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11KV Distribution network elements

Over View Electricity is generated in Power plant using thermal, wind power, nuclear power, hydro power, solar power, Biomass etc. Central utilities such as NTPC, NHPC, NPCIL, Hydel Power and state generation utilities along with private sector independent power producers are looking after this job. After generation the electricity needs to be transmitted to different locations at load centers. So Transmission system is there to take over this job. The transmission system is taken care by the central transmission utility such as Power grid and state transmission utilities in government sector. Then comes the distribution of electricity to the various utilities. The various discoms in all the states are responsible for the distribution of electricity with minimum AT&C loss. The distribution system starts with voltage level of 33 KV and then further step down to 11KV which is further step down to 440V phase to phase and 220V Phase to neutral. For the safe and efficient distribution of electricity several elements are used in distribution network. Power Transformers are used to step down the transmission voltage to lower voltage level. Circuit breakers, Isolators, RMUs, Sectionalizer provide the means to disconnect the circuit from live system. Current transformers and Potential transformers are used to facilitate the metering and protection of the circuit. Meters are used as measuring device i.e. measurement of electricity and Protection relays provide protection to the equipments and human beings. INTRODUCTION
Electric power is normally generated at 6-11kV in a power station. To transmit over long distances, it is then stepped-up to 400kV, 220kV or 132kV as necessary. Power is carried through a transmission network of high voltage lines. Usually, these lines run into hundreds of kilometers and deliver the power into the grid. The grid is connected to load centers (cities) through a sub-transmission network of normally 33kV (or sometimes 66kV) lines.

These lines terminate into a 33kV (or 66kV) substation, where the voltage is stepped-down to 11kV for power distribution to load points through a distribution network of lines at 11kV and lower. The power network, which is generally concerned to the common man, is the distribution network of 11kV lines or feeders downstream of the 33kV substation. Each 11kV feeder which emanates from the 33kV substation branches further into several subsidiary 11kV feeders to carry power close to the load points (localities, industrial areas, villages, etc.,). At these load points, a transformer further reduces the voltage from 11kV to 415V to provide the door to door connection (also called as Low Tension (LT) feeders) to individual customers, either at 240V (as single-phase supply) or at 415V (as three-phase supply). A feeder could be either an overhead line or an underground cable. In urban areas, owing to the density of customers, the length of an 11kV feeder is generally up to 3 km. On the other hand, in rural areas, the feeder length is much larger (up to 20 km). A 415V feeder should normally be restricted to about 0.5-1.0 km. unduly long feeders lead to low voltage at the consumer end.

Distribution Substation
The distribution substation is the station where 66KV, 33KV are brought to voltage level of 11KV. And power is transferred from the transmission system to the distribution system of an area. It is uneconomical to directly connect electricity consumers to the high-voltage main transmission network, unless they use large amounts of power, so the distribution station reduces voltage to a value suitable for local distribution. A electrical substation consists of a Power transformer to step down the voltage level from transmission level to distribution level. Besides the power transformer the other devices such as circuit breaker and Isolators are there as shown in the SLD below. These Circuit breaker and Isolator provide the means to disconnect the circuit when there is some fault or for some maintenance purpose.

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The arrangement of Bus in the substation can be a single bus arrangement, A Double Bus arrangement, One and Half breaker scheme etc.

A radial network leaves the station and passes through the network area with no normal connection to any other supply. This is typical of long rural lines with isolated load areas. This is the most common distribution network configuration. The major drawback of this network configuration is that once there is a fault, the supply of the entire is disconnected and is restored only when the fault is retified.

In single Bus arrangement a single bus is there to which all feeders are connected. It is the simplest bus scheme. In double bus arrangement two buses are there. The two buses can share the load. Bus couplers are used to interconnect the two buses. In addition to this one transfer bus scheme is there. In this scheme an addition bus is provided. This bus is used to transfer the power through transfer bus coupler breaker, if a certain breaker is undergoing some maintenance.One and half breaker scheme is a method of interconnecting several circuits and breakers in a switchyard so that three circuit breakers can provide dual switching to each of two circuits by having the circuits, sharing one of the breakers, called as TIE breaker. This scheme provides reliability and operating flexibility and is generally used in higher voltage transmission system.

An interconnected network or ring network is generally found in urban areas and have multiple connections to other points of supply. In this configuration two radial networks are interconnected to form a ring. The benefit of this configuration is that in the event of a fault or required maintenance a small area of network having fault can be isolated and electricity supply can be continued.

Distribution network configurations

Distribution networks are typically of two types radial or interconnected.

RING NETWORK

Distribution network Elements

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secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction. If a load is connected to the secondary, electric current flows in the secondary winding and electrical energy gets transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (Vs) is in proportion to the primary voltage (Vp), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (Ns) to the number of turns in the primary (Np) as follows: 11 KV distribution network elements can be classified into two groups 1) Distribution Substation elements 2) Distribution Network elements 1) Distribution Substation elements : The distribution substation mainly comprise of 33/11 KV or 66/11KV feeders. It mainly includes the elements such as Power Transformer, Circuit Breaker, Capacitor Banks, Current Transformers, Potential Transformers, Protection Relays, and Meters. 2) Distribution Network elements The distribution Network elements are the 11KV feeder. It mainly comprises of Distribution Transformers, RMU, Sectionalizer, Fuses, FPI, and Isolators.

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making Ns greater than Np, or "stepped down" by making Ns less than Np. For regulation of Voltage level the transformers are provided with tap changer. On different taps there are different number of turns. So depending on the requirement of number of turns the particular tap is selected. The tap changing can ON Load as well OFF Load. On load refers to changing of tap while transformer is charged and Off Load refers to changing of tap while transformer is on shut down. Transformers are provided with oil which provides insulation as well as cooling media to maintain the temperature of the winding. Regarding the requirement of automation Transformer can be well automated. The transformer protection signals such as Winding temperature alarm/trip, Bucholtz alarm/trip, Oil temperature alarm/trip can be monitored. The other transformer protection such as Differential protection, restricted earth fault protection can be monitored to see if there is any fault in the transformer. In addition the status of the cooling fans can also be monitored and controlled. The analog signals such as Tap position, Oil Temperature, winding temperature can be viewed. For this purpose transducers are used. Tap can be changed according to the requirement using the digital output command.

Power Transformer:
Power transformer is the heart of Electrical substation. A transformer is a device that is used to step up or step down the voltage level of the incoming feeder. In distribution substation the transformer is used to step down the voltage level from 33kV or 66KV to 11KV. It is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through induction. An alternating current in the primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic field in the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the

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The list of manufacturer and supplier of Power transformer in India are Tesla Transformers Ltd EMCO Golecha Electro stamping Intaf India Kappa Electricals Private Ltd Kotsons Transformer Mahindra Electrical works Marsons Electrical P.M. Electronics Ltd Transformers & Electricals Kerala Ltd Transformers & Rectifiers (India) Ltd T.S. International Vijay Electrical Crompton Greaves

crossing occurs at twice the line frequency i.e. 100 times per second for 50Hz. Connecting capacitors in parallel with contacts in DC circuits.

Circuit Breaker:
A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breaker can also be explained as the device used to disconnect the circuit when it is on load condition. The circuit breaker contacts carry the load current. When they are separated and arc is generated, This arc must be contained, cooled, and extinguished in a controlled way, so that the gap between the contacts can again withstand the voltage in the circuit. Different circuit breakers use vacuum, air, insulating gas, or oil as the medium in which the arc forms. Different techniques are used to extinguish the arc including: Lengthening of the arc Intensive cooling (in jet chambers) Division into partial arcs Zero point quenching (Contacts open at the zero current time crossing of the AC waveform, effectively breaking no load current at the time of opening. The zero

Circuit Breaker can be operated manually and electrically. Breaker is provide with closing and opening coils through which breaker can be operated. Breakers can be provided with pilot devices to sense a fault current and to operate a trip opening mechanism. There is a trip solenoid that releases the latch, is usually energized by a separate battery. Once a fault is detected, CB must be open to interrupt the circuit. Some mechanically stored energy contained within the breaker is used to separate the contacts. Solenoids are used to trip the mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the springs. Manufacture and supplier of 11KV Circuit Breaker includes ABB Areva Stelmec Megawin For automation requirements, the breaker should be electrically operable. The spring charge mechanism should be automatic i.e. it should be motorized. Breaker should have auxiliary contacts available with it for the ON/OFF indication of the breaker. Other signals that is required for breaker are Trip coil healthy status, DC in the breaker, AC status, Spring charge indication.

Capacitor Bank
Power factor is the measure of how effectively the electrical appliance/load converts the same into use full desired output. Most of the power load like irrigation pumps or industrial motors have low power factor. It means that substantial portion of total current is not producing output but dissipated in the form of heat in the atmosphere. The power factor of the HT feeder is resultant of power factor of the various load supplied by it. Since the current carrying capacity of any feeder is limited and reactive current squarely contributes to the avoidable loss of energy, maintenance of unity

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power factor is essential for economic operation of power system. This can achieved by many measures such as insisting on consumers to maintain at least 0.9 power factor. Rebate is given on maintaining 0.9 power factor and penalty is imposed on bringing the power factor down from 0.8. Installation of equipment to compensate the reactive current is another method. The installation of the equipment is nothing but the installation of capacitor bank in the system. When the capacitor bank is installed in the system, the capacitor supplies the reactive power needed by the load. Thus instead of drawing the reactive power from sending end of the system, the same is supplied locally. Also with the increase in the length of the feeder, the voltage tends to drop. Capacitor bank can be used to compensate for this loss in the voltage also. Manufacturer and supplier of Capacitor banks are as follows Madhav Capacitors Private Limited AB Power System Solution

For automation purpose the CT secondary output is connected to the transducers which calculate the different values of power and is transmitted to the control centre for monitoring. Suppliers and manufacturers include ABB SIEMENS Areva Instrans Rishab Industries J. B. S. Magnetics Ames Impex Electricals Private Ahmedabad Southern Equipments, Bengaluru

Limited,

Potential Transformer
Potential transformer (PT) is used for measurement of electric Voltages. When Voltage in a circuit is too high to directly apply to measuring instruments, a voltage transformer produces a reduced Voltage accurately proportional to the voltage in the circuit, which can be conveniently connected to measuring and recording instruments. Potential transformers are having the ratio of 33KV/110V for 33KV circuit, 11KV/110V for 11KV circuit. A potential transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from what may be very high voltage in the monitored circuit. Potential transformers are commonly used in metering and protective relays in the electrical power industry. Suppliers and manufacturers include Ampitron Products ABB SIEMENS Areva

Current Transformer
Current transformer is used for measurement of electric currents. When current in a circuit is too high to directly apply to measuring instruments, a current transformer produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the current in the circuit, which can be conveniently connected to measuring and recording instruments. A current transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from what may be very high voltage in the monitored circuit. Current transformers are commonly used in metering and protective relays in the electrical power industry The secondary of a current transformer should not be disconnected from its load or it should not be open while current is flowing in the primary, as the transformer secondary will attempt to continue driving current across the effectively infinite impedance. This will produce a high voltage across the open secondary (into the range of several kilovolts in some cases), which may cause arcing and saturation of the CT. The saturation of the CT will permanently affect the accuracy of the current transformer.

Protection Relays
Power system protection schemes are designed to disconnect a faulted circuit. This is necessary in order to avoid injury to personnel and equipment damage, as well as to improve customer service. The fuse was earliest protective device found in power systems. It consists of metallic element, which will carry continuously, the required load current but which will melt and therefore break at

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some higher current thus preventing the passage for any further current. Fuses are small and relatively cheap but they suffer from disadvantage that they need to be replaced after every operation and before load current can be passed again. Relays are the device that sense the fault on the line or transformer and trips the breaker to disconnect the supply to the feeder. Once fault is removed, the relay can be reset manually or automatically, and the supply to the feeder can be restored. For 11KV feeders normally Over current and Earth fault relays are used. These relays are connected to the secondary of the Current Transformer. These relays are preset to a certain setting. As the current to the relay rises over certain limit, the relay senses the fault and gives the tripping command to the breaker of that corresponding feeder. The Over current is the fault occurring due to Phase to Phase fault while Earth fault is the fault that occurs for the Phase to Earth fault. The overcurrent/Earthfault can be directional as well non directional, which is decided taking the voltage output from PT secondary as the reference. The other protection i.e. given to the 11 KV feeders are CBFP. CBFP corresponds to circuit breaker failure protection. It is a backup protection. When there is any fault in the line and master trip relay is giving the tripping command. But due to any reason the breakers contact has got stuck and is not able to disconnect the line, then this protection comes into action. It gives tripping command to that breaker and if the breaker is not tripping then it give tripping command to all breakers feeding to that line i.e. all the feeders connected on that bus gets tripped. For automation purpose numerical relays are preferred. These numerical relays can communicate to the scada system using IEC 103 or IEC 61850 protocol and can give all the details of the fault present on the system. The mechanical relays send the data using hardwires. The signal will have to be hard wired to the RTU. The manufacturer and supplier of 11KV protection relays include Siemens Areva ABB Easun Reyrole Ashida

Meters
An electric meter or energy meter is a device that measures the amount of electrical energy consumed by a residence, business, or an electrically powered device. The most common unit of measurement on the electricity meter is the kilowatt hour, which is equal to the amount of energy used by a load of one kilowatt over a period of one hour, or 3,600Kjoules. Reactive power is measured in "Volt-amperes reactive", (varh) in kilovar-hours. By convention, a "lagging" or inductive load, such as a motor, will have positive reactive power. A "leading", or capacitive load, will have negative reactive power. The meters fall into two basic categories, electromechanical and electronic. The most common type of electricity meter is the electromechanical induction watt-hour meter. The electromechanical induction meter operates by counting the revolutions of an aluminium disc which is made to rotate at a speed proportional to the power. The number of revolutions is thus proportional to the energy usage. Electronic meters display the energy used on an LCD or LED display, and can also transmit readings to remote places. In addition to measuring energy used, electronic meters can also record other parameters of the load and supply such as maximum demand, power factor and reactive power used etc. They can also support time-of-day billing, for example, recording the amount of energy used during on-peak and off-peak hours. The meters can communicate using Modbus, IEC 101 or DLMS protocols to the SCADA system and send all the metering data for monitoring. The manufacturer and suppliers of Meters are Larsen and Toubro, Secure, Indotech, Rishabh, ABB etc. The distribution elements Indo Swedish,

Distribution Transformer
The purpose of a distribution transformer is to reduce the primary voltage of the electric distribution system to the utilization voltage serving the customer i.e. convert the 11KV high voltage

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line to 440 V distribution line. A distribution transformer is a static device constructed with two or more windings used to transfer alternating current electric power by electromagnetic induction from one circuit to another at the same frequency but with different values of voltage and current. It is equipped with a lightning arrester, a weak-link or protective-link expulsion-type. The transformer primary bushing conductor is connected to one phase of the three-phase primary circuit through a partial-range current-limiting fuse. The primary side of the transformer is connected in Delta and secondary side connected in Star connection. The capacity of a distribution transformer is determined by the amount of current it can carry continuously at rated voltage without exceeding the design temperature. The transformers are rated in kilovolt-amperes (kVA) since the capacity is limited by the load current which is proportional to the kVA regardless of the power factor. The manufacturer and supplier for distribution transformer include Power Engineers and consultants, Ludhiana Urja Techniques India Pvt Ltd ABB Power caps system Pvt ltd GTB Transformers A.B.C. Transformers Pvt Ltd Voltech Transformers Pvt Ltd Southern Equipments Tesla Transformers Crompton Greaves Ltd

It is basically used for an uninterrupted power supply. Alongside, it also protects the secondary side transformer from the occasional transient currents. Depending on the applications and loading conditions, switch fuse combination or a circuit breaker to protect the transformer is used. This transformer connected to the switch fuse/ circuit breaker is called T off. In a common arrangement, Load break switches on both the sides of T off are used. The ring main unit consists of sealed stainless steel tank that house The fault make load break switches Earth switches Bus bars The tank is filled with SF6 gas for insulating purpose. The switches are operated by means of spring- operated mechanisms that are located outside the tank. Motor operator can be fitted to ring switches to facilitate remote operation. Ring main units are ideally mounted on distribution transformers or distribution branches to form a single unit. The ring main unit isolates the failed transformer without resulting in customer outage as the DTs are fed from two different sources. Additionally RMUs provide substantial switching as switches are provided on either side of the line. This configuration allows the switching to isolate a faulted line section or restore the service from either circuit source to which transformer is connected. The switching flexibility provided by ring main units allow restoration of all customer through switching actions only, allowing cable or system repairs to be handled during normal working hours resulting in large potential operational savings.

Ring Main Unit (RMU)

A ring main unit is a switch gear unit that consists of multiple remote operable switches and breakers, which allow on load and offload switching of network. The RMUs are usually placed at tees /branches of power system network for easy localization & isolation of faults. At the distribution The manufacturer and supplier of RMUs are network switches for sectioning the feeder can be Schneider Electric, Areva, Crompton & Greaves, added to the local transformer protection to form a SIEMENS, ABB three way switching system. This is often called as Ring Main Unit. Ring Main Unit RMU is used for H.T.side. RMU is having no.s of switches (Circuit Sectionalizer Breakers or Isolators or LBS), it is used for two inputs with mechanical or electrical interlock and Sectionalizers are the switch that can split or divide one outgoing to the load. Either one input with two electric distribution system and redirect the flow of outgoings. RMU used for redundancy feeder electricity. Sectionalizers are provided for the purpose.

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protection and as a means for disconnection between the transformer and incoming line. It is impossible to build a fault-free distribution system. Even with good anti-outage design and construction, equipment degrades and eventually fails. A reasonable number of faults are expected. For these faults, the primary goal is to sectionalize feeders to reduce customer outages. Sectionalizing also shortens restoration time by narrowing the troubleshooting range. Sectionalizers are provided with autoreclosers. More than 80% of the faults on the distribution lines are transient. They may be due to a tree touching the line, a thread connecting the two phases etc. These faults are burnt out within few seconds and the line is again ready to get charged. So autoreclosers gives the closing command and restore the system. The number of attempts the reclosers takes depends on the configuration.

FPI
Overhead lines are very susceptible to faults because of the exposure of the system equipment to the extremes of weather and environmental conditions. Fault finding on 11 kV overhead lines is often extremely time consuming due to the remote locations and difficulty of access for personnel. For any fault on the feeder the main circuit breaker will get tripped. The whole feeder will be disconnected and supply is lost to all the connected customer. When faced with this problem and there is no indication where the actual fault exist, the one option that exists for detecting the fault is by switching method. In this method one by one each section is sectionalized and circuit breaker is closed to find out in which section actually the fault persists. When the fault section is found that section is isolated and remaining is restored. This method is having several disadvantages as the faulty section gets energized causing further damage to the equipment. There is extra burden on the circuit breaker. Each time the circuit breaker trips on fault, there is an associated depression in the system voltage over the complete network, which can have adverse effect on the sensitive equipment. The other method used can be to check individually each section using insulation tester and isolate the section. But this will take a longer time.

So fault passage indicator provides a solution to this problem. The Fault Passage indicator is the device that can be located at some convenient point on the distribution system that will give an indication as to whether fault current has passed the point where it is located or not. When a fault is detected the indicator operates alarm contacts for remote indication and illuminates an integral LED. Indicators placed in the distribution network aid identification of faulty sections of the network. Where a fault occurs the FPI can provide alarms for over currents, earthfaults, sensitive earth faults and persistent current alarms for non-tripping situations. Patrolling from the tripped main feeder CB or the tripped CB downstream on the faulted line, the fault is always located between the last flashing FPI/substation and the first nonflashing FPI/substation. There are two types of faults in a cable network, the earth fault and the phase-to-phase faults. 80 % of the faults found on a cable networks are indeed earth faults. This is the reason why most of FPIs include EFIs (Earth Fault Indicators). To detect the phase to phase fault, the FPI requires the measurement of phase current using CTs located at the cable terminating area. The fault passage indicator also reduces time for restoration of system after fault as it reduces the time that a operating crew need to travel around the network in search of fault. The FPIs are having the feature to communicate to the control center through IEC 101 or IEC 104 protocol. The manufacturer and supplier of FPIs include ABB, Areva, Siemens, Schneider Electric etc.

Fuses
In electrical engineering a fuse is a type of sacrificial overcurrent protection device. Its essential component is a metal wire or strip that melts when too much current flows, which interrupts the circuit in which it is connected. Short circuit, overload or device failure is often the reason for excessive current A fuse interrupts excessive current (blows) so that further damage by overheating or fire is prevented. Wiring regulations often define a maximum fuse

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current rating for particular circuits. Overcurrent protection devices are essential in electrical systems to limit threats to human life and property damage. Fuses are selected to allow passage of normal current and of excessive current only for short periods. Fuse helps in improving overcurrent protection supporting the system voltage during faults and clearing high current faults much faster. Fuses are small and relatively cheap but they suffer from the disadvantage that they need to be replaced after every operation and before load current can be passed again.

Different types of conductors are used such as Aluminium, Copper, Steel. Of the three, aluminium is the mostly used for the electric transmission system as it is having better resistivity / weight than copper and as it is cheaper compared to copper. The aluminium conductor has a larger diameter than a copper conductor of the same resistance. With the larger diameter the lines of electric flux originating on the conductor will be apart at the conductor surface for the same voltage. This means a lower voltage gradient at the conductor surface and less tendency to ionize the air around the conductor. Ionization produces the undesirable effect called corona. Different types of aluminium conductors are used AAC All aluminium conductor AAAC All aluminium alloy conductor ACSR Aluminium conductors steel reinforced. ACAR Aluminium conductor alloy reinforced ACSR as the name suggests consist of a solid or stranded steel core surrounded by electrolytic grade aluminium. The steel grade gives a good mechanical strength. The ACSR conductors are further named as Panther, Moose, Zebra, Deer, Rabbit, Annt, Tarantula, Weasel, Dog, Wolf, Squirrel, etc. according to their properties.

Isolators
Isolators are the disconnecting device, which breaks the circuit when it is offload. Isolators are provided to provide safe working condition. Depending on the physical arrangement, the isolators provide a visual indication that an item of equipment e.g. transformer, line is disconnected from the system. The isolators can be of various types- Single break type, a double break type, a vertical break type, or a pantograph type. Isolators are designed not to be opened when any amount of load current is flowing them. They are normally capable of closing on to a line where the charging current is small, or to energize a small transformer. The manufacturer and supplier of Isolators include Venson Electric Private Ltd - India Transpower Switchgear Industries - India Siemens Ltd Masibus Automation and Instrumentation Pvt. Ltd India

Insulators
Suspended wires for electric power transmission are bare and are insulated by the surrounding air. Insulators are required at the points at which they are supported by utility poles or equipments. Insulators are also required where the wire enters electrical devices, such as transformers, circuit breakers. Insulation resistance is measured for each equipment and it varies from 500M to several Giga . Insulators used for high-voltage power distributions are made from glass, porcelain, or composite polymer materials. There are various types of insulators being used in electrical transmission system such Pin insulators,

Transmission line and type of conductors

In power transmission and distribution system power is distributed and conductors are the medium to carry power to each individual user. To improve the efficiency of distribution system, the power losses needs to be minimum. An important practice is the selection of conductor for design and upgrading of distribution systems. It is, therefore, necessary to determine the adequate size of conductor to minimize the energy losses and capital cost of the feeders

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Post insulators, Disc insulators, Strain insulators, Bushings. A pin insulator consists of a non conducting material such as porcelain, glass, plastic, polymer, or wood that is formed into a shape that isolate a wire from a physical support (or "pin") on a utility pole or other structure. A post insulators consists of a solid porcelain cylinder corrugated to increase the leakage length with metal ware in each end. Post insulators are tall and are mainly used in substations. Bushings are generally used for providing insulation for the conductors and transformer. They are manufactured using porcelain. It provides conducting path through its centre and its body provides isolates the contact to support structure. Higher voltage transmission lines use disc insulator designs. The wires are suspended from a 'string' of identical disk-shaped insulators which attach to each other with metal links. The advantage of this design is that insulator strings with different breakdown voltages, can be constructed by using different numbers of the disc units. Also, if one of the insulator units in the string breaks, it can be replaced without discarding the entire string. For example if it used in 33KV transmission system the number of discs used are 3, for 66 KV it extends to 5. Busbars and circuit breakers in switchgear are insulated with glass-reinforced plastic insulation, treated to have low flame spread and to prevent tracking of current across the material. Insulation mats are provided in the control rooms to provide insulation and safety to the workers.
AUTOMATION IN POWER DISTRIBUTION

power distribution sector which will enable better monitoring and control. In a distribution automation (DA) system, the various quantities (e.g., voltage, current, switch status, temperature, and oil level) are recorded in the field at the distribution transformers and feeders, using a data acquisition device called Remote Terminal Units (RTU). These system quantities are transmitted on-line to the base station (33kV substation) through a variety of communication media. The media could be either wireless (e.g., radio, and pager) or wired (e.g., Dialup telephone, RS-485 multi-drop, and Ethernet). The measured field data are processed at the base station for display of any operator selected system quantity through Graphic User Interface (GUI). In the event of a system quantity crossing a predefined threshold, an alarm is automatically generated for operator intervention. Any control action (for opening or closing of the switch or circuit breaker) is initiated by the operator and transmitted from the 33kV base station through the communication channel to the remote terminal unit associated with the corresponding switch or circuit breaker. The desired switching action then takes place and the action is acknowledged back to operator for information. GIS technology can be effectively used for correct marking of the various Distribution Circles on Geographical Area Map. GIS mapping of Sub transmission and Distribution network from 33 kV substations down to LT feeders becomes handy in proper identification, locating and documenting of electrical network assets. All the existing connections and consumer details can be graphically displayed on the GIS map linked to the database. DMS i.e. Distribution management system can be used for the effective maintenance of the system. It enables an electric utility to remotely monitor, coordinate and operate distribution components in a real-time mode from remote locations. It supports various functions such as Network Connectivity Analysis (NCA) State Estimation (SE) Load Flow Application (LFA) Voltage VAR control (VVC) Load Shed Application (LSA)

The demand for electrical energy is ever increasing. Today over 21% (theft apart!!) of the total electrical energy generated in India is lost in transmission (46%) and distribution (15-18%). The electrical power deficit in the country is currently about 18%. Clearly, reduction in distribution losses can reduce this deficit significantly. It is possible to bring down the distribution losses to a 6-8 % level in India with the help of newer technological options (including information technology) in the electrical

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Fault Management and System Restoration (FMSR) Loss Minimization via Feeder Reconfiguration (LMFR) Load Balancing via Feeder Reconfiguration (LBFR) Operation Monitor (OM) Distribution Load forecasting (DLF)