Seed Production Guide

Prepared by B.R. Ntare

Contents
Technical Aspects of Groundnut Seed Production .............................................. 1 1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 2. Site selection .................................................................................................... 1
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 Soil selection ......................................................................................................... 1 Climatic conditions ............................................................................................... 1 Field isolation ........................................................................................................ 2 Rotation ................................................................................................................. 2 Soil preparation ..................................................................................................... 2 Sowing ................................................................................................................... 3 Fertilization ............................................................................................................ 4 Crop maintenance ................................................................................................ 4 Irrigation ................................................................................................................. 5

2.10 Phytosanitary protection ........................................................................................ 5 2.11 Harvesting/Digging ............................................................................................... 9

Post-harvest technology ....................................................................................... 11 1. Introduction ..................................................................................................... 11 2. Handling of the harvested crop ..................................................................... 11
2.1 2.2 Curing .................................................................................................................. 11 Stripping/Winnowing .......................................................................................... 12

3. Seed processing ............................................................................................. 13

3.1 3.2 3.3 Sieving ................................................................................................................ 13 Density separator ............................................................................................... 13 Packaging ........................................................................................................... 14

4. Seed storage and conservation .................................................................... 14

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 On-farm storage of pods .................................................................................... 14 Collective or industrial storage .......................................................................... 15 Storage of shelled groundnuts .......................................................................... 15 Some technical aspects of the industrial preparation of ready-to-use groundnut seeds ................................................................................................ 16

5. Phytosanitary protection of stored seeds ..................................................... 19

5.1 Insect control ...................................................................................................... 20

6. Seed physiology ............................................................................................. 22

6.1 6.2 Germination ........................................................................................................ 22 Dormancy and methods for breaking dormancy ............................................... 23

Seed Production Guide

Technical Aspects of Groundnut Seed Production

1. Introduction

One of the most efficient means for the African farmer to improve the productivity of his farm is by the use of high quality groundnut seeds. Organizing high quality seed production and distribution is critical to the implementation of any development plan. This precondition also applies to other factors that affect productivity. Pod and grain size of a specific variety is an important parameter for determining seed value. The crop should be grown under appropriate conditions of climate and soil fertility to ensure good pod formation, filling, and seed maturity. Cultivation techniques must be perfectly mastered in order for the plant to attain its full potential and ensure quality production. These standards are fundamental for producers who want to sign up for a national multiplication program. The farmer must also accept controls and conform to production certification standards.

2.

Site selection

Under low rainfall conditions, seeds should be produced in the most suitable areas in order to maximize potential production. This also minimizes transport and marketing costs. 2.1 Soil selection

Groundnuts prefer light soils that facilitate penetration of the gynophores (pegs) after pollination, and easy digging without pod loss. Groundnuts required well drained sandy loams and must not be sown in shallow soils exposed to erosion. Groundnut plants are sensitive to salinity, a little sensitive to alkaline soils but they prefer soil with a neutral pH. High soil acidity (pH<5) could induce magnesium or aluminum toxicity. In this type of soil calcium must be added to maintain the pH above 6. 2.2 Climatic conditions

The optimum temperatures for growing groundnuts range from 25C to 35C. Cooler temperatures, especially at night, result in a longer growth cycle. Groundnuts are slightly sensitive to photoperiod. The groundnut is often classified

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as drought resistant with performances that make it one of the main crops cultivated in dry tropical areas. However, good performance is strongly linked to adequate soil water content at sowing time, followed by well-distributed rainfall. The life cycle of the groundnut can be divided into four phases that correspond to variable water requirements. For a 90-day variety grown under conditions in the Sahel, the requirements are as follows: vegetative growth (0-20d): 3.5 mm/d; flowering (21-40d): 5.2 mm/d; pod formation and filling (41-70d): 4.4 mm/d; maturation (71-90d): 3.9 mm/d. Early small-seeded groundnut varieties require 300-500 mm of rainfall and late large seeded-varieties 1000-1200 mm. 2.3 Field isolation

Groundnuts are self-pollinating and therefore do not require isolation. Different varieties must be placed 5-10 m apart to avoid mixing during harvesting and stripping. 2.4 Rotation

Groundnut is very sensitive to the preceding crop and must not be cultivated for several consecutive years. A well-adapted rotation program could improve the efficiency of fertilizer use, soil structure, weed and volunteer plant control, and reduce pest pressure. Nematodes and certain foliar diseases transmitted by soilborne pathogens can be partially controlled with an appropriate rotation program. 2.5 Soil preparation

In semiarid regions, removal of crop residues that spread diseases and harbor pests is a priority activity. For light soils, this type of cleaning followed by a shallow raking is often done after the first light rains. This eliminates early weeds and breaks up the soil surface where seeds are sown soon after the first substantial rainfall. In wetter areas or with heavier soils, fields must be ploughed at the beginning of the cycle to suppress weeds and break up the soil, which must then be refined by harrowing. With this soil type, raised-beds are often made to limit run-off or plant asphyxia by standing water. The beds can be wide and flattened at the top in order to accommodate two rows per bed.

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2.6

Sowing

Before sowing, seeds must be carefully prepared. The preparation depends on the way they were stored. When stored in shell, groundnuts must be preferably hand-shelled and sorted in order to eliminate skinned, immature, moldy, and small seeds. Seeds are then treated with an insecticide/fungicide mixture to protect them against insects and fungi during germination. The most common are: carbofuran1 , heptachlor1, captafol2 , thiram2, benomyl2, captan2, carbendazim2, etc., depending on the regulations of the country where they are used. Planting date is linked to rainfall distribution in the area and the length of the variety growth cycle. Soil moisture must be sufficient to guarantee good germination. Seeds must not be sown immediately after heavy rains since they imbibe too much water, which causes rotting. This also results in excessive soil compaction, which may hinder germination. Spacing depends on the growth habit and the variety: 10 to 20 cm between plants, and 40 to 60 cm between rows. Planting density is also affected by water availability, and cultivation methods (flat or raised beds, manual or mechanized). In addition, the spacing must allow plants to cover the soil within 50 days ensuring better weed control and rational water use. In rain-fed crops, density varies between 110 000 (Virginia) and 170 000 (Spanish) plants per hectare. This can be as high as 250 000 plants/ha under irrigated conditions. The weight of seeds in shell required to sow one hectare is called the seeding rate (SR). This depends on varietal characteristics, seed quality and planting density. The SR is calculated as follows:
SR = Density (plants/ha) weight of 100 seeds (g) 10 seed viability (%) shelling yield (%)

With manual sowing, individual seeds are sown 3-5cm deep. Mechanized sowing is widely practiced in Senegal. This is done using a single row planter, generally drawn by a horse or donkey. In this way, one hectare can be sown in 8 hours. A disk adapted to the seed size, turns inside of a hopper and regularly dispenses the seeds into a furrow opened by the planter blade. A weighted rear wheel then closes the furrow.

1 2

Insecticide Fongicide

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2.7

Fertilization

A reasonable level of organic matter must be maintained in the light, weakly structured, tropical soils where groundnuts are grown. The groundnut plant has an extensive root system that allows it to explore a large volume of soil and therefore benefit from organic manure residues from preceding crop (cereal). Groundnuts can be cultivated with an N-P-K type mineral fertilizer. Calcium must be added to slightly acidic soils to correct the pH and improve the technical quality of the seeds. Calcium deficiency leads to a high percentage of aborted seeds (empty pods or pops) and improperly filled pods. Calcium is barely translocated across the leaves, therefore it must be applied near the fruiting zone (as a side dressing). This must be done at the beginning of pod formation in order to be directly absorbed by the pegs and the young developing pods. The quantity of fertilizer needed to maintain a seed-producing field depends on soil type and varies between 200 to 600 kg/ha of gypsum for large-seeded varieties. 2.8 Crop maintenance 2.8.1 Hoeing Weeding Early hoeing affects future crop growth since it allows better infiltration of rainwater, controls early weeds and therefore prevents competition for water, a scarce resource in the Sahel. Hoeing facilitates careful removal of volunteer groundnut plants from previous crops and incorporation of chemical fertilizers applied after sowing. Hoeing can either be manual or mechanical. The first hoeing is generally followed by one or two manual weedings. The crop must completely cover the soil from the 50 to 60 days, thereby limiting weed growth. Chemical weed control is uncommon, however, application of a pre-emergence herbicide would result in possible savings in time and labor, which could be better be spent on other work. This technique also requires specialized equipment as well as knowledge of chemical products and their application methods. 2.8.2 Culling out off-type plants This consists of manual removal of plants of other varieties present in the field. Depending on the degree of contamination, a field can be retained or rejected for seed production. In Senegal, fields of mother seeds should have less than one off-type in 1000 and those of certified seeds, one in 200. Applied standards for varietal purity of groundnut seeds are as follows; a minimum purity of 98% for level 1 seeds, and 95% for level 2 seeds. Regular field checks allow elimination

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Seed Production Guide

of foreign plants based on phenotypic characteristics of the cultivated variety. Purifying the field maintains the genetic quality and can only be effective if checks are rigorously continued throughout downstream operations (removal of foreign pods during shelling, cleaning of equipment, warehouses and packaging material). 2.9 Irrigation

Although groundnut is a rustic plant, high yield seed production can be guaranteed using irrigation, especially for first generations. Irrigation also allows off-season (outside of the rainy season) groundnut production, which accelerates seed multiplication in Sahelian countries. Quality production is ensured using an irrigation program adapted to crop demand at each developmental stage. Different irrigation methods can be used including overhead (sprinkler, etc.), drip and furrow irrigation. The latter is the most commonly used in West Africa but does not always ensure homogenous water distribution, especially in large fields. Telethermometry is a useful tool for managing irrigation systems. It links water demand to the temperature of the canopy and facilitates optimum water supply, and thereby avoids wastage of water resources. Individual or communal irrigated fields must be privileged partners for seed production since input usage (fertilizer, lime, phytosanitary protection) recommended for seed production is rewarded by high yield and quality. 2.10 Phytosanitary protection Groundnuts are exposed to pest and disease attack that can cause deterioration of the quality of the product and lead to significant losses. Some of the most common diseases are as follows: 2.10.1 Foliar diseases Groundnut rosette is a disease caused by a virus complex (combination of several viruses) transmitted by an aphid, Aphis craccivora Koch. There are three forms of the disease: chlorotic, mosaic or green. The green form occurs mainly in West Africa. Infected plants are stunted and production is greatly reduced. The disease can be controlled using resistant varieties along with specific cultural practices (early, high density sowing). Chemical control is often difficult and not economically feasible. Peanut Clump Virus (PCV) is a soil and seed borne disease. Continuous culture favors its development. Infected plants are stunted and have symptoms such as

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Seed Production Guide

mottling, mosaic, and chlorotic rings on the leaves. They must be removed and contaminated fields must be excluded from any seed multiplication program. Peanut Mottle Virus (PMV) is a viral disease. Symptoms include dark green irregular patches on young leaves. These are not easily seen on older leaves but a fine mottling can be observed with backlighting. Early and late leaf spot are diseases caused by fungi that commonly occur in groundnuts. Early leaf spot, Cercospora arachidicola, causes dark brown necrotic lesions surrounded by a chlorotic halo on the upper leaf surface. Late leaf spot, Phaeoisariopis personata, causes almost circular necrotic lesions that are very dark brown. Spores are produced on the leaf under surface. At high disease incidence, chlorotic infected foliage prematurely senesces and falls. Although chemical control is effective, it is not very profitable since several treatments are required during the vegetative growth phase of the crop. Farmers also have to try to control groundnut rust at the same time. Groundnut rust (Puccinia arachids) is a widespread fungal disease. Orange pustules appear on the lower leaf surface and necrotic lesions can occur on any aerial plant part. Unlike leaf spots, rust causes necrotic leaves to dry out but remain attached to the plant. Crop rotation is recommended in order to limit infestation, like for leaf spots. Other foliar diseases can also be observed. These include Sclerothium leaf spot, and Alternaria wilts. 2.10.2 Soil borne diseases Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Macrophomia phaseolina and Rhyzoctonia solani are the most common pathogens causing seed rot during sprouting. Sorting and treating seeds before sowing are the most effective and economically feasible means of controlling these diseases. If Macrophomia is identified as the causal agent, infected groundnut plants must be uprooted and destroyed. 2.10.3 Soil pests The most extensive field damaged is caused by millipedes, termites, white grubs and nematodes.

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Millipedes (Myriapoda) attack young seedlings and developing pods. They cause significant damage and are difficult to control. Seedling damage can be limited by incorporating an insecticide into the seed treatment. Termites (Isoptera) Macrotermes sp., Microtermes sp. and Odontotermes sp. are widespread throughout Africa. They can cause extensive damage in the field, especially under conditions of water stress when they attack plant by excavating through the central axis of main roots and stems. They equally attack developing pods, this can be recognized by holes made under the beak of the pods. Crop damage is most severe just after harvesting. Termites cause extensive scarring of the pods which makes them brittle. The pods are then perforated and the seeds eaten. This creates a gateway for Aspergillus flavus. Treating seeds before they are sown controls termites during the first month. However, for production of first level seeds, an insecticide like carbofuran (a carbamate) is recommended at a dosage of 10 kg per hectare around 40 days after planting. The residual activity of this insecticide ensures control up until the harvest. This broad-spectrum insecticide also partially controls millipedes and has some effects on nematodes. At harvest, soil must be dusted with insecticide before groundnuts are stacked for curing. White grubs (Coleoptera) Schizonycha spp. are the larvae of small brown chafers. They are found in the pod development area and feed on roots, nodules and pods. Damage symptoms include yellowing and rapid wilting of the plant. These larva attack several plant species, however, groundnut infestation is fortuitous. Constant monitoring and chemical control must be included in any on-farm IPM (Integrated Pest Management) strategy. Nematodes (Scutellonema cavenessi) are found through out the Sahel. The nematode is a soil dwelling round worm, less than 1 mm long, which bores into roots and pods. Nematode presence in the roots severely decreases the number of nodules and the activity of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Infected plants have yellowish foliage and severely reduced production. Pod damage is first characterized by the appearance of small brown spots. These become larger and darker as the nematodes grow. This type of damage can be partially controlled using a systemic insecticide such as carbofuran. Large scale trials conducted in Senegal showed that average pod yield can be increased by 500 kg/ha using dibromochloropropane (DBCP) soil treatments after the first rains, which stimulates nematode activity.

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2.10.4 Foliar insect pests These can be divided into two groups: piercing-sucking insects and defoliators (chewing insects), most of which belong to the orders of coleoptera or lepidoptera. The groundnut aphid (Homoptera: Aphidiae), Aphis craccivora Koch, is commonly called the black groundnut aphid. The black adult is 2-3mm long. Reproduction is always parthenogenic and there are several generations per year in tropical climates. Development from nymph to adult takes 5-6 days. These piercing-sucking insects feed on nutrients produced by the plant and damage can be particularly severe during prolonged periods of drought. Aphids form numerous colonies on leaf undersurfaces and on young shoots. They can equally be detected by the fungi (sooty moulds) that develop on the honeydew excreted by aphids. This species is the vector of groundnut rosette virus. Chemical control with 300 g a.i./ha of dimethoate has been reported to be very effective. Thrips (Thysanoptera) are small, slender insects, 2 mm long and 0.5 mm wide. They can be either yellow, brown or black. The wings are fringed and the tarsi have a vesicle called an arolium that allows them to stick to slippery surfaces. The most common thrips that attack groundnut in Africa are Scirtothrips dorsalis, Thrips palmi, Frankliniella schultzei and Heliothrips indicus. Thrips are piercingsucking insects. They destroy the parenchyma of the plant with their short stylets and so reduce photosynthetic capacity. Reproduction is often parthenogenic and they can produce up to 15 generations per year, especially under hot humid climatic conditions. Apart from the use of resistant varieties, chemical treatment with 15 g a.i./ha of Deltamethrine (Decis) or with systemic products can be used to control high infestations. Leafhoppers (Heteroptera) are tiny insects belonging to the family CicadellidaeJassidae. Several species of the polyphagous genus Empoasca (E. kerri, E. fasciallis and E. lybica) are among the most important insect pests of groundnuts in Senegal. These insects can cause direct damage by removing plant nutrients from the parenchyma and by injecting toxic enzymes that cause organ malformation. Egg oviposition into the tissues can also cause wounds with secondary effects. Most of these species are vectors of viruses or mycoplasmas. Drought stress increases damage. The main symptoms include leaf rolling near leaf bases, yellowing of leaflet tips, stunting, shortening and malformation of the internodes (dwarfism). Chemical treatment with systemic products like dimethoate (200-250g a.i./ha) provides effective control.

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Seed Production Guide

Caterpillars (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae), include Amsacta moloneyi, commonly called the hairy cowpea caterpillar a very polyphagous insect that also attacks groundnuts. The adult is 12-16 mm long with a wingspan of 35-40 mm. The larva is a hairy defoliating caterpillar with a yellow head and yellowish brownpatterned segments with ochre nipples. Adults appear 3-5 days after the first substantial rains and lay their eggs on young plants. This species can go through 3 to 4 generations per year. It can be controlled by cultural practices (end of cycle ploughing, late sowing). Treatment of young larva with insecticides such as endosulfan (250 g a.i./ha), monochrotophos (300 g a.i./ha) or fenvalerate (100 g a.i./ha) and biological control with Bacillus thuringiensis are also recommended. Groundnuts are attacked by various species of hairy caterpillars in other countries. These all belong to the family Arctiidae and include Amsacta albistra, Amsacta moori and Diacrisia obliqua. 2.11 Harvesting/Digging Optimal harvesting date is one of the first problem to be solved. Flowering is indeterminate in the groundnut; there is therefore a variable proportion of mature, immature and developing pods at the end of the crop cycle. Premature harvesting of the crop leads to quantitative losses in production, impacts on oil and protein content and on seed viability. If the soil is moist, keeping non-dormant varieties in the field for longer than the average cycle duration causes high level of germination of mature seeds while still in the pods. This delay exposes pods to pest attack; increases seed acidity and aflatoxin contamination, which have direct consequences on depreciation of seed quality. The most pertinent test for monitoring groundnut maturity is checking the internal parenchyma of the pods. It must be turgid, smooth, and dry ranging from white to dark brown. Mature pods are adequately indicated by the presence of several brown spots. Fields must be sampled from the theoretical date of pod maturity (varietal cycle) by pooling several plants and analyzing their pod maturity. The crop can be harvested once there are 70-80% of mature pods. In non-dormant varieties, the crop is considered to be mature when 2% of the plants have germinated seeds. Digging consists of cutting the main root below the pod bearing area. Plants are then dug up and shaken in order to remove soil adhering to the pods. This operation is generally manual. The main root is cut with a sharp tool, plants are then manually dug up, shaken and placed into stacks for rapid curing. These operations take an average of 150 hours per hectare but can very easily be

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mechanized. A simple tool, drawn by an animal can be used. It consists of a triangular blade 20-50 cm wide (depending on the type of cultivation) supported by a metallic framework with two steering arms, a front wheel and a hook for the harness. With this equipment, digging is three times faster than by hand. This basic equipment can also be used as a weeding hoe.

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Post-harvest technology
1. Introduction
Seed quality mainly depends on following appropriate handling and storage techniques for the harvested crop. Handling facilitates the selection of the best seeds while storage conditions ensure the conservation of high seed quality. Groundnut seeds are protected by a shell which acts as an excellent natural barrier protecting the seed from deteriorating agents. However, this shell should be perfectly intact in order to protect the seed. Removal of damaged pods is therefore necessary. Crop residues mixed with the pods are often sources of contamination (insect eggs, larvae and adults, fungal spores, etc.). They also represent a pointless use of storage capacity and should be removed. Phytosanitary protection is equally critical to conservation of the overall value of the seeds. Seed quality depends on the following compulsory steps: good quality stored products; following recommendations for phytosanitary protection and periodic inspection especially during warehousing; appropriate fitting of storage facilities.

2.

Handling of the harvested crop

Groundnuts lose their seed value at maturity if they are not correctly handled. Setting up a stock of quality seeds begins with harvest at optimal pod maturity, good digging conditions (loose soil, appropriate equipment, rapid harvest) and adequate curing. 2.1 Curing

Pods with 30-40% water content cannot be stored immediately after harvesting without them overheating. Likewise, handling of newly harvest pods with seeds still adhering to the hull could provoke irreversible biological damage and partially alter the seeds ability to germinate. Curing rapidly reduces pod water content to about 15%, then gradually to 8-10%. The use of high temperatures or brutal drying is not recommended. Pods can either be naturally or artificially cured. In arid savannah areas, uprooted groundnut plants are inverted, arranged in small heaps and left to dry for one or

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Seed Production Guide

two days. These are then assembled into large stacks with the pods placed towards the inside, preferably forming a central aeration chimney. In humid areas, the uprooted plants are dried for several days on wooden racks (stack poles) or on raised platforms before stripping. Pods are then cured in thin layers, small bags or baskets. Under mechanized farming systems, combine harvesters collect windrows, strip and clean pods in one single operation. The pods are then artificially cured in drying trailers. Air flow temperature should be 5-6C above ambient temperature but should not exceed 35C. Optimal depth varies from 0.6 to 3 meters according to pod water content and the type of curing equipment used. 2.2 Stripping/Winnowing

Pods are stripped at about 2 to 6 weeks after harvesting, when the pod water content stabilizes at around 10%. This operation consists of separating the pods from the vegetative parts of the plants (vines). In traditional farming systems, manual stripping is the rule. Pods are individually detached from the vines and therefore dry very quickly stabilizing at 6-8% moisture content. The process results in a perfect quality product. Pods are separated from the vines but are kept intact. This technique is used for the production of edible or confectionery groundnuts in order to minimize pod damage and contamination by Aspergillus flavus. However, stripping is most often done using sticks or flails. These reduce the heap of groundnut plants to mixture of chopped vines and partially broken pods that are then separated by winnowing. Several types of mechanical combines can be used to strip groundnut windrows with less than 10% moisture content. The operation of these combines is based on the following principle. Groundnut plants are manually fed, pod first, into the combine. Stripping is achieved by friction between the stripper bars against the base of the plant and the pegs. The stripped product is evacuated across a counter stripper made up of a cylindrical grid. Large pods retained by the grid are carried along by the rotation of the combine. Pods are then stripped a second time. A built-in blower separates the trash from the finished product. The intake speed, selection of the grid, combine rotation speed and airflow speed must be regulated (by adjusting the opening of the air intake shutters). Under mechanized farming systems, modern digging and combining equipment (high capacity machines) considerably reduce the operation time. This can lead the producer to strip an insufficiently dried product. Although this is not important

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in confectionery or edible groundnuts, it can damage seeds by causing microscopic lesions that alter their ability to germinate.

3.
3.1

Seed processing
Sieving

This operation is generally done on the farm or at the collecting point. The classic sieve consists of a hexagonal or cylindrical cage made from bars. It allows part of the trash including sand, straw and broken pods to be eliminated. However, it cannot eliminate pods of other varieties, empty pods (pops), partially filled or immature pods. This is the most basic cleaning operation. 3.2 Density separator

Groundnuts that have been stripped and winnowed using traditional methods are still highly contaminated by trash. A density separator can be used to get good quality seeds with a high level of varietal purity, good maturity and absence of foreign bodies and empty pods (pops). This process allows improvement of seed quality during drought years and it consists of two elements: a shaker, equipped with sieves adapted to the treated variety that eliminate trash (sand, straw, stems) and undersized pods; a blower with adjustable airflow that runs along a sloping surface. Pods are separated, while falling through the air stream, according to density. Pops and partially filled pods are ejected outside whereas full pods fall into a collecting bin. The shaker and the blower are motorized (electric or gas engine). Gas engines must be equipped with an oil bath filter since the machine operates under rather dusty conditions. Adjustments can be made using a yield valve on the feeding tray. Adjusting the slope of the shaker sieves, the airflow valves or the lower plate of the sloping surface permits regulation of the reception opening for good pods (the smaller the opening, the greater the segregation based on pod weight). Density separation considerably improves the quality of seeds in hulls, especially after a year of drought. For Virginia type groundnuts, seed yield is increased by an average of 9%. This translates into a mean decrease of 10 kg of seeds in shell per hectare.

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3.3

Packaging

Pods can easily be stored in bulk following the recommendations outlined in paragraph 4.2. Storage in clean jute or woven polyethylene fiber bags ensures the best protection of groundnuts and facilitates manipulation of stocks (manual or palletized). Groundnut seeds must only be stored in bags or drums according to recommendations presented in the following chapter. Each bag must be properly labeled. Labels must show batch origin, year, level of multiplication, seed weight and eventual phytosanitary treatments.

4.

Seed storage and conservation

Groundnut can either be shelled or stored in hulls (improved seeds, communal stocks, buffer stocks of shelling plants). Seeds in hulls are less exposed to different deteriorating agents and can be conserved quite well for short periods. When stored in heaps, pods must be treated with layers of insecticide followed by a final overall treatment. This requires extensive waterproof storage areas or high capacity warehouses (600800 tons). Handling costs are proportionally high and could be minimized by only storing properly cleaned, good quality batches. Shelled groundnuts are fragile and are exposed to various agents that cause physical, chemical and biological deterioration. They rapidly lose their seed value when stored under natural conditions, especially in tropical areas. The height of stacked bags should be limited to avoid crushing the seeds. Shelling methods strongly influence seed quality (see chapter on industrial seed processing). 4.1 On-farm storage of pods

Farmers only keep limited quantities of groundnuts because of financial and logistical reasons. They rarely distinguish between seed groundnuts and those destined for sale (or their own consumption). Protective insecticides are rarely used since farmers consume some of the groundnuts themselves. In humid tropical areas with two rainy seasons, farmers store their seeds in a ventilated area where they fumigate them. This storage method is absolutely inappropriate and generally leads to considerable losses caused by insects and fungi (more than 30%). Farmers can equally use communal facilities for storing large quantities. However, comanagement is often problematic for three reasons: contamination of the entire stock by poor quality batches, lack of confidentiality and restrictions to seed

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withdrawals to satisfy the farmers financial needs. Groundnut storage is often conducted by salespeople who are not concerned about quality in general and even less so by the specific requirements needed for conserving seed quality. 4.2 Collective or industrial storage

Pods must be stored according to well-defined technical recommendations in order to provide a quality product and to ensure profitability. Groundnuts should be stored as follows: collect quality raw material (well filled mature pods), clean, free from visible insect damage, well cured (6-8% water content); clean storage facilities; treat storage facilities and seeds (paragraph 5); check seeds regularly during storage (every 15 days or once a month according to storage period). 4.3 Storage of shelled groundnuts

This system is rarely used on farms since shelled groundnuts are more fragile and require expensive, hermetically sealed packaging (plastic or metallic drums). After shelling, specific procedures must be followed in order to ensure seed quality. Two processes are recommended: refrigerated storage and controlled or modified atmosphere storage. 4.3.1 Refrigerated storage This system is simple, tried and tested and results in excellent long-term storage (over three years). However there are certain technical and financial constraints: the stock is physically blocked in the store during the entire storage period; seeds must all be unpacked at one time and certain precautions must be taken. For example, the temperature must be increased gradually, especially during the rainy season and seeds must be rapidly used (within a few weeks) before they lose their viability; the cost increases sharply with storage time because energy consumption is high. 4.3.2 Storage under controlled or modified atmosphere Seeds are placed and maintained in anoxic conditions in either a complete vacuum or in a modified atmosphere (vacuum replaced with Nitrogen or Carbon dioxide gas).

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Seeds can be maintained under these conditions for medium term periods (1824 months) by using extruded multi-layered packets that have a high mechanical resistance and are impermeable to gases. A package thickness of 60m is adequate for small quantities of up to 1 kg (e.g. storage of collection samples) however a thickness of 90m is recommended for larger quantities (1-10 kg). This is especially recommended for vacuum packaging where stretching is an important consideration. Controlled atmosphere storage is not only cheaper than refrigerated storage but there are also no chemical residues on the seeds (seeds can be untreated). Seeds are therefore not hazardous and can be used without special protection or authorization. Resistance or tolerance to pesticides can also be avoided. Anoxia eradicates insect pests especially the groundnut seed beetle. Trials were conducted in Senegal on seeds that were artificially infested with C. serratus and packaged under vacuum for 1-42 days (complete vacuum at 0.26 atm, compensated vacuum (0.79 atm) with technical Nitrogen (98% N2) or with additional CO2). In all cases, beetles were completely eradicated in less than 21 days. Seeds packaged with Nitrogen, either with or without addition of CO2 under a slight vacuum are completely viable after 18 months of storage at ambient temperature. Seeds must be stored in a well-ventilated area and protected from rodents that could damage the bags. Leakage of air into the packets is the main technical problem. In order to avoid this, the sealing machine must be properly adjusted (welding quality), the bags must be of good quality and particular care must be taken during handling. The seed value of the product depends on its initial quality and careful compliance with specifically adapted curing and shelling techniques. 4.4 Some technical aspects of the industrial preparation of ready-to-use groundnut seeds

An experiment was conducted in Senegal on the use of ready-to-use coated groundnut seeds to improve financial and technical management at all stages of the supply chain. All the difficulties associated with managing seeds in hulls are avoided using this process: minimize the volume to be stored; avoid losses and cheating caused by contaminants (sand, soil, other waste, etc.); eliminate bad farmer practices (partial self-consumption of seeds, absence of insecticide treatment, incorrect fungicide application).

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Although coating technology offers many advantages, it requires careful inspection of industrial handling, packaging and storage of the final product. 4.4.1 Mechanical shelling This first step of the manufacturing process is critical to product quality. Mechanical shelling is relatively brutal and can cause severe damage to the seeds (splitting, cracking). Operator expertise is fundamental to reducing the risks of visible and invisible lesions. Operating principle A mechanical sheller is equipped with a head made from perforated or barred semi-cylindrical grills, which form a cage. Hulls are spread and broken by a rotor inside the cage. A pre-sorting is done by a cleaning system (sieving and blowing), designed to eliminate or collect by-products, broken or immature groundnuts. A grading shaker that allows unshelled groundnuts to be separated from whole and broken groundnuts completes the operation. Influence of batch quality on shelling The level of broken kernels increases when immature pods are harvested, when groundnuts have been beaten with a stick, mechanically (+10%), or too late (+5% per month). This also occurs when pod moisture content is less than 5-6% (in the Sahel it can fall below 3%). Importance of optimizing adjustments For a batch of a given quality, the yield of whole kernels is significantly decreased if the grills hole size is smaller than the groundnuts, if the rotor speed is excessive and the feeding rate of the machine is too high (a feeding regulator may be required). These requirements slow shelling speed and allow a judicious choice to be made between yield and quality. Since the pod size for each batch may be relatively heterogeneous, pre-calibration of the groundnuts is recommended in order to optimize the yield of whole seeds. Electronic color sorting Color sorters use color-based systems pre-set by the user. This principle gives an excellent reproducibility of the results, with a high yield for both visible and invisible wavelengths.

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The sorter consists of the following equipment: a vibrating electromagnetic hopper for precise feeding of the system; a steeply inclined descending chute aligning, directing and accelerating the seeds; an examination field composed of fluorescent lights, electronic optics opposite to reference screens; complex computerized equipment for data collection and analysis; an ejector that uses short blasts of compressed air to blow the offending kernel (darker or lighter than the variety standard) out of the stream of groundnuts. Wavelengths reflected by each object arriving in the examination field are captured by the optical systems and transmitted to photoreceptors that transform them into electric signals. These are then analyzed by the computerized equipment. When a defective groundnut is detected it is eliminated by a blast of compressed air. The use of clean standard sized groundnuts (for adjusting sorting rate and ejection speed) as well as a suitable environment (stable power supply, availability of filtered and cooled compressed air and a clean area with air conditioning) are critical for successful color sorting. 4.4.2 Seed coating The typical coating system consists of: a feeding tray regulating the flow of seeds to treat; a treatment feeder to deliver the appropriate rate of chemical; a performing system that compiles the flow of seeds and chemical in order to ensure proper treatment rate (mechanic or electronic control); a mixing drum to homogenize the distribution of the treatment to all the seeds (this is equivalent to a draining or pre-drying system); a conveyor belt to transfer the seeds to the weighing-packaging area. The principles for an optimized use of the system are: excellent quality seeds (seed value and integrity); regular seed feeding rate; precise chemical feeding (fungicide or fungicide + insecticide); reliable and rapid control system for seed feeding; chemical treatment adapted to the process (stable active ingredients, slow decanting, good coating ability) and to the local soil micro flora.

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5.

Phytosanitary protection of stored seeds

Control of storage pests is of critical importance. This is even more so in tropical countries since agricultural production does not always meet demand. Local environmental conditions are also favorable to pest development. Groundnuts characteristically form their pods in the soil and are therefore vulnerable to attack by pests such as termites (Isoptera) and millipedes (Myrapoda and Diplopoda). These can cause yield losses and reduce the quality of the harvested crop by damaging hulls. These lesions become gateways for fungal infection, notably Aspergillus flavus, the species responsible for aflatoxin contamination. Severe attack by seed bugs (Aphanus sordidus, Heteroptera: Lygaeidae) are sometimes observed on drying pods in the fields. The nymphs and adults feed by making fine perforations in the hulls. This causes very little visible damage but causes seed desiccation and greatly reduces seed viability. Rodents also cause field losses to the drying crop. They are of variable diversity and importance, however, there are two main species: one diurnal species, the stripped ground squirrel (Xerius erythropus) and one nocturnal (Cricetemys gambianus). The principle stored product pests, the seed bug (Heteroptera: Lygaeidae) and the groundnut seed beetle (Caryedon cerratus) can cause significant damage. Other insects, particularly Khapra beetles (Trogoderma granarium E.), as well as flour beetles, Tribolium castaneum H. and T. confusum are also important, especially on shelled groundnuts. The groundnut seed beetle is the most formidable long-term storage pest (Gillier & Brockele-Morovan, 1979). The larva develops inside the pods and is therefore protected from insecticidal dusts and sprays. However, local farmers tolerate damage caused by this pest, as long as losses are not spectacular. The detection of seed beetle damage and hence the decision to apply treatment is sometime too late. The possibility of future attack is unrecognized by farmers since they are unaware of the multivoltine life history of certain pests. Farmers tolerate a certain level of damage since they accept the idea that the pests take their share of the harvest! Such fatalism is an example of the ambiguous relationship that farmers have with their environment.

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5.1

Insect control

5.1.1 Contact treatments Future stacking sites must be treated with insecticide dust before windrows and stacks are formed for drying the groundnuts. A peripheral band should also be treated to protect the site. Groundnuts are thus protected against termites and seed bugs. Storage areas, containers, drums, bags and storage equipment (conveyors, etc.) must be treated before storing groundnuts. Cleaning these areas can be followed by fumigation or spraying with insecticides. Pesticides are applied using a sandwich technique. Seeds are dusted during bagging, and then an insecticidal dust is applied between each layer of bags. Organophosphates are contact insecticides currently used. Bromophos (500 g of 2% dust/ton) or idofenphos (1000 g of 2% dust/ton) are most commonly used products. Other available products with long residual activity include: - organophosphates: ethyl-pyrimiphos (Actellic), methyl-chlorpyriphos (Reldan). Their residual activity is low in open air but exceeds 6 months on stored seeds protected from light; - synthetic pyrethroids: Deltamethrine (K. Othrine). Contact insecticides ensure good protection against insects once groundnuts are not previously infested. For this reason, preventive fumigation of seed groundnuts must be carried out. 5.1.2 Fumigation Groundnut seeds (sorted pods or kernels) can be treated under airtight plastic tarpaulins, hermetically sealed silos or warehouses in a fumigant-saturated atmosphere. Groundnuts are currently fumigated in pyramidal heaps under plastic tarpaulins. Bags are arranged to form a pyramid that is slightly smaller than the tarpaulin. The base is sealed with a row of sandbags. Methyl bromide (CH3Br), long used for fumigation, is now prohibited by international legislation since it contributes to the greenhouse effect. This product, used in gaseous form, has an instantaneous impact on pest, eradicating all developmental stages (eggs, larva, and adults). Hydrogen phosphide (PH3), the only remaining authorized fumigant, is available in tablet form. Its release is much slower than methyl bromide and its use requires absolute adherence to manufactures recommendations in order for it to be equally effective. For this

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reason, under the arid conditions in the Sahel, a humid environment must be created under the fumigation tarpaulin. Small, water-filled cups or dampened bags are placed on the surface of the heap of groundnuts being treated. This ensures a rapid gas release that guarantees immediate eradication of the pest. The gas is produced from the breakdown of aluminum phosphide tablets (Phostoxin). Hydrogen phosphide, also known as phosphine gas, is obtained when its precursors (aluminum or magnesium phosphide) are exposed to humid conditions. Tablets must be placed on small saucers in order to recuperate powdery residues that still contain traces of aluminum phosphide. Successful fumigation depends on several factors. The most important are: ambient moisture, fumigant dose and fumigation duration. Fumigant dose can be reduced in airtight treatment areas with high temperature. Groundnuts have relatively high absorption rates for hydrogen phosphide: 50% and 80% respectively for shelled and unshelled groundnuts with a 5-day fumigation at 25C3. In practice, a 3-4 days treatment with a dose of 2 g/m3 and 3 g/m3 PH3 can be used respectively for shelled and unshelled groundnuts stored under tarpaulin or in fairly airtight warehouse (considering a 50% loss coefficient). Stored groundnuts must be regularly checked for sanitary problems, and a seed sample should be analyzed on a 3-week basis to ensure good conservation and eventually implement corrective measures. 5.1.3 Physical and mechanical methods These low technology methods are cheap, effective and readily available to farmers. Several techniques are used, depending on the area. Groundnuts are mixed with powdered minerals (ashes, sand, etc.) that act as abrasives or physical barriers. Hermetically sealed containers in which anoxic conditions limit insect development. Temperatures are bellow (<5C) or above (>40-45C) the optimum for insect development.

Laboratoire Denres Stockes, 33150 Cenon - France

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Solarisation of groundnuts under plastic or polyethylene mulching (thermosolar treatments) which greatly affect bruchids. Precautions must be taken to avoid deterioration of the germinative capacity of the seeds.

6.

Seed physiology

Planting non-viable seeds that cannot germinate and therefore ensure a good harvest, is the farmers greatest risk. Determining seed crop value is the ultimate objective of any analysis. However, parameters that determine seed quality may be prioritized differently, depending on the user. There are recommended analytical methods based on standardized international seed trading guidelines. These have been ratified within the framework of the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA). 6.1 Germination

Germination is defined as the appearance and development of the embryo, to form the essential organs of the seedling. The seeds ability to produce a normal seedling under favorable conditions can be determined by examining these organs. The mature groundnut seed is made up of an embryo comprised of two cotyledons, a short hypocotyl, the plumule and the primary root. The plumule is formed by a central axis and the two cotyledon axes. It already contains nine embryonic leaves. These essential organs originate from tissue differentiation during the embryos development inside the seed. Viable seeds begin germinating when placed in a favorable environment (temperature, moisture, and oxygen). Germination takes place in several stages: imbibition; activation of enzymes; growth of the embryo; rupture of the testa; elongation and emergence of the radical; growth of the terminal bud and embryonic axis. Imbibition is based on the seeds chemical composition, water availability in its environment and the permeability of the testa. Protein-rich seeds need to imbibe 2-5 times their dry weight in water to initiate germination. This is relatively high when compared to certain sugar rich cereal species. These need to absorb only one and a half to twice their dry weight in water. In order to germinate, legumes

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and cotton need a minimum water content of 50-55% whereas cereals need 30-35% which is close to the observed water content at physiological maturity. Water activates the enzymes responsible for hydrolysis of nutritional reserves (lipids, sugars and proteins). It is essential for transport and utilization of the simplest and most mobile components (glucose, amino acids, etc.) by the growing embryonic axis. Enzymes catalyze the reaction needed for the synthesis of new material required for tissue differentiation and growth of the embryo. Germination in peanuts is epigeal. The cotyledons and the sprout are carried above the soil by the elongating hypocotyl. Seed viability can be determined by germination test. Four repetitions of 100 seeds or eight repetitions of 50 seeds (a total of 400 seeds are used). Seeds are equally spaced on a moist substrate then placed in an incubator at 30C and 90% RH. Seeds are evaluated after five days (germinative vigor) or 10 days (germinative ability). They are also classified as normal seedlings, abnormal seedlings and ungerminated seeds. 6.2 Dormancy and methods for breaking dormancy

Dormancy is a natural phenomenon in the plant kingdom. It is defined as the inability of newly harvested seeds to continue their development under favorable environmental conditions (temperature and humidity). Generally, dormancy is an absence or a significant reduction in seed viability, even under favorable conditions. Dormancy is an adaptation that allows plant to survive particular climatic conditions. Seed germination is spread over time since the intensity of dormancy varies within a seed population. Natural factors or climatic changes can break dormancy. It is absent in Spanish and Valencia type groundnut or is naturally broken several weeks after seed maturity. It can cause pre-harvest germination in the field when harvesting is delayed and the soil is still moist (irrigation, end of season rains) and even during storage in unseasonably wet periods. This type of unwanted germination considerably reduces seed yield and quality; such seeds are usually downgraded and used for oil production. Virginia type groundnuts have a longer dormancy of four months or more. Endogenous metabolic inhibitors cause dormancy in groundnuts. These are generally enzymes that block hydrolysis of nutrient reserves and nutrient transport to the embryo. The synthesis of new material is thereby inhibited.

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Previous work has shown that product such as ethylene (3.5ppm induces excellent germination). Ethephon can also be used to break dormancy in groundnuts. Ethephon or ethrel, originally a growth regulator, progressively decomposes into mainly ethylene as well as several other substances. It is available in liquid or powder form. The powder is added to the fungicide-insecticide mixture and the liquid is sprayed onto untreated seeds. Heat treatments can also break dormancy (40-45C for 15 days) but this long, slow treatment is not very convenient.

Groundnut Seed Project GSP

Contact address / Principal addresses
Project Executing Agency (PEA), Farid Waliyar ICRISAT, Patancheru, 502 324, Andra Pradesh, India Bonny Ntare, Project Manager ICRISAT-Bamako, B.P. 320, Bamako, Mali

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