these fields is methane-rich and commercially viable. Gas from the other fields viz. Ghotaru, Bankia, Bhakari Tibba, Khartar and Sadewala is nitrogen-rich and is commercially not viable. Oil shows have also been reported in wells Chinnawala Tibba-1 and Ghotaru-2 from early-late Cretaceous sequence, though as of now there is no commercially viable discovery of liquid hydrocarbons. The potential source-rock layers are from Late Jurassic and early Cretaceous. Genetic correlation of known accumulation of gases in Cenozoic and Cretaceous reservoir suggests that they have been generated from sediments at higher maturity and have been trapped at their present locale after longdistance migration. The Bikaner-Nagaur Basin is mostly a Paleozoic basin with a considerable thickness of Paleozoic sediments, overlain by a thin veneer of Tertiary/Mesozoic sediments. The Paleozoic sediments include evaporites and carbonates, and are similar to more NW Pakistan. Potential source and reservoir rocks have been identified in the Paleozoic sediments. The Cenozoic sedimentation in the BikanerNagaur basin began with the coal-bearing Palana Formation that was deposited during the Paleocene in subtropical swampy conditions on the continental part. Marine sedimentation indicates encroachment of the sea during the Upper Paleocene to Lower Eocene. The exploration drilling by ONGC, Oil India and a Joint Venture Private Company has indicated presence of heavy oil in haline/carbonates. Baghewala, Nanuwala and Binjybala areas have indicated hydrocarbon occurrences. The Barmer Basin is interpreted as a narrow, N-Strending graben, a northern extension of Cambay rift. The faults exposed at Fatehgarh, on Barmer Hill near Barmer and at Sarnu constitute the peripheries of the Barmer Basin. The pre-rift sediments deposited on the Late Proterozoic Malani Igneous Suite, represented by Randha, and Birmania Formations (a siliceous facies-shales, sandstone, orthoquartzite) and calcareous facies-limestone, phosphorites and dolomudstone) respectively, are exposed on the western margin of the basin. The Sarnu Formation (co-relatable with the sandstones of Jodhpur Group) exposed on the eastern margin of the basin, comprises thin and fining-upward sand bodies with intervening red siltstone.

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Fig. 3: Stratigraphy of the Barmer, Bikaner-Nagaur and Jaisalmer Basins The Lathi Formation exposed at the northern periphery the basin, comprises medium to coarse, fining upward fluvial sands with fossils. The syn-rift sediments: Barmer Hill and Fatehgarh Formations are exposed at Barmer and Fatehgarh. The Barmer Hill Formation comprises sandstone and clast supported conglomerates, exposed along the western boundary of the basin and rest unconformably on the basement. These represent rapid deposition in an alluvialfan environment with source from Malani Rhyolite. The Fatehgarh Formation exposed at the northern boundary of the basin shows a mixed sand and mud tidal-flat environment. It comprises conglomerate at the base, overlain by sandstone. This in turn, is overlain by ferruginous phosphatic sandstone. Seismic data reveals that in subsurface Fatehgarh Formation continues as Barmer Hill Formation. The Fatehgarh Formation is overlain by siliceous earth of Bariyara Member (base of Mataji-ka-Dunger Formation). The post-rift sediments are constituted by the Mataji-kaDunger and Akli Formations. The Mataji-ka-Dunger Formation is exposed at the northern and western margins of the basin and consists of cyclically arranged claystone, siltstone, sandstone, and is interpreted as a shallowingupwards fluvio-deltaic complex. The sandstone shows 15% visible porosity with no secondary infill except authigenic quartz overgrowth, signifying itself to be a good reservoir rock. The base of the sequence exposed at the south of Fatehgarh comprises sand-poor claystone. This is interpreted as pro-deltaic, delta-slope/delta-mouth deposition. The Akli Formation exposed at the central part of the basin, overlying the Mataji-ka-Dunger Formation comprises bentonitic claystone, grey bituminous clay-stone, lignites and light yellow claystone. Widespread exploration work by various oil companies notably Shell and then Cairn Energy, have resulted in a number of oil and gas discoveries mainly within the Paleocene sediments. These are given in Figure 4.

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Glimpses of Geoscience Research in India from northwest brought arenaceous sediments in the northern areas of Mehsana and deposited these under tidal regime on the downthrown blocks. The top of Paleocene marks the end of rifting followed by an unconformity over which Early Eocene transgression is observed in the southern part of Cambay Basin. Eocene to Recent post-rift succession, overlying the Paleocene with an unconformity is encountered throughout the Cambay Basin. Early Eocene facies is marked with the deposition of grey shale, silts and coals. The top of early Eocene witnessed regression during which protoSaraswati river from NW deposited deltaic sands and silt, shale and thick coal bands. Early/Middle Eocene boundary is marked by an unconformity followed by a renewed transgression in Middle Eocene during which deposition of sandstone, siltstone, shale and coals took place in tidal to estuarine setup. Upper part of Middle Eocene and late Eocene witnessed regression represented by a mixed facies of laminated sandstone, with limestone nodules and occasional carbonaceous shale. Early Oligocene succession overlies the Eocene strata with a brief hiatus. Early Oligocene transgressive sediments include grey shale with claystone, argillaceous sandstone. This is followed by a major regression and unconformity spanning the entire duration of late Oligocene. The Miocene succession in the basin is represented by current-bedded sandstone, conglomerates, clays and shale. This is followed by an unconformity above which claystone, sandstone, clay, sand and kankar of Pliocene to Recent age were deposited. Extensive exploration in this basin by ONGC since 1959 has resulted in numerous oil and gas discoveries, notably Ankleswar, Gandhar, Nawagam, Dholka, Kalol, Sanand, Jhalora, Viraj, Kadi and S. Kadi, N. Kadi, Jotana, Sobhasan, Balol, Santhal, etc.

Fig. 4: New Discoveries in Barmer-Sanchor. Review of geological model time to time and its implementation in exploration in one of the largest onland discovery of the country. CAMBAY BASIN The Cambay Basin, the southern continuation of the Barmer-Sanchor Graben is a narrow elongated (NNW-SSE trending) intra-cratonic rift basin (area 59,000 sq.km), situated between Saurashtra craton to the west, Aravalli swell on the northeast and Deccan craton to the southeast. In the south, it extends into Cambay Gulf and ultimately into the Arabian Sea. A large part of the basin is covered by Quaternary sediments. Cenozoic outcrops are rare and occur only on the fringes of the basin. The extensional architecture of the basin is defined by three major Precambrian trends viz., NNW-SSE trend related to Dharwarian orogeny NE-SW trend related to Aravalli orogeny, and ENE-WSW trend related to Satpura orogeny. The basin is sub-divided into four major tectonic blocks Sanchor-Patan, Ahmedabad-Mehsana, Tarapur-Cambay and Jambusar-Broach, by cross-trending NE-SW. trending highs (Fig. 5). Each of these blocks is characterized by local lows which form the source areas. The pre-rift Late Cretaceous sediments are deposited in continental, fluvial setup and comprise sandstones with minor claystone, basal conglomerate and thin inter-beds of shale. The syn-rift Paleocene sequence, bounded by unconformities below and above, is either absent or thinly developed over paleohighs and restricted only to fault grabens and fault scarps. These sediments extend as piedmont fanglomerate represented by trapwash, claystone, shale and sand with thin coal beds toward north representing initiation of basins fill. The Late Paleocene also witnessed the first marine transgression, followed by regression, during which Proto-Saraswati river

Fig. 5: Location and tectonic map Cambay Basin

Phanerozoic Petroliferous Basins of India The source rocks in Cambay basin are identified in Paleocene-Eocene levels. The southern part of the basin has multiplicity of source rock, as the layers from Paleocene to Middle Eocene attained peak maturation and contributed to the oil accumulation. In the northern part of the basin, however, only the Paleocene sediments attained peak maturity. The reservoirs are distributed in the passive margin sequence from Paleocene to Miocene, with maximum accumulation in Middle Eocene. The Eocene shale is the regional cap for the hydrocarbon accumulation in the basin. THE WESTERN CONTINENTAL OFFSHORE BASINS The western continental margin (WCM) of India hosts three major basins viz., Kutch, Mumbai offshore and Kerala Konkan, out of which the Mumbai offshore is the major petroliferous basin, with the other two having oil and gas indications. The continental margin is featured by parallel to sub parallel ridges and intervening depressions. The continental shelf on the western margin is wide and tapering, 300 km wide off Kutch-Saurashtra in the north, narrowing down progressively southward to 60 km in Kerala offshore. The WCM comprises shelfal horst/graben complex, KoriComorin ridge (KCR) and Laxmi-Laccadive Ridge (LLR) from east to the west with sediment fill in the basinal depressions between them. Three basins are recognized in the offshore, which from the north to south are the Kutch Basin, the Mumbai Offshore Basin, and the Kerala-Konkan basin. A series of ENE-WSW ridges separate each of these basins (Fig. 6). KUTCH (KACHCHH) BASIN The Kutch basin, located roughly west of the Cambay Basins extending from land to offshore, exposes classic Jurassic and Cretaceous succession amidst the vast alluvium covered Rann. The Mesozoic basin, is a south-western continuation of the Rajasthan basins, extending into the offshore with a wide shelf platform. The northern limit of the basin continues beyond the Indo-Pakistan border. In south, the basin is contiguous with Mumbai offshore basin.

257 The surface outcrop mapping and stratigraphy has been worked in detail in Mesozoic-Cenozoic succession and it has been possible to extend these units in the offshore through excellent biostratigraphic correlation especially in the Cenozoic. Extensive development of Deccan Trap covers the highest Mesozoic succession in the outcrops and continues in the subsurface of the Kutch shelf. The infratrappean succession comprises clastic sediments of Middle Jurassic to Late Cretaceous. In the Gulf, however, the Late Cretaceous is mainly a carbonate facies. Two distinct sequences have been identified: the early Middle Jurassic to Middle Cretaceous, and the upper late Cretaceous to Recent sedimentary succession (Fig. 7). Hiatuses between Middle/late Jurassic and Jurassic/ Cretaceous boundary, have been recognized. Middle Jurassic, late Jurassic and later successions have been encountered in several domes in mainland Kutch, as also in wells drilled on land and offshore. Middle Jurassic period consists of non-marine-estuarine sandy shale of Aalenian age, followed by shallow- marine sand, shale, and carbonates of Bajocian marking the first major marine event. The overlying golden oolite, shale and minor carbonates are of Bathonian-Callovian age. The succeeding sequence is bounded by limited by the Middle/late Jurassic unconformity at the base and by the overlying Cretaceous boundary comprising carbonates, shale and minor sands in lower part (Oxfordian) and dominantly shale and finer clastics in the upper part (Kimmeridgian-Tithonian). A large thickness of non-marine sandstones (Bhuj sandstones) of uniform character constitutes the uppermost unit of the Mesozoic sequence. This, unconformity bounded succession is encountered both on land and in subsurface. In the outcrops, the early Cretaceous succession is unconformably overlain by Deccan Traps but in the subsurface, it is overlain by late Cretaceous carbonate dominated succession. The span of hiatuses in the outcrops is maximum (covering entire late Cretaceous) and decreases in the subsurface, to be between early/late Cretaceous showing highly diachronous nature of the unconformity. The late Cretaceous

Fig. 6: Map of the Western offshore basins

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Glimpses of Geoscience Research in India shelf over an extensive area in offshore. The overlying Oligo-Miocene succession is represented by limestone, argillaceous limestone with thin shale in lower part and sandstone, shale, claystone in the upper part. A minor hiatus is inferred between early and late Oligocene. The early Oligocene succession with claystone and coralline limestone is well exposed in the outcrops and extends over the entire offshore. In the offshore, however, the carbonates are associated with finer clastics deposited in an inner shelf setup. The late Oligocene-Miocene succession is relatively conformable over the outcrops and in offshore. It dominantly comprises limestone with thin shale in the lower part and sandstone, shale and claystone in upper part. The Mio/ Pliocene correlative conformity defines the upper limit of the succession that is overlain by Pliocene to Recent sedimentary succession. The Middle Jurassic and early Cretaceous sediments have organic-rich interval with TOC values within good source rock interval. During Paleocene organic-rich shale and coal were deposited in coastal and lagoonal swamps are have a good source potential. Hydrocarbons have been encountered in the early and late Cretaceous succession in the offshore Kutch indicating presence of Mesozoic petroleum system with sediments deposited in rift grabens acting as source. Hydrocarbon strikes are also recorded from early-Middle Eocene carbonates. MUMBAI OFFSHORE BASIN The Mumbai offshore basin is the most important producer among the Cenozoic hydrocarbon basins of India, mainly from the carbonate reservoirs stretching between the Deep continental shelf (DCS) structure in west to shallow waters in the east. The basin is bounded by the Deccan Trap outcrops to its north and east, Kori-Comorin ridge to its west and Vengurla arch to its south and covers an area of about 1,48,000 sq km up to 200 m isobath. Tectonically, Mumbai basin has evolved from a rift basin, with the main rift (Central Graben) and is a continuation of the Cambay rift to the south with a lateral shift. The basin is dissected by ENE-WSW grabens forming two additional very large depo-centres, apart from that of the Central graben, one to the north (Tapti-Daman Low), and one to the south (South Bombay Low). Post Oligocene there has been a westward tilt in the basin with a Miocene Hinge line developing. Based on the tectonic evolution, two sequences have been identified within the Cenozoic succession. The Lower Paleocene sediments deposited as synrift and initiating the Cenozoic sedimentation. The upper post-rift sedimentary succession of late Paleocene to Recent have been further subdivided into successions based on unconformities and their magnitude on the basis of excellent bio-stratigraphic control. The early Paleocene succession is dominantly fluvial intertidal to shallow inner-shelf clastic (siltstone, claystone, shale and sandstone with coal shale) with subordinate carbonates, trapwash and trap derivatives in the lower part represent and post-trappean sediments as graben-fills during synrift. As the rifting continued, these sediments filled the initial morphotectonic depressions during Paleocene in the lows and grabens. Late Paleocene-early Eocene representd

Fig. 7: A north-south section across Kutch Offshore Basin showing the Mesozoic and post-Mesozoic sections succession is encountered only in the subsurface of wells drilled in Kutch offshore, characterized dominantly by shelf carbonates. In the wells drilled on land, like the outcrops, Deccan trap directly overlies the Early Cretaceous and the entire late Cretaceous is absent. The late Cretaceous transgression is most extensive during CampanianMaastrichtian, marked by increase in bathymetry upto 100 m. Deccan basalts, dated to 65-67 Ma, extend from Lakhpat in west to Anjar in the east, and occur in more or less linear outcrops extending across mainland with a maximum width of 10 km in the east and gradually tapering westward. The thickness of these basalts encountered in offshore wells increases from south to southwest. Cenozoic sedimentation in the basin commenced in a stable shallow marine setup and had remarkable lateral continuity from onland to offshore, enabling biostratigraphic correlation across the basin. Paleocene rocks in the on land Kutch are exposed consistently bordering the outcrops of younger Cenozoic rocks and Deccan Trap. The upper boundary is demarcated by biostratigraphically defined Paleocene/Eocene unconformity. In the offshore, the succession is present both in shelf and deep water. Paleocene outcrops near Matanomadh village consist of basalt derived sediments, variegated clay, tuffaceous shale and sandstone. Limestone interbedded with shale is observed in the upper part. Overlying early Eocene succession is recorded in several wells drilled in Kutch offshore, besides the outcrops in the mainland. In the wells of shelf and deeper areas, the carbonates of this sequence are dolomitic. In the outcrops, the succession is represented by claystone, shale, limonite and bands of sideritic concretions with limestone and shale in upper part. The Middle late Eocene succession is recorded extensively from outcrops and several wells in Kutch offshore, characterized dominantly by shallow inner shelf limestone and argillaceous limestone with thin interbeds of shale. The Middle Eocene witnessed major transgression and northeastern extension of the shelf, with coast line shifting north to lie close to Kutch mainland fault. Extensive outcrops of Middle Eocene carbonates extend as homoclinal

Phanerozoic Petroliferous Basins of India the first widespread Cenozoic marine transgression in the basin. The sequence represented by fluvial-intertidal shale, coal shale and finer clastics in the lower part and, shallow inner-shelf carbonates in the upper parts. This is recorded all over the Mumbai offshore basin except over the Mumbai High platform. The lower boundary is an unconformity between the rift and the passive margin sequence while the upper boundary is early/Middle Eocene boundary, with a hiatus of ~2 million years. The succeeding Middle late Eocene succession (Bassein Formation) has a large areal extent over the basin, except Mumbai High platform. During this period, a large part of the basin witnessed widespread carbonate sedimentation in a shallow inner-shelf setup. The upper boundary between Eocene and Oligocene is highly dichronous covering a span of 3-6 million years in Middle and late Eocene chronospans. Wide variation in lithofacies is observed. In the northern areas of Tapti-Daman, finer clastics dominate while in other parts of the basin, limestone and shale with minor clay are the dominant facies. The uppermost sequence is recorded between Eocene top unconformity and Mio-Pliocene unconformity/corrective conformity, covering the chronospan of early Oligocene to Miocene. The sequence is divided into two units viz. early Oligocene and Late Oligocene-Miocene succession, separated by an unconformity between early/late Oligocene. The lower unit covering the chronospan of early Oligocene (Mukta Formation) is present over the entire Mumbai offshore basin except Mumbai High platform. Lithologically, the sequence shows a facies variation across the basin. In many areas, it is characterized by carbonates and shale deposited in shallow inner-shelf setup, while in the northern areas of Tapti Daman, intertidal to shallow-marine clastics characterize the sequence (Mahuva Formation). The overlying, Late Oligocene-Miocene epochs represent deposition of shallow-shelf carbonates and shale over most of the basin, except northern parts, where fluvial to shallowmarine clastics characterize the late Oligocene. This succession is encountered over all areas of Mumbai offshore and overlain by the finer clastics of late Miocene to Recent age. Hydrocarbon accumulations, in this basin occur in reservoirs ranging in age from Paleocene to Middle Miocene, with early Miocene carbonates of Mumbai High being the biggest producers. Paleocene and early Eocene sediments are the source rocks (Figs. 8 and 9). The synrift Paleocene sediments, deposited in supratidal to intertidal setup comprise coal shale, shale, siltstone and sandstone. The organic matter is dominantly terrestrial with maturation level at the early phase of oil window. Early Eocene sediments are also characterized by terrestrial organic matter in the organic rich shale and coal. The timing of beginning of hydrocarbon expulsion in these source rocks is around 30 Ma, with critical moment around 5 Ma. KERALA KONKAN BASIN This basin lying south of Mumbai offshore basin is bounded by Vengurla arch in north and extends beyond Cape Comorin into the Indian ocean to the south. It covers an area of ~77,000 sq km up to 200m isobath and divided

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Fig. 8: Geographic extent of Cenozoic Petroleum System shown on Isopach of Paleocene Sequence of Mumbai Offshore Basin- the blue and dark blue patches on the map indicate thicker sedimentation.

Fig. 9: Map showing fields of Mumbai Offshore basin

260 into two subbasins the Konkan basin between Vengurla and Tellichery arch and Kerala basin between Tellichery and Trivandrum arch. The basement arches control the architecture and north- south limits of the basin. The northernmost Vangurla arch separates the shelfal horstgraben complex of this basin from that of Mumbai offshore basin, and is differentiated into three shallow depressions by transverse basement arches. These are Konkan depression, Cochin depression and Cape Comorin depression. The Cretaceous-Recent sedimentary succession in the basin is divided into two sequences. The lower, corresponding to rifting and separation of Madagascar from India-Seychelles (~90-110Ma in early Cretaceous and earliest part of Late Cretaceous) is referred to as the rift sequence and overlying late Cretaceous to Recent is referred to as the passive margin sequence. The event of separation of Madagascar ( 90 Ma) is represented by older traps dated 90-110 Ma in the basin representing the rift sequence. The sedimentary succession (Late Cretaceous and younger) overlying the older traps represent the passive margin setup. The lowest sequence (late Cretaceous), limited between older and younger basalts (Deccan trap equivalent) is encountered in wells drilled in offshore. The succession comprises sand, shale and siltstone deposited in an inter-middle shelf setup. The succeeding sedimentary succession overlies the Deccan trap (younger basalts) and represents the Paleocene chronospan. Its upper boundary with early Eocene is an unconformity. The gross lithology is sandstone interbedded with clay/claystone and siltstone with a few streaks of limestone. Incidentally, several flows have been observed in the upper part of this sequence in some wells which indicated that the youngest traps in this part of the basin are of late Paleocene age and evolved within a shallow marine setup. The overlying unconformity-bounded succession, represents the early Eocene epoch and this is recorded in several offshore wells. The gross lithology varies from dominantly carbonates succession to carbonates and clastics deposited in supratidal environment to shallow inner-shelf setup. Middle-Late Eocene succession is also recorded from several wells and is represented by limestone with minor shale beds. The hiatus at the upper boundary is diachronous and in several wells, late Eocene is absent. Overlying Early Oligocene sequence is bounded by hiatuses. The dominant lithology of the sequence is limestone with minor sandstone beds. With gradual sediment loading, the basement tectonics become more pronounced during Oligocene and the Tellichery arch became more prominent separating the northern areas of Konkan and southern areas of Kerala as two separate depositional regimes. Late Oligocene-Miocene chronospan is dominated by carbonates with thin beds of claystone in some parts, while in other areas well-sorted sands with interbedded shale dominate the sequence. Differentiation of sedimentary regimes in Konkan and Kerala basin continued during this period with the former receiving dominantly carbonates and the latter more clastics. There is no commercial discovery of hydrocarbons in this basin till date. The synrift sediments of Early Cretaceous or older age are expected to be source

Glimpses of Geoscience Research in India rocks but not yet penetrated in the wells drilled. In the absence of hydrocarbons, the identification of petroleum system in the basin is at the best speculative. EAST COAST BASINS The Jurassic fragmentation of eastern Gondwanaland initiated with the dismembering of Antarctica and Australia from India and, concomitant formation of NE-SW trending Mesozoic rift basins on the eastern continental margin of the latter including Assam, Bengal, Mahanadi, Palar, Krishna- Godavari and Cauvery basins. These evolved from a composite of rifted graben in late Jurassic, and later formed a part of the divergent passive margin. Numerous down-to-basin extensional faulting took place in the basin due to rifting. Active subsidence along these normal faults parallel to Precambrian Eastern Ghat trend gave rise to horst-graben setting. Several stages of reactivation of synrift extensional faults are noticeable. Cauvery Basin Cauvery Basin, on the east coast of India, extends from Pondicherry in the north to Tuticorin in the south, stretching into offshore Bay of Bengal and spans over an area of 62,500 sq.km. upto 200 m isobath (Fig. 10). In the exploratory wells in onland and offshore, the sediments range in age from Oxfordian (late Jurassic) to Recent. Outcrops are patchy. Five major unconformities late Albian, Turonian, Campanian, Maastrichtian and Miocene are observed in

Fig. 10: Tectonic map of Cauvery Basin

Phanerozoic Petroliferous Basins of India outcrops, and excepting the Campanian unconformity, other unconformities are also recorded in the subsurface. The hiatus at Turonian was probably caused by Marian mantle plume and consequent mild basin exhumation. At the KTB unconformity, development of continental facies has been observed in outcrops. During the late Cretaceous, direction of sea floor spreading changed parallel to Ninety-East ridge. The north ward movement of Indian plate was taken up on the Chagos-Laccadive transform on the west and Ninety East Ridge transform at eastern plate edge. The stratigraphic record of the basin comprises various depositional sequences representing synrift and post-rift passive margin. Initial syn-rift deposits were the fresh water/shallow marine late Jurassic sediments followed by the early Cretaceous deposits. In the outcrops, the succession comprises of basal boulder beds, overlain by fluvio-lacustrine clastics with gritty sandstone and clayey plant fossil-rich beds. In the subsurface, it is represented by sands and shale with subordinate algal limestone and claystone in the lower part. Post-rift, late Cretaceous to Recent sediments are recorded in many wells drilled in the basin. These sequences are interrupted by four well defined hiatuses at the top of Cretaceous, late Eocene, Oligocene and Miocene, respectively. The basal part of the succession comprises of carbonaceous shale and sandstone of Albian Cenomanian age, overlain by Cenomanian-Turonian sandstones and thick shale of Coniacian- Santonian. The sandstones represent deposition by debris flow or high density turbidity current. The Coniacian-Maastrichtian, in its upper part represents regressive phase with high percentage of arenaceous deposits. The horstgraben morphology almost disappeared at this period, with peneplanation of most of the ridges, resulting in emergence of a unified basin margin at the end of Cretaceous. Further in the outcropping areas, Late Maastrichtian sediments are represented by continental facies, with coeval sediments in northeast in Pondicherry being marine and fossiliferous. Paleocene clastics are characterized by ferruginised chamosite oolite deposited in shallow-marine setup. In outcrops, thick Paleocene carbonate succession is encountered in several peaces. Eocene strata are well developed in subsurface and are represented dominantly by sandstone and clays. The succession is characterized by continuous Eocene planktonic foraminiferal assemblage. The Middle Eocene succession is represented by pebbly sandstone deposited mainly as debris floor. The late Eocene sediments are dominantly sandstone and limestone. The Oligocene succession is characterized by thin, transgressive sediments overlain by thick normal regressive package. These sediments are dominantly calcareous and argillaceous sandstone deposited by mixed processes of slumps and debris flow. Some areas have intercalated red shales at the base. In the outcrops, the Miocene sediments are mainly non-marine sandstone, while in subsurface the limestone are well developed, with alternation of siltstone and calcareous sandstone

261 in the upper part. The Pliocene transgression resulted in deepening of the basin and deposition of clay-stone over the Miocene sediments. Numerous oil and gas discoveries have been made in the Cauvery Basin, concentrated mainly on the flanks of the NE-SW-trending ridges. Based on the maturity of organic matter, the effective mature source rocks in the basin are largely limited to the synrift succession belonging to Albian and older periods. The source rock type is generally typeIII and type-II. The reservoirs in the basin are distributed in sediments of all ages from late Jurassic Albian to Oligocene, with maximum accumulation in the Cretaceous succession. The natural gases in the basin are thermogenic generated in the catagenetic phase of maturation of source. The oil is generated from a mixed source input deposited in peat swamp to sub-oxic environment in the rifted setting. The Krishna-Godavari Basin has a polycyclic (dual-rift province) evolution history. It comprises a wide array of sedimentary facies from early Permian through Cenozoic with analogous outcrops in the northwestern part. To the northeast and southwest of this basin, along the coast, lie the Mahanadi and Cauvery Basins (Fig. 11). Broad tectonic expression of the basin comprises linear NE-SW-trending horst-graben system, growth fault/rollover and block tilting along synthetic fault over intra shelf regime followed by toe thrust, thus exhibiting a manifestation of typical passive margin. The tectono-stratigraphic framework reveals three distinct stages of evolution of the basin. Till early Jurassic, the northeastern area of the basin was part of intracratonic rift setup constituting the southeastern extension of NWSE-trending Pranhita-Godavari Basin. The succeeding late Jurassic to early Cretaceous synrift sediments were deposited during early tectonic subsidence accentuated by basementrifted fault system. The Late Cretaceous and younger period represents the passive margin (drift stage) setup. Exponential decay in thermal subsidence with rapid subsidence continued during the drift phase with open marine transgression during Cenomanian. The basin witnessed

Fig. 11: Tectonic and the oil and gas map of KG Basin

262 widespread volcanism during Paleocene. During late Cretaceous, Paleogene and Neogene major sediment pathways (KG fluvial system) resulted in further spreading of delta progradation to southeast. Major sea-level drops are observed in late Oligocene and Late Miocene. The present deep-water regime is characterized by shelf, slope and basin-floor corridors. The continental slope is deformed with contraction towards mid-down slope and more of extensional in basinal part, characterized by mud rich debris flow, turbidity flow, channel-levee complex, marine onlap wedge, suspended sediment-rich onlapping packs, etc. The basin plain is manifested as undeformed continuous regime. The lowermost intracratonic Gondwana sequence was deposited in NW-SE trending Pranhita-Godavari graben before Gondwana breakup. The sequence is underlain by Archean basement and topped by sub aerial unconformity. Based on the sub-aerial unconformity at Permian top, two sedimentary successions have been identified. The lower Permian sequence in the subsurface has its equivalents in outcrops as Talchirs and Barakars. It comprises argillites, sandstone, coal-shale deposited in fluvial-lacustrine environment. The Upper Triassic sequence comprises monotonous vertically stacked predominant fluvial sandstone. The late Jurassic early Cretaceous rift sequence is represented by sandstone, shale with occasional coal bands and red claystone, deposited in fluvial-marginal marine setup. The sequence is further subdivided into lower Late Jurassic early Cretaceous and Upper Aptian-Albian succession. The lithology of the former is dominantly sandstone with interbedded shale with minor coal and carbonaceous shale. The Aptian-Albian sequence is mainly argillaceous with highly carbonaceous black shale in lower part and sand in the upper part. The passive margin sequence

Glimpses of Geoscience Research in India comprises late Cretaceous clastics, Paleocene volcanics and Cenozoic clastics and carbonates. It is divided into four successions based on unconformities with early Paleocene volcanics occupying the time gap between the first two sequences. The lowermost late Cretaceous (CenomanianMaastrichtian) comprises lower argillaceous section (claystone, shale and minor sandstone) marking the regional marine transgression and the upper arenaceous (dominantly sandstone) unit representing delta progradation. The overlying volcanics are primarily restricted to onland part, though part of them constitutes subaequeous extrusion. Overlying late Paleocene-Oligocene succession comprises late Paleocene marine shale, early Eocene near shore to shallow-marine sands, Middle Eocene shallow marine carbonates, late Eocene-Oligocene sands and their equivalent shale. The Miocene section is characterized by sandstone and claystone deposited in middle-outer shelf setup. Uppermost Pliocene to Recent succession is represented by transgressive shale with minor sandstone and silt bands. Numerous oil and gas fields have been found both inland and offshore. Many of the large offshore structure- related fields are associated with roll-overs. The oil-source correlation studies indicate presence of effective source rocks in Permian, late Jurassic, early Cretaceous, AptianAlbian, late Paleocene and Eocene ages. The reservoirs are distributed in sediments of late Jurassic-early Cretaceous, Aptian-Albian and Pliocene ages. The unique feature of Pliocene hydrocarbons is that they are charged by more than one vertically stacked source rock. Mahanadi Basin Mahanadi basin is located along northeastern part of east coast of India and extending to the Bay of Bengal. The area covers roughly 1, 40,000 sq km up to 2500 m iso-bath in offshore region.(Fig. 12).

Fig. 12: Geological map with the offshore acreage and the tectonic map

Phanerozoic Petroliferous Basins of India Mahanadi basin has a polycyclic history. The oldest Permo-Triassic Gondwana sediments are deposited in the continental grabens. The next phase of basin development in end-Jurassic leads to the development of horst graben features along pre-existing weak zones, which is superposed on the existing NW-SE-trending Gondwana tectonic elements. The synrift sedimentation began with deposition of non-marine sediments, and was followed by development of a delta system and a subsequent main transgression. The rift phase ended with the flow of Rajmahal lavas. Subsequent to rifting and volcanism during early Cretaceous, Mahanadi shelf received continental-deltaic sediments in Late Cretaceous-Paleocene times. Eocene period saw the first carbonates sedimentation and Oligocene is the period of non-deposition/erosion in the basin. Miocene witnessed regional subsidence and marine transgression both in offshore and onshore, with very high subsidence rate in Middle Miocene and younger periods. At that time, the basin experienced tilting with west experiencing uplift and east undergoing subsidence. This led to renewed influx of clastics and progradation of deltaic sediments over tectonically altered Miocene section This continues till the present day. The oldest Permian to Triassic Gondwana sequence is recorded only from the outcrop. The overlying rift sequence of early Cretaceous is divided into two units, separated by Rajmahal basalt. The lower unit is represented by coal shale, while the upper one dominantly comprises sandstone (Athgarh Sandstone). Late Cretaceous to Recent interval represents the passive-margin setup. The sequence is well represented in the basin and based on unconformities, six distinct successions are identified viz. late Cretaceous, Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene. In the late Cretaceous, the first marine transgression is witnessed in Campanian. However, in some areas of offshore, the Campanian- Maastrichtian sandstone and shale succession is non-marine. Early Paleocene- Danian is absent, and the Late Paleocene marine sediments are encountered in the subsurface of several wells. The Eocene is represented by inner-shelf facies. In some wells late Eocene is absent. The succession comprises dominantly of carbonates with thin sandstone in the upper part. In most parts of the basin especially onland and shallowwater areas, Oligocene has not been encountered. In the deeper offshore, however, outer shelf facies is prevalent. During Oligocene, due to the collision of Indian and Tibetan plates, the basin experienced tilting towards southeast with concomitant sea-level fall and subaerial erosion in the shelf region. The Miocene succession is present throughout the basin and depicts alternation of sandstone and shale over most of the areas. In some wells, however, localized carbonates are also seen. The Pliocene succession is met in all the wells drilled in the basin and represented mainly by finer clastics in the inner-to-middle shelf setup. Hydrocarbons of possible biogenic origin have so far been encountered in the Plio-Pleistocene channels within sand reservoirs. In the shelf of Mahanadi Basin, no thermogenic hydrocarbons has been encountered. Thermal maturity modeling suggests the threshold of maturity in the south-

263 southeastern part in the passive margin setup, especially the Eocene-Oligocene successions. Bengal Basin The Bengal Basin lies within the state of West Bengal and covers Bangladesh and northern part of Bay of Bengal. It encompasses an area of 90,700 sq km. It is demarcated by Indian shield in north and west and Surma Basin to the east. Singhbhum-Chotanagpur massifs with isolated lower Gondwana as outliers are exposed in the western part (Fig. 13). The Rajmahal Traps are exposed in the northwestern part. It is a divergent margin basin, resting orthogonally over intracratonic Damodar graben with Permo-Triassic sediments and Rajmahal Traps. A thick succession of late Cretaceous and younger succession is deposited over the eroded Gondwanas with several intervening nondepositional hiatuses. The rift and post-trappean phase of tectonic development is recognised. During the initial extensional tectonics, continental-fluvial and lacustrine sediments were deposited in a graben setup. Large amount of basic lava erupted through the fractures as a consequence of crustal distension accompanying the rifting. The major eruptive centre was in Rajmahal hills. Subsequently, the basin was exposed to a passive margin setup, depositing huge thickness of post-trappean sediments. During this relatively tectonically stable period, four distinct

Fig. 13: Geologic map of the Bengal Basin with the principal tectonics superimposed

264 tectonic zones viz. basin margin, wide shelf, shelf-slope break and deep basin are prominent during Eocene, though these elements are not prominent in late Cretaceous and Paleocene. The oldest graben-fill Gondwana sediments represent deposition in fluvial to glacio-lacustrine setup during Permian. Excellent biostratigraphic control has enabled identification of unconformities of various magnitudes to divide the sequence into four units. The lower Sakmarian (early Permian) succession comprises the Talchir unit, the overlying fine-grained sandstone, shale and coals of Barakar represented the Artinskian age. The third Late Permian (=Raniganj) succession is represented by sandstone, shale and coal seam and the uppermost Middle Triassic, supra- Panchet succession is characterized by reddish brown siltstone and sandstone. The rift-fill sequence is represented by Rajmahal Traps. In the subsurface, presence of rift-fill sediments is yet to be confirmed. The Athgarh sandstone (late rift fills of Mahanadi) has no homotaxial sediments recognized here. The late Cretaceous period represents the first marine transgression in the basin and is represented by silty shale in shelf and deeper areas. In the basin margin however, the presence of coarse clastics suggests continental environment. Paleocene is represented by shale, siltstone, sandstone and impure limestone. Regional marine transgression and lesser clastics characterize the Eocene thick carbonates in the basin. The interbedded clastics suggest fluctuating sea level during the deposition. Oligocene sequence is represented by sandstone with minor shale, which becomes more shaly in the basinal part. The thick Miocene succession represents deposition in a fluvial setup and shallow-marine set up upto shelf edge. The Pliocene and younger succession represents progradational sequence with thick delta sands deposited by large influx of sediments combined with relative sealevel fluctuation during this period. Numerous hydrocarbon shows, majority gases, are distributed in all sequences from Cretaceous to Pliocene. The source-rock studies indicate the Permian, Paleocene and Eocene succession to be mature with dominantly type-III organic matter. NORTHEAST BASINS Assam and Assam-Arakan Basin This basin extends over a large area of NE India, Myanmar and Bangladesh, covering an area of over 0.1 M sq km. The basin in its deepest parts has accumulated more than 15-20 km of Mesozoic and younger sediments. It has a polycyclic sedimentation history with distinct episodes of tectono-sedimentary evolution, and with phases of superposing tectonics presenting a complex picture (Fig. 14). Earliest Permo-carboniferous sedimentation record was within intra-cratonic grabens along Precambrian weak zones with sediments derived from highland as alluvial fans and delta settings during early Permian. At this time, India was a part of Gondwanaland continent. This was followed by later rifting, northward movement, and emergence of passive margin setting and collision of Indian and Eurasian plates leading to rise of Himalayas. During the second phase of rifting in early Cretaceous preceding the India-Antarctica

Glimpses of Geoscience Research in India separation, the sedimentation was largely over partially exhumed older sediments of Gondwana grabens. A limited thickness and extent of rift fill sediments suggest sedimentation in distal grabens away from main rift. End of rift was marked by lava flows and discrete sedimentation in early Albian, when the Indian plate detached completely from Antarctica and entered drift phase. The drift phase from late Cretaceous to Oligocene represents passive margin setup that continued until the collision of Indian plate with Eurasian and Burmese plates. The fourth and final phase represents deposition of foredeep sequence of Miocene to Recent age in the foreland tectonic setting, and developed as a pro-arc basin in front of Himalayas and Indo-Burma island-arc system, overriding the passive margin of Assam. This is overlain by the ongoing sequence from late Pleistocene (~1.81Ma) deposited during the superposing phase of Himalayan foreland system over Naga foreland. Highenergy sedimentation from Himalaya has covered the Kopili valley with an approx.imate thickness of 3200 m. Early Permian sediments outcrops in Garo Hills and in the subsurface from the logs of wells in the south Assam shelf, comprise coarse pebbly sediments, conglomerates, granitic or feldspathic washes in lower part and sandstone, shale in upper part. Early Cretaceous sediments comprising mainly of clastics deposited in continental to shallow-marine setup, are often covered by basaltic traps the Sylhet and Mikir Traps (equivalent of Rajmahal traps). These exposures are encountered in south Shillong plateau, while in subsurface it is encountered in several wells of south Assam Shelf. The sequence consists mainly of fine-to coarse sandstone, dark shale with occasional coal. The outcrops of late Cretaceous are reported from Garo hills, south Shillong plateau and met only in a well drilled in Shillong plateau. It is characterized by alternation of conglomerate and sandstone at the base and massive sandstone towards the

Fig. 14: Tectonic map of Assam and Assam-Arakan Basin

Phanerozoic Petroliferous Basins of India top. The Paleocene-Oligocene accretionary prism from Bengal to Assam are met in south Shillong plateau, Cachar hills, Mikir hill flanks, Schuppen belt outcrops, and in the sub-surface of Assam shelf, and consists of sandstone and shale with occasional coal in proximal part and shale and carbonates in the distal part with thin conglomerates at the base. The youngest foredeep, Miocene to Recent sequence is widely recorded from outcrops and subsurface. Lithologically, it comprises dominantly argillaceous facies with distinct intervals of sandstone/siltstone in lower part overlain by immature coarse sands and arenaceous facies with subequal proportion of claystone, clay and silts. The Assam geological province is endowed with hydrocarbon accumulations in multiple reservoirs of different ages. Most of the oil reservoirs are within Mio-Pliocene, Oligocene, Eocene and Paleocene and even fractured basement. From the source-rock perspective, the Gondwana graben with limited aerial extent has no source rock potential. The Early Cretaceous rift fill although has good quality organic matter but is found to be immature to marginally mature. The sediments within passive margin possess fair to good mature source- rock characteristics. CENTRAL INDIAN BASINS Ganga Basin The vast alluvial sediments of Ganga River and its tributaries occur between rugged upland of Peninsular India and the rising mountain province of Himalaya. This Indo-Gangetic plain represents a deep (>8 km thick sediments). In this still deepening foreland basin, sediments range in age from Mesoproterozoic to Recent (Fig. 15). The Basin extends from Delhi-Kalka ridge in the west, to the Monghyr-Saharsa ridge in east, and covers an area of ~ 0.3 M sq km. Four main phases of geological evolution are recognized, and basement tectonics plays an important role during the sedimentation and deformation of the basin. The basin evolved through multiphase geological history initiated with deposition of Mesoproterozoic and Late Neoproterozoic sediments, followed by deposition of shallow-marine sediments in Ediacaran-Early Devonian, to passive margin sedimentation during late Eocene- Oligocene and finally to the foreland-basin deposition since Middle Miocene. The Bundelkhand massif (granite) constitutes the basement for sedimentation in Ganga Basin. The tectonic setup represents a Proterozoic to Lower Paleozoic basin, superimposed by Cenozoic sedimentation. Four tectono-sedimentation cycles are recognized. These are Mesoproterozoic, late Neoproterozoic-Lower Paleozoic, Paleogene and Neogene sequences. The marked feature of the basin is the presence of several depressions in the northern part, separated by probable Precambrian promontory extending from Indian shield. The Mesoproterozoic sequence represents epigrade metamorphic rocks characterized by phyllitic shale and orthoquartzite. Ediacaran Lower Paleozoic sequence uncoformably overlies this and represents deposition in typical platform limestone- orthoquartzite-shale facies. End of this sequence is marked by a phase of compression during

265 Hercynian orogeny (?). This was followed by a period of extensive erosion and deposition of Paleogene sediments in passive-margin continental setup. This is followed by thick blanket of overfilled siliciclastics sediments of Miocene and younger age followed by alluvium. This sequence forms a gentle homocline dipping towards the foothills without much structural deformation. The southern limit of this deposition shifted progressively southward with time so that along the southern margin of Ganga Basin, where the youngest part of this sequence and even alluvium, rest directly over metamorphic basement. No commercial hydrocarbon has been discovered in Ganga Basin so far, even though hydrocarbon shows have been encountered in few of the wells. Potential structural and stratigraphic traps are well developed, and good quality, highly fractured reservoirs have also been identified. The extent and burial history of potential source rocks remain unclear. The Ediacaran, Lower Ordovician sequence has good TOC, with thin organic-rich beds with good to fair hydrocarbon generation potential. Purnea Basin The Purnea Basin is located in eastern part of Bihar and north Bengal, and bordered in south by hills of Rajmahal volcanics and to the north by the Siwaliks along subHimalayan foothills. Further, it is bounded by Bhawanipur fault in west and Kishanganj fault zone in east. The southern limit of the basin, covering ~18000 sq. km. remains undefined in view of its possible continuity with Bengal basin. The sedimentary package in the basin, comprising Gondwana and Cenozoic sediments, directly overlies the crystalline basement. The basin located between northwest Ganga basin and southeastern Bengal basin, shares its geological history with both (Fig. 16). The geological history of the basin initiated with early Permian Gondwana fragmentation. The absence of basaltic magmatism suggests that the depression had not yet progressed to the stage of rifting. Based on all available evidences, Purnea basin is inferred to be a polyhistory basin, an initial rift setting followed by a drift setting culminating in a foreland setting. Precambrian gneisses and metamorphics of Indo-Australian plate constitute the basement for deposition of Paleozoic-Mesozoic graben-fill rift sequence, referred as the Gondwana sequence. Late Jurassic-early Cretaceous breakup of Gondwana land, resulted in cessation of Gondwana sedimentation, which were later folded, uplifted and eroded. Subsequently, as the Indian plate began its northern movement across Tethyan ocean (~127 Ma), this basin was perched on the northern edge of Indian plate. At some stage, during collision with Kohistan/Ladakh Island arc, the basin was downthrown along a E-W fault and developed accommodation space for deposition of early Paleogene in the Tethyan realm, at the leading northern edge of drifting Indian plate. With the onset of Himalayan orogeny, the north of the basin experienced development of flexural foreland depression due to tectonic overloading of sediments. It was in this setup, that the third sedimentary sequence with provenance in the rising Himalayas to the north, has been deposited.

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Glimpses of Geoscience Research in India

Fig. 15: Top: Geological map around Ganga Basin. Bottom: Tectonic map

Phanerozoic Petroliferous Basins of India REFERENCES

267

Fig. 16: Geology and the tectonic setup of Purnea Basin The Gondwana rift sequence spans the duration of Asselian to Ladinian (Permian to Triassic) and present throughout the basin. The Gondwanas do not extend to the west in Ganga Basin and the lower Paleozoics of Ganga Basin does not extend in Purnea Basin. It comprises initial glacio -marine depositional system followed by essentially fluvial and lacustrine sediments.The Paleogene drift sequence is a thin sedimentary package of Eocene, compressed between underlying Gondwana and overlying Neogene foreland sequence. This sedimentary sequence, yet to be encountered in any well in the basin, is discernible in some seismic sections in northwestern part of the basin adjoining Nepal. An essentially shallow-marine depositional system is conceptualized for this sequence. This sedimentary package is deposited in the foreland depression during Middle Miocene to Sub-Recent times, in response to the rising Himalayas. The sequence is present throughout the basin and the fluvial deposition is the dominant mechanism of sedimentation for the sequence. Geochemical studies indicate source potential in the Permian sequence. High subsidence during the early phase of rift, along with occurrence of anoxic zones in a lacustrine system is postulated as the possible causes for the observed good-quality source facies in the basin. The reservoirs are dominantly clastics but are of poor quality due to low porosities.

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