Oracle

Create Command Create command is used to create a Table or a relation. Syntax: Create table tablename (Field1 datatype, Field1 datatype,., Field n datatype) SQL> create table emp (eno number (8), ename varchar2 (20), esal number (10)); Table created. Describe Command Describe command is used to see the description of a table. Syntax: Desc tablename SQL> desc emp; Name Null? Type ------------------------------- -------- ---ENO NUMBER(8) ENAME VARCHAR2(20) ESAL NUMBER(10) Insert command Insert command is used to insert the values in a table. Syntax: insert into tablename values (value1, value2,.., value n) insert into emp values(1,shyam,5000); SQL> insert into emp values (&eno,'&ename',&esal); Enter value for eno: 1 Enter value for ename: suresh Enter value for esal: 20000 old 1: insert into emp values(&eno,'&ename',&esal) new 1: insert into emp values(1,'suresh',20000) 1 row created. SQL> / Enter value for eno: 2 Enter value for ename: ajay Enter value for esal: 15000 old 1: insert into emp values(&eno,'&ename',&esal) new 1: insert into emp values(2,'ajay',15000) 1 row created. SQL> / Enter value for eno: 3 Enter value for ename: vijay Enter value for esal: 18000 old 1: insert into emp values(&eno,'&ename',&esal) new 1: insert into emp values(3,'vijay',18000) 1 row created. SQL> /

Enter value for eno: 4 Enter value for ename: arun Enter value for esal: 17 old 1: insert into emp values(&eno,'&ename',&esal) new 1: insert into emp values(4,'arun',17) 1 row created. Select Command Select command is used to view the table. Syntax: Select columnname from emp Select columnname1, columnname2, columnname3 from emp Select * from emp SQL> select * from emp; ENO ENAME ESAL --------- -------------------- --------1 suresh 20000 2 ajay 15000 3 vijay 18000 4 arun 17 Update Command Update command is used to update the values of a table. Syntax: update tablename set columnname=value where columnname=value SQL> update emp set esal=17000 where eno=4; 1 row updated. SQL> select * from emp; ENO ENAME ESAL --------- -------------------- --------1 suresh 20000 2 ajay 15000 3 vijay 18000 4 arun 17000 Alter Command : Alter command is used to alter the structure of a table. Alter command has three attributes namely add, modify and drop. Add: Adding a column in a table. Modify: Modify the size of a column. Drop: Dropping a column of a table. Syntax: Add Column Alter table tablename add (column datatype) SQL> alter table emp add (city varchar2 (15)); Table altered. SQL> select * from emp;

ENO ENAME ESAL CITY --------- -------------------- --------- ---------1 suresh 20000 2 ajay 15000 3 vijay 18000 4 arun 17000 SQL> update emp set city='CHD 'where eno=1; 1 row updated. SQL> update emp set city='CHD 'where eno=2; 1 row updated. SQL> update emp set city='AMBALA' where eno=3; 1 row updated. SQL> update emp set city='banur' where eno=4; 1 row updated. SQL> select * from emp; ENO ENAME ESAL CITY --------- -------------------- --------- ----------1 suresh 20000 CHD 2 ajay 15000 CHD 3 vijay 18000 AMBALA 4 arun 17000 banur SQL> desc emp; Name Null? Type ------------------------------- -------- ---ENO NUMBER(8) ENAME VARCHAR2(20) ESAL NUMBER(10) CITY VARCHAR2(15) Syntax: Modify Column Alter table tablename modify (column datatype) SQL> alter table emp modify(city varchar2(20)); Table altered. SQL> desc emp; Name Null? Type ------------------------------- -------- ---ENO NUMBER(8) ENAME VARCHAR2(20) ESAL NUMBER(10) CITY VARCHAR2(20)

Syntax: Drop Column Alter table tablename drop column columnname SQL> alter table emp drop column city ; Table altered. SQL> desc emp; Name Null? Type ------------------------------- -------- ---ENO NUMBER(8) ENAME VARCHAR2(20) ESAL NUMBER(10) Delete Command Delete command is used to delete a row from a table. Syntax: Delete from tablename where cloumnname=value SQL> delete from emp where eno=3; 1 row deleted. SQL> select * from emp; ENO ENAME ESAL CITY --------- -------------------- --------- -------------------1 suresh 20000 CHD 2 ajay 15000 CHD 4 arun 17000 banur Truncate command: Truncate command is used to truncate or empty or delete all rows of a table. Syntax:Truncate table tablename SQL> truncate table emp; Table truncated. SQL> select * from emp; no rows selected SQL> desc emp; Name Null? Type ------------------------------- -------- ---ENO NUMBER(8) ENAME VARCHAR2(20) ESAL NUMBER(10) CITY VARCHAR2(20) Drop Command: Drop command is used to drop the structure of a table permanently. Syntax: Drop table tablename

SQL> drop table emp; Table dropped. SQL> desc emp; ERROR: ORA-04043: object emp does not exist Slash Command(/) : Slash command is used to rerun the previous command. SQL> create table employee(eno number(8),ename varchar2(20),esal number(10)); Table created. SQL> insert into employee values(&eno,'&ename',&esal); Enter value for eno: 1 Enter value for ename: arun Enter value for esal: 12000 old 1: insert into employee values(&eno,'&ename',&esal) new 1: insert into employee values(1,'arun',12000) 1 row created. SQL> / Enter value for eno: 2 Enter value for ename: raani Enter value for esal: 14000 old 1: insert into employee values(&eno,'&ename',&esal) new 1: insert into employee values(2,'raani',14000) 1 row created. SQL> / Enter value for eno: 3 Enter value for ename: raaj Enter value for esal: 15000 old 1: insert into employee values(&eno,'&ename',&esal) new 1: insert into employee values(3,'raaj',15000) 1 row created. SQL> / Enter value for eno: 4 Enter value for ename: harpreet Enter value for esal: 17000 old 1: insert into employee values(&eno,'&ename',&esal) new 1: insert into employee values(4,'harpreet',17000) 1 row created. SQL> select * from employee ENO ENAME ESAL --------- -------------------- ---------

1 arun 12000 2 raani 14000 3 raaj 15000 4 harpreet 17000

COLUMN ALIASES:SQL> select empno "employee no",ename "employee name",edep "employee department" from emp1; employee no employee name employee department ------------------ ------------------------ ---------------------------------10 Amit HR 20 Sumit Mkt 30 Harish Finance 40 Avneet sales 50 Neha Admin 60 Rajat Prod 6 rows selected. OPERATORS:1. ARITHMETIC OPERATOR:SQL> select empno,ename,esalary*12 "Annual Salary" from emp1; EMPNO ENAME Annual Salary ------------- -------------- ---------------------10 Amit 120000 20 Sumit 144000 30 Harish 276000 40 Avneet 180000 50 Neha 192000 60 Rajat 288000 6 rows selected. SQL> select * from emp1; EMPNO ENAME EDEP ESALARY EADD ELOC -------------- -------------- ---------- -------------- ------------ --------------10 Amit HR 10000 #1276,sec-12b chd 20 Sumit Mkt 12000 #897/a amb 30 Harish Finance 23000 #986 Mohali 40 Avneet sales 15000 #908 Pkl 50 Neha Admin 16000 #765,d Pat 60 Rajat Prod 24000 #127,b Banur 6 rows selected. 2. COMPARISON/RELATIONAL OPERATOR:SQL> select * from emp1 where empno!=20; EMPNO ENAME EDEP ESALARY EADD ELOC ----------- ----------- ----------- -------------- ----------------- -----------------

10 30 40 50 60

Amit Harish Avneet Neha Rajat

HR Finance sales Admin Prod

10000 23000 15000 16000 24000

#1276,sec-12b chd #986 Mohali #908 Pkl #765,d Pat #127,b Banur

A) BETWEEN:SQL> select * from emp1 where esalary between 10000 and 20000; EMPNO ENAME EDEP ESALARY EADD ELOC ----------- ------------- ---------- -------------- -------------------- -------------10 Amit HR 10000 #1276,sec-12b chd 20 Sumit Mkt 12000 #897/a amb 40 Avneet sales 15000 #908 Pkl 50 Neha Admin 16000 #765,d Pat B) IN:SQL> select * from emp1 where edep in('HR','Sales'); EMPNO ENAME EDEP ESALARY EADD ELOC ------------- ------------- -------- ------------- -------------------- --------------10 Amit HR 10000 #1276,sec-12b chd C) LIKE:SQL> select * from emp1 where ename like 'A%' EMPNO ENAME EDEP ESALARY EADD ELOC ---------- -------------- ---------- ------------ ----------------- -----------------10 Amit HR 10000 #1276,sec-12b chd 40 Avneet sales 15000 #908 Pkl

3. LOGICAL OPERATOR:A) AND OPERATOR:SQL> select * from emp1 where esalary=23000 and edep='Finance'; EMPNO ENAME EDEP ESALARY EADD ELOC ------------- ------------ ---------- ----------- ---------- --------------30 Harish Finance 23000 #986 Mohali B) OR OPERATOR:SQL> select * from emp1 where esalary=15000 or edep='HR'; EMPNO ENAME EDEP ESALARY EADD ELOC ------------- ------------- --------- ------------------------- --------------10 Amit HR 10000 #1276,sec-12b chd 40 Avneet sales 15000 #908 Pkl

4. SET OPERATORS:We created two tables emp1 and emp2 with the following enteries:SQL> select * from emp2; EMPNO ENAME ESALARY ----------- ----------- -----------70 Mohit 90000 80 Roshan 25000 90 Ajay 17000 30 Harish 23000 SQL> select * from emp1; EMPNO ENAME EDEP ESALARY EADD ELOC -------------- -------------- ---------- -------------- ------------ --------------10 Amit HR 10000 #1276,sec-12b chd 20 Sumit Mkt 12000 #897/a amb 30 Harish Finance 23000 #986 Mohali 40 Avneet sales 15000 #908 Pkl 50 Neha Admin 16000 #765,d Pat 60 Rajat Prod 24000 #127,b Banur 6 rows selected. A) UNION:SQL> select empno from emp1 union select empno from emp2; EMPNO --------10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 9 rows selected. B) UNION ALL:SQL> select empno from emp1 union all select empno from emp2; EMPNO -------------10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

90 30 10 rows selected. C) INTERSECT:SQL> select empno from emp1 intersect select empno from emp2; EMPNO --------30 D) MINUS:SQL> select empno from emp1 minus select empno from emp2; EMPNO --------10 20 40 50 60 CONSTRAINTS:Constraints are the rules and regulations which we impose on our table fields.They are used to maintain the consistency of the database.We have three categories of constraints: 1. Domain Level Constraint : NOT NULL , CHECK 2. Entity Integrity Constraint: PRIMARY KEY, UNIQUE 3. Referential Integrity Constraint: FOREIGN KEY 1) DOMAIN LEVEL CONSTRAINT:We are inserting a null value in ename field of emp2 table. SQL> insert into emp2 values(100,'',8000); 1 row created. SQL> select * from emp2 EMPNO ENAME ESALARY ------------ ------------ ----------70 Mohit 90000 80 Roshan 25000 90 Ajay 17000 30 Harish 23000 100 8000 Now we implement a NOT NULL constraint on emp2 table.Constraint can be applied at the time of table creation. So by dropping the table emp2 and creating it again implementing a NOT NULL constraint: NOT NULL:Create table emp2(empno number(3),ename varchar2(30) constraint emp_en_nn not null,esalary number(10)); Table Created.

CHECK:Check constraint can be applied at the time of table creation and at the time of alteration as well. At the time of creation: Create table emp2(empno number(3),ename varchar2(30),esalary number(10) constraint emp_sal_chk check(esalary>5000)); Table Created. At the time of alteration: SQL> alter table emp2 add constraint emp_sal_chk check(esalary>5000); Table altered. B) ENTITY INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS:Entity Integrity constraints can also be created at both times at the time of creation and at the time of alteration of a table. UNIQUE:SQL> alter table emp add constraint emp_dn_uq unique(dname); Table altered. PRIMARY KEY:SQL> alter table emp add constraint emp_eno_pk primary key(eno); alter table emp add constraint emp_eno_pk primary key(eno) * ERROR at line 1: ORA-02437: cannot enable (SCOTT.EMP_ENO_PK) - primary key violated C) REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS:FOREIGN KEY:SQL> alter table emp add constraint emp_dno_fk foreign key(dno) references dep(dno); Table altered.

SQL FUNCTIONS:We have Single row functions and Group functions in SQL. Single row functions are further divided into following categories: 1. Character Functions 2. Numeric Functions 3. Date Functions 4. Miscellaneous Functions 5. Conversion Functions Let us discuss them SINGLE ROW FUNCTIONS:A) Character Functions:i) INITCAP:It makes the first Charcter of the string as capital. SQL> select empno,initcap(ename),esalary from emp1; EMPNO INITCAP(ENAME) ESALARY --------- ---------------------------10 Amit 10000

20 30 40 50 60

Sumit Harish Avneet Neha Rajat

12000 23000 15000 16000 24000

6 rows selected. Ii) LOWER:It converts the field into lowercase. SQL> select empno,lower(ename),esalary from emp1; EMPNO LOWER(ENAME) ESALARY --------- ---------------------------10 amit 10000 20 sumit 12000 30 harish 23000 40 avneet 15000 50 neha 16000 60 rajat 24000 6 rows selected. iii) UPPER:It converts the field into uppercase. SQL> select empno,upper(ename),esalary from emp1; EMPNO UPPER(ENAME) ESALARY --------- ---------------------------10 AMIT 10000 20 SUMIT 12000 30 HARISH 23000 40 AVNEET 15000 50 NEHA 16000 60 RAJAT 24000 6 rows selected. iv) LTRIM:It trims the given set of characters from a string from left. SQL> select ltrim ('amit','am') from emp1 where empno=10; LT -it 1 rows selected. v)RTRIM:It trims the given set of characters from a string from right. SQL> select rtrim ('amit','it') from emp1 where empno=10; RT -am

1 rows selected. vi)TRANSLATE:It replaces a character by a single character. SQL> select empno,translate('neha','a','u') from emp1 where empno=50; EMPNO TRAN --------- ---50 nehu 1 rows selected. vii)REPLACE:It replaces a character by multiple characters. SQL> select empno, replace('sumit','i','ee') from emp1 where empno=20; EMPNO REPLAC --------- -----20 sumeet 1 rows selected. viii)LENGTH:It counts the number of characters in a string. SQL> select empno,length(ename) from emp1; EMPNO LENGTH(ENAME) --------- ------------10 4 20 5 30 6 40 6 50 4 60 5 6 rows selected. ix) SUBSTR:It fetches the given substring from a string. SQL> select substr('HELLOWORLD',4,5) from dual; SUBST ----LOWOR x) LPAD:SQL> select lpad('amit',10,'*') from dual; LPAD('AMIT ---------******amit 1 rows selected. xi) RPAD:-

SQL> select rpad('amit',10,'*')from dual; RPAD('AMIT ---------------amit****** 1 rows selected. xii) CONCAT:SQL> select concat('hello','world') from dual; CONCAT('HE ---------Helloworld xiii) INSTR:SQL> select instr('hello','e') from dual; INSTR('HELLO','E') -----------------2 B) NUMERIC FUNCTIONS:i) ABS():SQL> select abs(-31) from dual; ABS(-31) ------------31 ii) CEIL():SQL> select ceil(100.23) from dual; CEIL(100.23) -----------101 iii) FLOOR():SQL> select floor(100.23) from dual; FLOOR(100.23) ------------100 iv) POWER():SQL> select power(2,3) from dual;

POWER(2,3) ---------8 v) MOD():SQL> select mod(10,3) from dual; MOD(10,3) --------1 vi) ROUND():SQL> select round(23.467235,2) from dual; ROUND(23.467235,2) -----------------23.47 vii) TRUNCATE():SQL> select trunc(23.461235,2) from dual; TRUNC(23.461235,2) -----------------23.46 viii) SQRT():SQL> select sqrt(4) from dual; SQRT(4) --------2 C) DATE FUNCTIONS:i. ADD_MONTHS:SQL> select add_months(sysdate,6) from dual; ADD_MONTH --------29-MAY-10 ii. SYSDATE:SQL> select sysdate from dual; SYSDATE --------29-NOV-09 iii. MONTHS_BETWEEN:SQL> select months_between(sysdate,'15-oct-09') from dual; MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,'15-OCT-09') -----------------------------------

1.4819736 iv. LAST_DAY:SQL> select last_day('14-jul-09') from dual; LAST_DAY( --------31-JUL-09 v. NEXT_DAY:SQL> select next_day(sysdate,'Sunday') from dual; NEXT_DAY( --------06-DEC-09 D) MISCELLANEOUS FUNCTIONS:i. UID:SQL> select uid from dual; UID --------20 ii. USER:SQL> select user from dual; USER -----------------------------SCOTT E) CONVERSION FUNCTIONS:i. TO_CHAR():SQL> select to_char(sysdate) from dual; TO_CHAR(S --------29-NOV-09 ii. TO_NUMBER():SQL> select to_number('123') from dual; TO_NUMBER('123') ---------------123 iii. TO_DATE():SQL> select to_date('29-NOV-09') from dual; TO_DATE(S --------29-NOV-09

GROUP FUNCTIONS 1) MIN:SQL> select min(esalary) from emp1; MIN(ESALARY) -----------10000 2) MAX:SQL> select max(esalary) from emp1; MAX(ESALARY) -----------24000 3) SUM:SQL> select sum(esalary) from emp1; SUM(ESALARY) -----------85000 4) AVG:SQL> select avg(esalary) from emp1; AVG(ESALARY) -----------17000 5) COUNT:SQL> select count(*) from emp1; COUNT(*) --------5 JOINS SQL joins are used to query data from two or more tables, based on a relationship between certain columns in these tables. We have following type of joins:1. Equii join 2. Non Equii join 3. Outer Join i. Left Outer Join ii. Right Outer Join iii. Full Outer Join 4. Self Join 1. EQUII JOIN Return rows when there is at least one match in both tables. Lets have a look at both the tables i.e. emp and dep table. SQL> select * from emp; ENO ENMAE DNO --------- --------------- ---------

1 2 3 4 5

A B C D E

10 20 30 10 20

SQL> select * from dep; DNO DNAME DLOC --------- --------------- ---------10 HR Chd 20 MKT Moh 30 SALES Banur Implementing equii join on both tables: SQL> select emp.eno,emp.enmae,emp.dno,dep.dname from emp,dep where emp.dno=dep.dno; ENO ENMAE DNO --------- --------------- --------1 A 10 4 D 10 2 B 20 5 E 20 3 C 30 DNAME --------------HR HR MKT MKT SALES

2. NON-EQUII JOIN Lets have a look at both the tables i.e. emp2 and salgrade table. SQL> select * from emp2; ENO ENAME ESAL --------- -----------------1 A 5500 2 B 6500 3 C 14000 4 D 2200 5 E 25000 SQL> select * from salgrade; GRADE LOSAL HISAL --------- --------- --------1 700 1200 2 1201 1400 3 1401 2000 4 2001 3000 5 3001 9999 Implementing non equii join on both tables: SQL> select e.eno,e.ename,e.esal,s.grade from emp2 e,salgrade s where e.esal between s.losal and s.hisal; ENO ENAME ESAL GRADE --------- ------------------ --------4 D 2200 4 1 A 5500 5 2 B 6500 5 3. OUTER JOIN SQL> select * from emp;

ENO ENMAE DNO --------- --------------- --------1 A 10 2 B 20 3 C 30 4 D 10 5 E 20 6 F 70 SQL> insert into dep values (40,'ADMIN','Pkl'); 1 row created. SQL> select * from dep; DNO DNAME DLOC --------- --------------- ---------10 HR Chd 20 MKT Moh 30 SALES Banur 40 ADMIN Pkl i. LEFT OUTER JOIN Return all rows from the left table, even if there are no matches in the right table. SQL> select eno,enmae,emp.dno,dname from emp,dep where emp.dno(+)=dep.dno; ENO ENMAE DNO DNAME --------- --------------- --------- --------------1 A 10 HR 4 D 10 HR 2 B 20 MKT 5 E 20 MKT 3 C 30 SALES ADMIN 6 rows selected. ii. RIGHT OUTER JOIN:SQL> select eno,enmae,emp.dno,dname from emp,dep where emp.dno=dep.dno(+); Return all rows from the right table, even if there are no matches in the left table. ENO ENMAE DNO DNAME --------- --------------- --------- --------------1 A 10 HR 4 D 10 HR 2 B 20 MKT 5 E 20 MKT 3 C 30 SALES 6 F 70 6 rows selected. ii. FULL OUTER JOIN:SQL> select eno,enmae,emp.dno,dname from emp,dep where emp.dno(+)=dep.dno and emp.dno=dep.dno(+) Return rows when there is a match in one of the tables. ENO ENMAE DNO DNAME --------- --------------- --------- ---------------

1 4 2 5 3 6

A D B E C F

10 10 20 20 30 70

HR HR MKT MKT SALES ADMIN

7 rows selected. 4. SELF JOIN:Joins the table with itself. SQL> select * from emp3; ENO ENAME --------- ---------1 A 2 B 4 D 3 C 5 E 6 F 6 rows selected. SQL> select e1.eno,e1.ename,e1.designation,e2.ename from emp3 e1,emp3 e2 where e1.mgr=e2.eno; ENO ENAME DESIGNATION ENAME --------- --------------------------------1 A Peon C 4 D Peon C 6 F Clerk C 2 B Clerk E DESIGNATION MGR --------------------Peon 3 Clerk 5 Peon 3 Manager Manager Clerk 3

SUB QUERIES Nested queries are known as sub queries. SQL> select * from emp2; ENO ENAME ESAL --------- ---------- --------1 A 5500 2 B 6500 3 C 14000 4 D 2200 5 E 25000 QUERY1 : SELECT THE ENAMES FROM THE EMP TABLE WHOSE SALARY ARE GREATER THAN THE SALARY OF EMP WHOSE ENO IS 2. SQL> select ename from emp2 where esal>(select esal from emp2 where eno=2); ENAME ---------C

QUERY2 : SELECT THE DETAILS OF EMP WHOSE SALARY IS EQUAL TO THE MINIMUM
SALARY. SQL> select eno,ename,esal from emp2 where esal=(select min(esal)from emp2); ENO ENAME ESAL --------- ---------- --------4 D 2200

QUERY3 : SELECT THE 2ND MAXIMUM SALARY OF THE EMP TABLE.

SQL> select max(esal) from emp2 where esal<(select max(esal) from emp2); MAX(ESAL) --------14000 VIEWS A view is, in essence, a virtual table. It does not physically exist. Rather, it is created by a query joining one or more tables. Syntax: CREATE VIEW view_name AS SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE condition SQL> select * from emp1; EMPNO ENAME EDEP ESALARY EADD ELOC -------------- -------------- ---------- -------------- -------------------------10 Amit HR 10000 #1276,sec-12b chd 20 Sumit Mkt 12000 #897/a amb 30 Harish Finance 23000 #986 Mohali 40 Avneet sales 15000 #908 Pkl 50 Neha Admin 16000 #765,d Pat 60 Rajat Prod 24000 #127,b Banur 1. SIMPLE VIEW:SQL> create or replace view emp10 as select empno,ename,eadd from emp1; View created. SQL> select * from emp10; EMPNO ENAME EADD -------------- -------------- ---------- -------------- ------------ --------------10 Amit #1276,sec-12b 20 Sumit #897/a 30 Harish #986 40 Avneet #908 50 Neha #765,d 60 Rajat #127,b SQL> create or replace view emp10(empno,empname,empsal) as select empno,ename,esalary from emp1;

View created. SQL> select * from emp10; EMPNO --------10 20 30 50 60 EMPNAME -------------------Amit Sumit Harish Neha Rajat EMPSAL --------10000 12000 23000 16000 24000

2. COMPLEX VIEW SQL> select * from emp; ENO ENMAE DNO --------- --------------- --------1 A 10 2 B 20 3 C 30 4 D 10 5 E 20 6 F 70 6 rows selected. SQL> select * from dep; DNO DNAME DLOC --------- --------------- ---------10 HR Chd 20 MKT Moh 30 SALES Banur 40 ADMIN Pkl SQL> create or replace view emp10 as select e.eno,e.enmae,e.dno,d.dname from emp e,dep d where e.dno=d.dno; View created. SQL> select * from emp10; ENO ENMAE DNO --------- --------------- --------1 A 10 4 D 10 2 B 20 5 E 20 3 C 30 DROP VIEW SQL> drop view emp10; View dropped. SQL> select * from emp10; select * from em0p10 * DNAME --------------HR HR MKT MKT SALES

ERROR at line 1: ORA-00942: table or view does not exist INDEX SQL> select * from dep; DNO DNAME DLOC --------- --------------- ---------10 HR Chd 20 MKT Moh 30 SALES Banur 40 ADMIN Pkl SQL> create unique index i4 on dep(dname); Index created. SQL> insert into dep values(50,'HR','CHD'); insert into dep values(50,'HR','CHD') * ERROR at line 1: ORA-00001: unique constraint (SCOTT.I4) violated SQL> insert into dep values(50,'HR1','Pat'); 1 row created. SQL> select * from dep; DNO DNAME DLOC --------- --------------- ---------10 HR Chd 20 MKT Moh 30 SALES Banur 40 ADMIN Pkl 50 HR1 Pat COMPOSITE INDEX SQL> create unique index d1 on dep (dno,dloc); Index created. SQL> select * from dep; DNO DNAME DLOC --------- --------------- ---------10 HR Chd 20 MKT Moh 30 SALES Banur 40 ADMIN Pkl 50 HR1 Pat DROP INDEX

SQL> drop index d1; Index dropped. IMPLEMENTING PL/SQL

PL/SQL Variables
These are placeholders that store the values that can change through the PL/SQL Block. The General Syntax to declare a variable is:
variable_name datatype [NOT NULL := value ];

variable_name is the name of the variable. datatype is a valid PL/SQL datatype. NOT NULL is an optional specification on the variable. value or DEFAULT valueis also an optional specification, where you can initialize a variable. Each variable declaration is a separate statement and must be terminated by a semicolon.

For example, if you want to store the current salary of an employee, you can use a variable.
DECLARE salary number (6);

* salary is a variable of datatype number and of length 6. When a variable is specified as NOT NULL, you must initialize the variable when it is declared. For example: The below example declares two variables, one of which is a not null.
DECLARE salary number(4); dept varchar2(10) NOT NULL := HR Dept;

The value of a variable can change in the execution or exception section of the PL/SQL Block. We can assign values to variables in the two ways given below. 1) We can directly assign values to variables. The General Syntax is:
variable_name:= value;

2) We can assign values to variables directly from the database columns by using a SELECT.. INTO statement. The General Syntax is:
SELECT column_name INTO variable_name FROM table_name

[WHERE condition];

Example: The below program will get the salary of an employee with id '1116' and display it on the screen.
DECLARE var_salary number(6); var_emp_id number(6) = 1116; BEGIN SELECT salary INTO var_salary FROM employee WHERE emp_id = var_emp_id; dbms_output.put_line(var_salary); dbms_output.put_line('The employee ' || var_emp_id || ' has salary END; /

' || var_salary);

Scope of Variables
PL/SQL allows the nesting of Blocks within Blocks i.e, the Execution section of an outer block can contain inner blocks. Therefore, a variable which is accessible to an outer Block is also accessible to all nested inner Blocks. The variables declared in the inner blocks are not accessible to outer blocks. Based on their declaration we can classify variables into two types.

Local variables - These are declared in a inner block and cannot be referenced by outside Blocks. Global variables - These are declared in a outer block and can be referenced by its itself and by its inner blocks.

For Example: In the below example we are creating two variables in the outer block and assigning thier product to the third variable created in the inner block. The variable 'var_mult' is declared in the inner block, so cannot be accessed in the outer block i.e. it cannot be accessed after line 11. The variables 'var_num1' and 'var_num2' can be accessed anywhere in the block.
1> DECLARE 2> var_num1 number; 3> var_num2 number; 4> BEGIN 5> var_num1 := 100; 6> var_num2 := 200; 7> DECLARE 8> var_mult number; 9> BEGIN 10> var_mult := var_num1 * var_num2; 11> END; 12> END; 13> /

PL/SQL Constants
As the name implies a constant is a value used in a PL/SQL Block that remains unchanged throughout the program. A constant is a user-defined literal value. You can declare a constant and use it instead of actual value. For example: If you want to write a program which will increase the salary of the employees by 25%, you can declare a constant and use it throughout the program. Next time when you want to increase the salary again you can change the value of the constant which will be easier than changing the actual value throughout the program. The General Syntax to declare a constant is:
constant_name CONSTANT datatype := VALUE;

constant_name is the name of the constant i.e. similar to a variable name. The word CONSTANT is a reserved word and ensures that the value does not change. VALUE - It is a value which must be assigned to a constant when it is declared. You cannot assign a value later.

For example, to declare salary_increase, you can write code as follows:

DECLARE salary_increase CONSTANT number (3) := 10;

You must assign a value to a constant at the time you declare it. If you do not assign a value to a constant while declaring it and try to assign a value in the execution section, you will get a error. If you execute the below Pl/SQL block you will get error.
DECLARE salary_increase CONSTANT number(3); BEGIN salary_increase := 100; dbms_output.put_line (salary_increase); END;

Conditional Statements in PL/SQL

As the name implies, PL/SQL supports programming language features like conditional statements, iterative statements. The programming constructs are similar to how you use in programming languages like Java and C++. In this section I will provide you syntax of how to use conditional statements in PL/SQL programming.

IF THEN ELSE STATEMENT

1) IF condition THEN statement 1; ELSE statement 2; END IF; 2) IF condition 1 THEN statement 1; statement 2; ELSIF condtion2 THEN statement 3; ELSE statement 4; END IF 3) IF condition 1 THEN statement 1; statement 2; ELSIF condtion2 THEN statement 3; ELSE statement 4; END IF; 4) IF condition1 THEN ELSE IF condition2 THEN statement1; END IF; ELSIF condition3 THEN statement2; END IF; e.g declare num number(3); begin num:=5; if num>4 then dbms_output.put_line(God); else dbms_output.put_line(No God); end; / Switch case: e.g accept num prompt Enter a single no; prompt

declare num1 number:=&num; begin case num1 when 1 then dbms_output.put_line(One); when 2 then dbms_output.put_line(two); end case; end; / Or Declare Num:=2; Begin Case num When 1 then Dbms_output.put_line(Sunday); Else Dbms_output.put_line(Wrong); End case; End; /

Iterative Statements in PL/SQL

An iterative control Statements are used when we want to repeat the execution of one or more statements for specified number of times. These are similar to those in There are three types of loops in PL/SQL: Simple Loop While Loop For Loop

1) Simple Loop
A Simple Loop is used when a set of statements is to be executed at least once before the loop terminates. An EXIT condition must be specified in the loop, otherwise the loop will get into an infinite number of iterations. When the EXIT condition is satisfied the process exits from the loop. The General Syntax to write a Simple Loop is:
LOOP statements; EXIT; {or EXIT WHEN condition;} END LOOP;

These are the important steps to be followed while using Simple Loop. 1) Initialise a variable before the loop body. 2) Increment the variable in the loop.

3) Use a EXIT WHEN statement to exit from the Loop. If you use a EXIT statement without WHEN condition, the statements in the loop is executed only once. e.g declare ctr number(2):=0; begin dbms_output.put_line(the loop begins); loop ctr:=ctrl+1; exit when ctr>10; dbms_output.put_line(Loop number:||ctr); end loop; end; /

2) While Loop
A WHILE LOOP is used when a set of statements has to be executed as long as a condition is true. The condition is evaluated at the beginning of each iteration. The iteration continues until the condition becomes false. The General Syntax to write a WHILE LOOP is:
WHILE <condition> LOOP statements; END LOOP;

Important steps to follow when executing a while loop: 1) Initialise a variable before the loop body. 2) Increment the variable in the loop. 3) EXIT WHEN statement and EXIT statements can be used in while loops but it's not done oftenly. e.g

declare ctr number(2):=1; begin dbms_output.put_line(The while loop begin); while ctr<=10 loop dbms_output.put_line(Loop number||to_char(ctr,999); ctr:=ctr+1; end loop; end; /

3) FOR Loop
A FOR LOOP is used to execute a set of statements for a predetermined number of times. Iteration occurs between the start and end integer values given. The counter is always incremented by 1. The loop exits when the counter reachs the value of the end integer. The General Syntax to write a FOR LOOP is:
FOR counter IN val1..val2 LOOP statements; END LOOP;

val1 - Start integer value. val2 - End integer value.

Important steps to follow when executing a while loop: 1) The counter variable is implicitly declared in the declaration section, so it's not necessary to declare it explicity. 2) The counter variable is incremented by 1 and does not need to be incremented explicitly. 3) EXIT WHEN statement and EXIT statements can be used in FOR loops but it's not done oftenly. Simple for loop
e.g

begin for I in 1..5 loop dbms_output.put_line(hello); end loop; end; / Find the mod of number using for Begin For I in 1..6 loop If MOD(I,2)= 0 then Dbms_output.put_line(Loop counters is:||i); End if; End loop; End; / Reverse for loop Begin For ctr in reverse 1..10 loop Dbms_output.put_line(Loop number||ctr); End loop; End; /

Table 1 You may use the IF, THEN, ELSE, ELSIF, and END IF keywords in PL/SQL for performing conditional logic. The following syntax illustrates the use of conditional logic:
IF condition1 THEN statements1 ELSIF condition2 THEN statements2

ELSE statements3 END IF;

where 1. condition1 and condition2 are Boolean expressions that evaluate to true or false. 2. statements1, statements2, and statements3 are PL/SQL statements. This conditional logic flows as follows: 1. If condition1 is true, then statements1 is executed. 2. If condition1 is false but condition2 is true, then statements2 is executed.

3. If neither condition1 nor condition2 are true, then statements3 is

executed. SQL> set echo on SQL> SQL> DECLARE 2 v_a Number := 50 ; 3 v_b Number; 4 BEGIN 5 IF v_a > 40 THEN 6 v_b := v_a - 40; 7 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Hours b worked = ' || v_b); 8 ELSE 9 v_b := 0; 10 END IF; 11 END; 12 / Hours b worked = 10 PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Use IF THEN ELSE IF

set serveroutput on SQL> set echo on SQL> SQL> DECLARE 2 v_Score Number := 85; --Percentage 3 v_LetterGrade Char(1); 4 BEGIN 5 IF v_Score >= 90 THEN 6 v_LetterGrade := 'A'; 7 ELSIF v_Score >= 80 THEN 8 v_LetterGrade := 'B'; 9 ELSIF v_Score >= 70 THEN 10 v_LetterGrade := 'C'; 11 ELSIF v_Score >= 60 THEN 12 v_LetterGrade := 'D'; 13 ELSE 14 v_LetterGrade := 'E'; 15 END IF; 16 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Your Letter Grade is: ' || v_LetterGrade ); 17 END; 18 / Your Letter Grade is: B PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

We have created a table order_master with the following fields: SQL> select * from order_master; ONO ITEM QUANTITY DDATE -------- --------- ----------------OSTATUS ----------

1 2 3 4

pancil pen ink eraser

100 500 400 900

15-NOV-09 29-OCT-09 25-OCT-09 12-NOV-09

p d d p

Write a PL/SQL Block to implement IF statement SQL> declare 2 os varchar2(10); 3 begin 4 select ostatus into os from order_master where ono=1; 5 if(os='p') then 6 update order_master set ddate=sysdate+15 where ono=1; 7 else 8 update order_master set ddate=sysdate where ono=1; 9 end if; 10end; 11 / PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> select * from order_master; ONO ITEM --------- ----1 pancil 2 pen 3 ink 4 eraser QUANTITY ----- --------100 500 400 900 DDATE --------06-DEC-09 29-OCT-09 25-OCT-09 12-NOV-09 OSTATUS ---------p d d p

Write a PL/SQL Block to implement Simple Loop SQL> declare 2 a number:=1; 3 begin 4 loop 5 a:=a+1; 6 dbms_output.put_line(a); 7 exit when(a>5); 8 end loop; 9 end; 10 / PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Write a PL/SQL Block to implement while Loop SQL> declare 2 a number:=1; 3 begin 4 while(a>5) 5 loop

6 a:=a+1; 7 dbms_output.put_line(a); 8 end loop; 9end; 10/ PL/SQL procedure successfully completed. Exception Handling in PL/SQL SQL> select * from emp; ENO ENAME ------ --- ---------1 navneet 2 navjot 3 permod 4 harish ESAL --------12000 14000 15000 18000

DATABASE WITH PL/SQL

declare vsal number; begin select esal into vsal from emp6 where ename='&ename'; dbms_output.put_line(vsal); end; / To display the name and location of dept declare vdname varchar2(10); vloc varchar2(10); begin select dname,loc into vdname,vloc from dept where deptno='&deptno'; dbms_output.put_line(vdname||' '||vloc); end; / Working with attribute:- %type and %rowtype attribute are used to avoid the erro which might occure due to some mistake while declaring a variable. Suppose you want to display the total sal of emp declare vsal emp.sal%type; begin select sal into vsal from emp where empno='&empno'; dbms_output.put_line('The total sal is'||to_char(vsal)); end; / To display the record in row wise declare drec dept%rowtype;

begin select * into drec from dept where deptno='&deptno'; dbms_output.put_line(drec.dname||' '||drec.loc); end; / To increase the salary based on their jobs declare erec emp%rowtype; vraise number; begin select * into erec from emp where ename='&ename'; if erec.job='CLERK' then vraise:=500; elsif erec.job='SALESMAN' then vraise:=1000; end if; update emp set sal=sal+vraise where empno=erec.empno; end; / Exceptions:- Exceptions are nothing but error handlers.It help to us about take care of any error that may have occurred in the executable part of the block. Some common exception are: 1. Pre defined exception 2. User defined exc E.g of pre defined exc.
NO_DATA_FOUND TOO_MANY_ROWS ZERO_DIVIDE VALUE_ERROR

E.G declare vsal emp.sal%type; begin select sal into vsal from emp where empno='&empno'; dbms_output.put_line('The total sal is'||to_char(vsal)); exception when no_data_found then dbms_output.put_line('No such emp exists in the table:'); end; / Too_many_rows declare vsal emp.sal%type;

begin select sal into vsal from emp where empno='&empno'; dbms_output.put_line('The total sal is'||to_char(vsal)); exception TOO_MANY_ROWS then dbms_output.put_line('too many rows ...:'); end; /
Write a PL/SQL Block to implement Inbuilt exception-No data found and too many rows SQL>declare 2 name emp.ename %type; 3 empno emp.eno %type; 4 salary emp.esal %type; 5 begin 6 empno:=&eno; 7 select ename,esal into name,salary from emp where eno=empno; 8 dbms_output.put_line('employee name is:' ||name); 9 dbms_output.put_line('employee salary is:' || salary); 10 EXCEPTION 11 when no_data_found then 12 dbms_output.put_line('there is no data for this employee no.'); 13 when too_many_rows then 14 dbms_output.put_line('too many rows are there for this end'); 15 end; 16 / Enter value for eno: 4 old 6: empno:=&eno; new 6: empno:=4; employee name is:harish employee salary is:18000 PL/SQL procedure successfully completed. SQL> / Enter value for eno: 12 old 6: empno:=&eno; new 6: empno:=12; there is no data for this employee no.

Write a PL/SQL Block to implement a user defined exception SQL> select * from order_master; ONO ITEM QUANTITY --------- ---------- --------1 pancil 100 2 pen 500 3 ink 400 4 eraser 900 SQL> declare 2 d1 order_master.ddate %type; 3 o_pending Exception; DDATE OSTATUS ----------------06-DEC-09 p 29-OCT-09 d 25-OCT-09 d 12-NOV-09 p

4 begin 5 select ddate into d1 from order_master where ono=4; 6 if(d1<sysdate)then 7 raise o_pending; 8 end if; 9 exception 10 when o_pending then 11 dbms_output.put_line('your order is still pending'); 12 end; 13 / your order is still pending PL/SQL procedure successfully completed. Cursor Management in PL/SQL Implicit Cursor: Write a PL/SQL Block to implement the attribute: %found SQL> select * from emp; ENO ENAME --------- ---------1 navneet 2 navjot 3 permod 4 harish ESAL --------12000 14000 15000 18000

SQL> declare 2 no emp.eno %type; 3 begin 4 delete from emp where eno=&no; 5 if SQL %found then 6 dbms_output.put_line('record found'); 7 else 8 dbms_output.put_line('record is not found'); 9 end if; 10 end; 11 / Enter value for no: 2 old 4: delete from emp where eno=&no; new 4: delete from emp where eno=2; record found PL/SQL procedure successfully completed. SQL> select * from emp; ENO ENAME --------- ---------1 navneet 3 permod 4 harish ESAL --------12000 15000 18000

Write a PL/SQL Block to implement the attribute: %rowcount

SQL> declare 2 no emp.eno %type; 3 begin 4 update emp set esal=24000 where eno=&no; 5 if SQL %found then 6 dbms_output.put_line(SQL %rowcount); 7 end if; 8 end; 9 / Enter value for no: 1 old 4: update emp set esal=24000 where eno=&no; new 4: update emp set esal=24000 where eno=1; 1 PL/SQL procedure successfully completed. SQL> select * from emp; ENO ENAME --------- ---------1 navneet 3 permod 4 harish ESAL --------24000 15000 18000

Explicit Cursor: SQL> select * from employee; ENO ENAME ESAL ECITY DNO DNAME --------- -------------------- --------- --------------- --------- ------------------1 rahul 12000 CHD 110 ADMIN 2 manpreet 4500 patiala 120 MKT 3 reena 23000 panchkula 130 HR 4 sabiha kour 41000 CHD 130 HR 5 gopal 14500 CHD 120 MKT 7 jaspreet 42000 patiala 150 FIn 6 rows selected. SQL> declare 2 no employee.eno %type; 3 name employee.ename %type; 4 salary employee.esal %type; 5 cursor emp_crsr is select eno,ename,esal from employee; 6 begin 7 open emp_crsr; 8 loop 9 fetch emp_crsr into no,name,salary; 10 if(salary>15000)then 11 update employee set esal=10000 where esal<=4500; 12 end if; 13 exit when emp_crsr %notfound; 14 end loop; 15 close emp_crsr; 16 end; 17 /

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Cursor For loop

SQL> select * from emp; ENO ENAME -----------------1 arpeta 2 arun 3 harish 4 rahul 5 ranjeet ESAL --------12000 15000 20000 14000 45000

SQL> declare 2 cursor emp_crsr 3 is 4 select * from emp; 5 begin 6 for e1 IN emp_crsr 7 loop 8 if(e1.esal<15000) then 9 dbms_output.put_line('salary is less'); 10 else 11 dbms_output.put_line('salary is average'); 12 end if; 13 end loop; 14 end; 15 / PL/SQL procedure successfully completed. Parameterized cursor: SQL> declare 2 cursor emp_cursor(p_depno number,p_job varchar2) 3 is 4 select eno,ename,esal from employi where dno=p_depno and job=p_job; 5 begin 6 open emp_cursor (10,'clerk'); 7 if(emp_cursor %found)then 8 dbms_output.put_line('record fetch'); 9 end if; 10 close emp_cursor; 11 end; 12 / PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

What are Cursors?

A cursor is a temporary work area created in the system memory when a SQL statement is executed. A cursor contains information on a select statement and the rows of data accessed by it. This temporary work area is used to store the data retrieved from the database, and manipulate this data. A cursor can hold more than one row, but can process only one row at a time. The set of rows the cursor holds is called the active set. There are two types of cursors in PL/SQL:

Implicit cursors:
These are created by default when DML statements like, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements are executed. They are also created when a SELECT statement that returns just one row is executed.

Explicit cursors:
They must be created when you are executing a SELECT statement that returns more than one row. Even though the cursor stores multiple records, only one record can be processed at a time, which is called as current row. When you fetch a row the current row position moves to next row. Both implicit and explicit cursors have the same functionality, but they differ in the way they are accessed.

Implicit Cursors:
When you execute DML statements like DELETE, INSERT, UPDATE and SELECT statements, implicit statements are created to process these statements. Oracle provides few attributes called as implicit cursor attributes to check the status of DML operations. The cursor attributes available are %FOUND, %NOTFOUND, %ROWCOUNT, and %ISOPEN. For example, When you execute INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statements the cursor attributes tell us whether any rows are affected and how many have been affected. When a SELECT... INTO statement is executed in a PL/SQL Block, implicit cursor attributes can be used to find out whether any row has been returned by the SELECT statement. PL/SQL returns an error when no data is selected. The status of the cursor for each of these attributes are defined in the below table.

Attributes %FOUND

Return Value Example The return value is TRUE, if the DML SQL%FOUND statements like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE affect at least one row and if SELECT .INTO statement return at least one row. The return value is FALSE, if DML statements like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE do not affect row and if SELECT.INTO statement do not return a row. %NOTFOUND The return value is FALSE, if DML SQL%NOTFOUND statements like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE at least one row and if SELECT .INTO statement return at least one row. The return value is TRUE, if a DML statement like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE do not affect even one row and if SELECT .INTO statement does not return a row. %ROWCOUNT Return the number of rows affected by the SQL%ROWCOUNT DML operations INSERT, DELETE, UPDATE, SELECT

For Example: Consider the PL/SQL Block that uses implicit cursor attributes as shown below:
DECLARE var_rows number(5); BEGIN UPDATE employee SET salary = salary + 1000; IF SQL%NOTFOUND THEN dbms_output.put_line('None of the salaries where updated'); ELSIF SQL%FOUND THEN var_rows := SQL%ROWCOUNT; dbms_output.put_line('Salaries for ' || var_rows || 'employees are updated'); END IF; END;

In the above PL/SQL Block, the salaries of all the employees in the employee table are updated. If none of the employees salary are updated we get a message 'None of the salaries where updated'. Else we get a message like for example, 'Salaries for 1000 employees are updated' if there are 1000 rows in employee table.

Explicit Cursors
An explicit cursor is defined in the declaration section of the PL/SQL Block. It is created on a SELECT Statement which returns more than one row. We can provide a suitable name for the cursor. The General Syntax for creating a cursor is as given below:
CURSOR cursor_name IS select_statement;

cursor_name A suitable name for the cursor. select_statement A select query which returns multiple rows.

How to use Explicit Cursor?

There are four steps in using an Explicit Cursor.

DECLARE the cursor in the declaration section. OPEN the cursor in the Execution Section. FETCH the data from cursor into PL/SQL variables or records in the Execution Section. CLOSE the cursor in the Execution Section before you end the PL/SQL Block.

1) Declaring a Cursor in the Declaration Section:

DECLARE CURSOR emp_cur IS SELECT * FROM emp_tbl WHERE salary > 5000;

In the above example we are creating a cursor emp_cur on a query which returns the records of all the employees with salary greater than 5000. Here emp_tbl in the table which contains records of all the employees. 2) Accessing the records in the cursor: Once the cursor is created in the declaration section we can access the cursor in the execution section of the PL/SQL program.

How to access an Explicit Cursor?

These are the three steps in accessing the cursor. 1) Open the cursor. 2) Fetch the records in the cursor one at a time. 3) Close the cursor. General Syntax to open a cursor is:
OPEN cursor_name;

General Syntax to fetch records from a cursor is:

FETCH cursor_name INTO record_name;

OR
FETCH cursor_name INTO variable_list;

General Syntax to close a cursor is:

CLOSE cursor_name;

When a cursor is opened, the first row becomes the current row. When the data is fetched it is copied to the record or variables and the logical pointer moves to the next row and it becomes the current row. On every fetch statement, the pointer moves to the next row. If you want to fetch after the last row, the program will throw an error. When there is more than one row in a cursor we can use loops along with explicit cursor attributes to fetch all the records. Points to remember while fetching a row: We can fetch the rows in a cursor to a PL/SQL Record or a list of variables created in the PL/SQL Block. If you are fetching a cursor to a PL/SQL Record, the record should have the same structure as the cursor. If you are fetching a cursor to a list of variables, the variables should be listed in the same order in the fetch statement as the columns are present in the cursor. General Form of using an explicit cursor is:
DECLARE variables; records; create a cursor; BEGIN OPEN cursor; FETCH cursor; process the records; CLOSE cursor; END;

Lets Look at the example below Example 1:

1> DECLARE 2> emp_rec emp_tbl%rowtype; 3> CURSOR emp_cur IS 4> SELECT * 5> FROM 6> WHERE salary > 10; 7> BEGIN 8> OPEN emp_cur; 9> FETCH emp_cur INTO emp_rec; 10> dbms_output.put_line (emp_rec.first_name || ' emp_rec.last_name); 11> CLOSE emp_cur; 12> END;

' ||

In the above example, first we are creating a record emp_rec of the same structure as of table emp_tbl in line no 2. We can also create a record with a cursor by replacing the table name with the cursor name. Second, we are declaring a cursor emp_cur from a select query in line no 3 - 6. Third, we are opening the cursor in the execution section in line no 8. Fourth, we are fetching the cursor to the record in line no 9. Fifth, we are displaying the first_name and last_name of the employee in the record emp_rec in line no 10. Sixth, we are closing the cursor in line no 11.

What are Explicit Cursor Attributes?

Oracle provides some attributes known as Explicit Cursor Attributes to control the data processing while using cursors. We use these attributes to avoid errors while accessing cursors through OPEN, FETCH and CLOSE Statements.

When does an error occur while accessing an explicit cursor?

a) When we try to open a cursor which is not closed in the previous operation. b) When we try to fetch a cursor after the last operation. These are the attributes available to check the status of an explicit cursor. Attributes %FOUND Return values Example TRUE, if fetch statement returns at Cursor_name%FOUND least one row. FALSE, if fetch statement doesnt return a row. TRUE, , if fetch statement doesnt Cursor_name%NOTFOUND return a row. FALSE, if fetch statement returns at

%NOTFOUND

%ROWCOUNT

%ISOPEN

least one row. The number of rows fetched by the Cursor_name%ROWCOUNT fetch statement If no row is returned, the PL/SQL statement returns an error. TRUE, if the cursor is already open in Cursor_name%ISNAME the program FALSE, if the cursor is not opened in the program.

Using Loops with Explicit Cursors:

Oracle provides three types of cursors namely SIMPLE LOOP, WHILE LOOP and FOR LOOP. These loops can be used to process multiple rows in the cursor. Here I will modify the same example for each loops to explain how to use loops with cursors.

Cursor with a Simple Loop:

1> DECLARE 2> CURSOR emp_cur IS 3> SELECT first_name, last_name, salary FROM emp_tbl; 4> emp_rec emp_cur%rowtype; 5> BEGIN 6> IF NOT sales_cur%ISOPEN THEN 7> OPEN sales_cur; 8> END IF; 9> LOOP 10> FETCH emp_cur INTO emp_rec; 11> EXIT WHEN emp_cur%NOTFOUND; 12> dbms_output.put_line(emp_cur.first_name || ' ' || emp_cur.last_name 13> || ' ' ||emp_cur.salary); 14> END LOOP; 15> END; 16> /

In the above example we are using two cursor attributes %ISOPEN and %NOTFOUND. In line no 6, we are using the cursor attribute %ISOPEN to check if the cursor is open, if the condition is true the program does not open the cursor again, it directly moves to line no 9. In line no 11, we are using the cursor attribute %NOTFOUND to check whether the fetch returned any row. If there is no rows found the program would exit, a condition which exists when you fetch the cursor after the last row, if there is a row found the program continues. We can use %FOUND in place of %NOTFOUND and vice versa. If we do so, we need to reverse the logic of the program. So use these attributes in appropriate instances.

Cursor with a While Loop:

Lets modify the above program to use while loop.
1> DECLARE 2> CURSOR emp_cur IS 3> SELECT first_name, last_name, salary FROM emp_tbl; 4> emp_rec emp_cur%rowtype; 5> BEGIN 6> IF NOT sales_cur%ISOPEN THEN 7> OPEN sales_cur; 8> END IF; 9> FETCH sales_cur INTO sales_rec; 10> WHILE sales_cur%FOUND THEN 11> LOOP 12> dbms_output.put_line(emp_cur.first_name || ' ' || emp_cur.last_name 13> || ' ' ||emp_cur.salary); 15> FETCH sales_cur INTO sales_rec; 16> END LOOP; 17> END; 18> /

In the above example, in line no 10 we are using %FOUND to evaluate if the first fetch statement in line no 9 returned a row, if true the program moves into the while loop. In the loop we use fetch statement again (line no 15) to process the next row. If the fetch statement is not executed once before the while loop the while condition will return false in the first instance and the while loop is skipped. In the loop, before fetching the record again, always process the record retrieved by the first fetch statement, else you will skip the first row.

Cursor with a FOR Loop:

When using FOR LOOP you need not declare a record or variables to store the cursor values, need not open, fetch and close the cursor. These functions are accomplished by the FOR LOOP automatically. General Syntax for using FOR LOOP:
FOR record_name IN cusror_name LOOP process the row... END LOOP;

Lets use the above example to learn how to use for loops in cursors.
1> DECLARE 2> CURSOR emp_cur IS 3> SELECT first_name, last_name, salary FROM emp_tbl; 4> emp_rec emp_cur%rowtype; 5> BEGIN

6> FOR emp_rec in sales_cur 7> LOOP 8> dbms_output.put_line(emp_cur.first_name || ' ' ||emp_cur.last_name 9> || ' ' ||emp_cur.salary); 10> END LOOP; 11>END; 12> /

In the above example, when the FOR loop is processed a record emp_recof structure emp_cur gets created, the cursor is opened, the rows are fetched to the record emp_rec and the cursor is closed after the last row is processed. By using FOR Loop in your program, you can reduce the number of lines in the program.

Create a cursor for update

Create a following table: CREATE TABLE product ( 2 product_name 3 product_price 4 quantity_on_hand 5 last_stock_date 6 ); DECLARE 2 3 4 5 BEGIN 6 7 8 9 .97) 10 11 12 END; 13 / VARCHAR2(25) PRIMARY KEY, NUMBER(4,2), NUMBER(5,0), DATE

CURSOR product_cur IS SELECT * FROM product FOR UPDATE OF product_price; FOR product_rec IN product_cur LOOP UPDATE product SET product_price = (product_rec.product_price * 0 WHERE CURRENT OF product_cur; END LOOP;

What is a Stored Procedure?

A stored procedure or in simple a proc is a named PL/SQL block which performs one or more specific task. This is similar to a procedure in other programming languages. A procedure has a header and a body. The header consists of the name of the procedure and the parameters or variables passed to the procedure. The body consists or declaration section, execution section and exception section similar to a general PL/SQL Block. A procedure is similar to an anonymous PL/SQL Block but it is named for repeated usage. We can pass parameters to procedures in three ways. 1) IN-parameters 2) OUT-parameters 3) IN OUT-parameters

A procedure may or may not return any value. General Syntax to create a procedure is:
CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE proc_name [list of parameters] IS Declaration section BEGIN Execution section EXCEPTION Exception section END;

IS - marks the beginning of the body of the procedure and is similar to DECLARE in anonymous PL/SQL Blocks. The code between IS and BEGIN forms the Declaration section. The syntax within the brackets [ ] indicate they are optional. By using CREATE OR REPLACE together the procedure is created if no other procedure with the same name exists or the existing procedure is replaced with the current code. The below example creates a procedure employer_details which gives the details of the employee.
1> CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE employer_details 2> IS 3> CURSOR emp_cur IS 4> SELECT first_name, last_name, salary FROM emp_tbl; 5> emp_rec emp_cur%rowtype; 6> BEGIN 7> FOR emp_rec in sales_cur 8> LOOP 9> dbms_output.put_line(emp_cur.first_name || ' ' ||emp_cur.last_name 10> || ' ' ||emp_cur.salary); 11> END LOOP; 12>END; 13> /

How to execute a Stored Procedure?

There are two ways to execute a procedure. 1) From the SQL prompt.
EXECUTE [or EXEC] procedure_name;

2) Within another procedure simply use the procedure name.

procedure_name;

NOTE: In the examples given above, we are using backward slash / at the end of the program. This indicates the oracle engine that the PL/SQL program has ended and it can begin processing the statements.
Stored Procedures in PL/SQL A stored procedure has three categories of parameter modes: IN mode, OUT mode, IN OUT mode Write a procedure to implement IN Mode: SQL> select * from emp; ENO ENAME -----------------1 arpeta 2 arun 3 harish 4 rahul 5 ranjeet ESAL --------12000 15000 20000 14000 45000

SQL> create or replace procedure raise_salary(no IN emp.eno % type) 2 is begin 3 update emp set esal=esal+1000 where eno=no; 4 end raise_salary; 5 / Procedure created. SQL> execute raise_salary(2); PL/SQL procedure successfully completed. SQL> select * from emp; ENO --------1 2 3 4 5 ENAME ---------arpeta arun harish rahul ranjeet ESAL --------12000 16000 20000 14000 45000

Write a procedure to implement OUT Mode: SQL> create or replace procedure emp_detail(no IN emp.eno %type, name OUT emp.ename %type, salary OUT emp.esal %type) T emp.esal %type) 2 is 3 begin 4 select ename,esal into name,salary from emp where eno=no; 5 end emp_detail; 6 / Procedure created.

SQL> declare 2 no emp.eno %type; 3 name emp.ename %type; 4 salary emp.esal%type; 5 begin 6 no:=&eno; 7 emp_detail(no,name,salary); 8 dbms_output.put_line('employee name is: '||name); 9 dbms_output.put_line('employee salary is: '||salary); 10* end; SQL> / Enter value for eno: 3 old 6: no:=&eno; new 6: no:=3; employee name is: harish employee salary is: 20000 PL/SQL procedure successfully completed. Write a procedure to implement IN OUT Mode: Format a phone number using a procedure. Phone number is having a format like 022-2567890.The first three digit/ characters are of area code. Fetch the area code from a phone number given using a format procedure code. SQL> create or replace procedure format_phone(p in out varchar2(10)); 2 is 3 begin 4 p:=substr(p,1,3); 5 end format_phone; 6 / Procedure created. SQL> declare 2 p varchar2(10); 3 begin 4 p:=&p; 5 dbms_output.putline("Phoneno Is: "||p); 6 format_phone(p); 7 dbms_output.putline("Area Code Is: "||p); 8 end;

9 / Enter value for p: 1722665626 old 4: p=&p; new 4: p=1722665626; Phoneno Area Code Is: 172 PL/SQL procedure successfully completed. Functions in PL/SQL Write a function to get the salary of employee. SQL> select * from emp; ENO ENAME ESAL --------- ---------- --------1 arpeta 14000 2 arun 16000 3 harish 20000 4 rahul 18000 5 ranjeet 45000 SQL> create or replace function getsal(no emp.eno %type) 2 return number; 3 is 4 sal number; 5 begin 6 select esal into sal from emp where eno=no; 7 return sal; 8 end getsal; 9 / PL/SQL procedure successfully completed. Is: 1722665626

Function: A function is similar to a procedure except that a function must return a value. You create a function using the CREATE FUNCTION statement. The simplified syntax for the CREATE FUNCTION statement is as follows: The simplified syntax for the CREATE FUNCTION statement is as follows:
CREATE [OR REPLACE] FUNCTION function_name [(parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN OUT] type [, ...])] RETURN type {IS | AS} BEGIN function_body END function_name;

where 1. OR REPLACE specifies the function that is to replace an existing function if present. 2. type specifies the PL/SQL type of the parameter.

3. The body of a function must return a value of the PL/SQL type specified in the RETURN clau

Describe a user-defined function

create 2 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , table employees( empno NUMBER(4) ename VARCHAR2(8) init VARCHAR2(5) job VARCHAR2(8) mgr NUMBER(4) bdate DATE msal NUMBER(6,2) comm NUMBER(6,2) deptno NUMBER(2) ) ;

create or replace function emp_count(p_deptno in number) 2 return number is 3 cnt number(2) := 0; 4 begin 5 select count(*) into cnt 6 from employees e 7 where e.deptno = p_deptno; 8 return (cnt); 9 end; 10 /

CREATE OR REPLACE a function

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION ss_thresh 2 RETURN NUMBER AS 3 x NUMBER(9,2); 4 BEGIN 5 x := 65400; 6 RETURN x; 7 END ss_thresh; 8 / Function created. SQL> BEGIN 2 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('ss_thresh ' || ss_thresh()); 3 END; 4 / ss_thresh 65400

Calling a Function

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION circle_area (p_radius IN NUMBER) RETURN NUMB ER AS 2 v_pi NUMBER := 3.14; 3 v_area NUMBER; 4 BEGIN 5 v_area := v_pi * POWER(p_radius, 2); 6 RETURN v_area; 7 END circle_area; 8 / Function created. SQL> SQL> select circle_area(12) from dual; CIRCLE_AREA(12)

Calling a Function to a table.

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION average_salary RETURN NUMBER AS 2 v_average_salary NUMBER; 3 BEGIN 4 SELECT AVG(salary) 5 INTO v_average_salary 6 FROM employee; 7 RETURN v_average_salary; 8 END average_salary; 9 / Function created. SQL> SQL> select average_salary from dual; AVERAGE_SALARY -------------4071.7525

Packaage:- A package is a schema object that groups logically related PL/SQL types, variables, and subprograms. Packages usually have two parts, a specification and a body; sometimes the body is unnecessary. The specification (spec for short) is the interface to the package. It declares the types, variables, constants, exceptions, cursors, and subprograms that can be referenced from outside the package. The body defines the queries for the cursors and the code for the subprograms. You can think of the spec as an interface and of the body as a "black box." You can debug, enhance, or replace a package body without changing the package spec.

To create package specs, use the SQL statement CREATE PACKAGE. If necessary, a CREATE PACKAGE BODY statement defines the package body. The spec holds public declarations, which are visible to stored procedures and other code outside the package. You must declare subprograms at the end of the spec after all other items (except pragmas that name a specific function; such pragmas must follow the function spec). The body holds implementation details and private declarations, which are hidden from code outside the package. Following the declarative part of the package body is the optional initialization part, which holds statements that initialize package variables and do any other one-time setup steps.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Packages encapsulate related functionality into one self-contained unit. Packages are typically made up of two components: a specification and a body. The package specification contains information about the package. The package specification lists the available procedures and functions. These are potentially available to all database users. The package specification generally doesn't contain the code. The package body contains the actual code.

CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE command:

Example of a PL/SQL Package

The example below packages a record type, a cursor, and two employment procedures. The procedure hire_employee uses the sequence empno_seq and the function SYSDATE to insert a new employee number and hire date.
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE emp_actions AS -- spec TYPE EmpRecTyp IS RECORD (emp_id INT, salary REAL); CURSOR desc_salary RETURN EmpRecTyp; PROCEDURE hire_employee ( ename VARCHAR2, job VARCHAR2, mgr NUMBER, sal NUMBER, comm NUMBER, deptno NUMBER); PROCEDURE fire_employee (emp_id NUMBER); END emp_actions; / CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY emp_actions AS -- body CURSOR desc_salary RETURN EmpRecTyp IS SELECT empno, sal FROM emp ORDER BY sal DESC; PROCEDURE hire_employee ( ename VARCHAR2,

job VARCHAR2, mgr NUMBER, sal NUMBER, comm NUMBER, deptno NUMBER) IS BEGIN INSERT INTO emp VALUES (empno_seq.NEXTVAL, ename, job, mgr, SYSDATE, sal, comm, deptno); END hire_employee; PROCEDURE fire_employee (emp_id NUMBER) IS BEGIN DELETE FROM emp WHERE empno = emp_id; END fire_employee; END emp_actions; /

Creating Packages and call its functions After the specification is created, you create the body of the package. The body of a package is a collection of schema objects that was declared in the specification. If you perform any initialization in the package body, it is executed once when the package is initially referenced. To reference the package's subprograms and objects, you must use dot notation. The Syntax for Dot Notation
package_name.type_name package_name.object_name package_name.subprogram_name SQL> SQL> 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 -- create demo table create table Employee( ID VARCHAR2(4 BYTE) First_Name VARCHAR2(10 BYTE), Last_Name VARCHAR2(10 BYTE), Start_Date DATE, End_Date DATE, Salary Number(8,2), City VARCHAR2(10 BYTE), Description VARCHAR2(15 BYTE) ) /

NOT NULL,

Table created. SQL>

SQL> -- prepare data SQL> insert into Employee(ID, First_Name, Last_Name, Start_Date, E 2 values ('01','Jason', 'Martin', to_date('19960725','YYYYMMDD'), t 3 / 1 row created.

SQL> insert into Employee(ID, First_Name, Last_Name, Start_Date, E 2 values('02','Alison', 'Mathews', to_date('19760321','YYYYMMDD'), t 3 / 1 row created.

SQL> insert into Employee(ID, First_Name, Last_Name, Start_Date, E 2 values('03','James', 'Smith', to_date('19781212','YYYYMMDD'), t 3 / 1 row created.

SQL> insert into Employee(ID, First_Name, Last_Name, Start_Date, E 2 values('04','Celia', 'Rice', to_date('19821024','YYYYMMDD'), t 3 / 1 row created.

SQL> insert into Employee(ID, First_Name, Last_Name, Start_Date, E 2 values('05','Robert', 'Black', to_date('19840115','YYYYMMDD'), t 3 / 1 row created.

SQL> insert into Employee(ID, First_Name, Last_Name, Start_Date, E 2 values('06','Linda', 'Green', to_date('19870730','YYYYMMDD'), t 3 / 1 row created.

SQL> insert into Employee(ID, First_Name, Last_Name, Start_Date, E 2 values('07','David', 'Larry', to_date('19901231','YYYYMMDD'), t 3 / 1 row created.

SQL> insert into Employee(ID, First_Name, Last_Name, Start_Date, E 2 values('08','James', 'Cat', to_date('19960917','YYYYMMDD'), t 3 / 1 row created. SQL> SQL> SQL> SQL> -- display data in the table SQL> select * from Employee 2 /

ID ---01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08

FIRST_NAME ---------Jason Alison James Celia Robert Linda David James

LAST_NAME ---------Martin Mathews Smith Rice Black Green Larry Cat

START_DAT --------25-JUL-96 21-MAR-76 12-DEC-78 24-OCT-82 15-JAN-84 30-JUL-87 31-DEC-90 17-SEP-96

END_DATE SALARY CITY --------- ---------- ---------25-JUL-06 1234.56 Toronto 21-FEB-86 6661.78 Vancouver 15-MAR-90 6544.78 Vancouver 21-APR-99 2344.78 Vancouver 08-AUG-98 2334.78 Vancouver 04-JAN-96 4322.78 New York 12-FEB-98 7897.78 New York 15-APR-02 1232.78 Vancouver

DESCRIPTION --------------Programmer Tester Tester Manager Tester Tester Manager Tester

8 rows selected. SQL> SQL> SQL> SQL> SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE inv_pck_spec as 2 FUNCTION inv_count(qty integer) RETURN integer; 3 PROCEDURE inv_adjust(qty integer); 4 END inv_pck_spec; 5 / Package created. SQL> SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY inv_pck_spec is 2 FUNCTION inv_count(qty integer)RETURN integer is 3 new_qty integer; 4 BEGIN 5 new_qty:= qty*6; 6 INSERT into employee (id,salary) values ('01',new_qty); 7 RETURN(new_qty); 8 END inv_count; 9 10 PROCEDURE inv_adjust(qty integer) is 11 BEGIN 12 DELETE from employee WHERE salary<qty; 13 END; 14 BEGIN -- package initialization begins here 15 INSERT into employee (id, first_name)values('01', 'new'); 16 17 END inv_pck_spec; 18 / Package body created. SQL> SQL> --call inv_pck_spec.inv_count(2); SQL> SQL> call inv_pck_spec.inv_adjust(2000); Call completed. SQL> SQL> select * from employee;

ID ---02 03 04 05 06 07 01

FIRST_NAME ---------Alison James Celia Robert Linda David new

LAST_NAME ---------Mathews Smith Rice Black Green Larry

START_DAT --------21-MAR-76 12-DEC-78 24-OCT-82 15-JAN-84 30-JUL-87 31-DEC-90

END_DATE SALARY CITY --------- ---------- ---------21-FEB-86 6661.78 Vancouver 15-MAR-90 6544.78 Vancouver 21-APR-99 2344.78 Vancouver 08-AUG-98 2334.78 Vancouver 04-JAN-96 4322.78 New York 12-FEB-98 7897.78 New York

DESCRIPTION --------------Tester Tester Manager Tester Tester Manager

7 rows selected. SQL> SQL> SQL> SQL> -- clean the table SQL> drop table Employee 2 / Table dropped.