Water conservation From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

1960 USA four-cent postal stamp: Water Conservation. Water conservation refers to reducing the usage of water and recycling of waste water for different purposes such as cleaning, manufacturing, and agriculturalirrigation. Contents [hide] 1 Introduction 1.1 Water conservation 1.2 Water efficiency 1.3 Goals

2 Social solutions 3 Household applications 4 Commercial applications 5 Agricultural applications 6 Minimum Water Network Target and Design 7 See also 8 References 9 External links

[edit]Introduction [edit]Water conservation

Water conservation can be defined as: 1. Any beneficial reduction in water loss, use or waste as well as the preservation of water quality. 2. A reduction in water use accomplished by implementation of water conservation or water efficiency measures; or, 3. Improved water management practices that reduce or enhance the beneficial use of water.[1][2] A water conservation measure is an action, behavioral change, device, technology, or improved design or process implemented to reduce water loss, waste, or use. Water efficiency is a tool of water conservation. That results in more efficient water use and thus reduces water demand. The value and cost-effectiveness of a water efficiency measure must be evaluated in relation to its effects on the use and cost of other natural resources (e.g. energy or chemicals).[1] [edit]Water efficiency Main article: Water efficiency [edit]Goals The goals of water conservation efforts include as follows: Sustainability. To ensure availability for future generations, the withdrawal of fresh water from an ecosystem should not exceed its natural replacement rate. Energy conservation. Water pumping, delivery, and wastewater treatment facilities consume a significant amount of energy. In some regions of the world (for example, California[3]) over 15% of total electricity consumption is devoted to water management. Habitat conservation. Minimizing human water use helps to preserve fresh water habitats for local wildlife and migrating waterfowl, as well as reducing the need to build new dams and other water diversion infrastructure. [edit]Social solutions

Drip irrigation system in New Mexico Water conservation programs are typically initiated at the local level, by either municipal water utilities or regional governments. Common strategies include public outreach campaigns,[4] tiered water rates (charging progressively higher prices as water use increases), or restrictions on outdoor water use such as lawn watering and car washing.[5] Cities in dry climates often require or encourage the installation of xeriscaping or natural landscaping in new homes to reduce outdoor water usage.[6] One fundamental conservation goal is universal metering. The prevalence of residential water metering varies significantly worldwide. Recent studies have estimated that water supplies are metered in less than 30% of UK households,[7] and about 61% of urban Canadian homes (as of 2001).[8] Although individual water meters have often been considered impractical in homes with private wells or in multifamily buildings, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agencyestimates that metering alone can reduce consumption by 20 to 40 percent.[9] In addition to raising consumer awareness of their water use, metering is also an important way to identify and localize water leaks. Some researchers have suggested that water conservation efforts should be primarily directed at farmers, in light of the fact that crop irrigation accounts for 70% of the world's fresh water use.[10] The agricultural sector of most countries is

important both economically and politically, and water subsidies are common. Conservation advocates have urged removal of all subsidies to force farmers to grow more water-efficient crops and adopt less wasteful irrigationtechniques (see Agricultural applications). [edit]Household applications Water-saving technology for the home includes: Low-flow shower heads sometimes called energy-efficient shower heads as they also use less energy, Low-flush toilets and composting toilets. These have a dramatic impact in the developed world, as conventional Western toilets use large volumes of water. Dual flush toilets created by Caroma includes two buttons or handles to flush different levels of water. Dual flush toilets use up to 67% less water than conventional toilets. Saline water (sea water) or rain water can be used for flushing toilets. Faucet aerators, which break water flow into fine droplets to maintain "wetting effectiveness" while using less water. An additional benefit is that they reduce splashing while washing hands and dishes. Wastewater reuse or recycling systems, allowing: Reuse of graywater for flushing toilets or watering gardens Recycling of wastewater through purification at a water treatment plant. See also Wastewater - Reuse Rainwater harvesting High-efficiency clothes washers Weather-based irrigation controllers Garden hose nozzles that shut off water when it is not being used, instead of letting a hose run. using low flow taps in wash basins Automatic faucet is a water conservation faucet that eliminates water waste at the faucet. It automates the use of faucets without the use of hands.

Water can also be conserved by landscaping with native plants and by changing behavior, such as shortening showers and not running the faucet while brushing teeth. [edit]Commercial applications Many water-saving devices (such as low-flush toilets) that are useful in homes can also be useful for business water saving. Other water-saving technology for businesses includes: Waterless urinals Waterless car washes Infrared or foot-operated faucets, which can save water by using short bursts of water for rinsing in a kitchen or bathroom Pressurized waterbrooms, which can be used instead of a hose to clean sidewalks X-ray film processor re-circulation systems Cooling tower conductivity controllers Utilization of Lake Water and or Sea Water for Cooling Towers Water-saving steam sterilizers, for use in hospitals and health care facilities.

one of the method of water conservation is rain water harvesting. However, ultra-low flow sink faucets, particularly those whose flow rate is less than .75 GPM have been shown to have serious undesired consequences, including increased wash time, hands not completely cleaned, and some users choosing to forgo washing altogether to avoid the inconvenience.[citation needed] avoid contamination of water Some tips on conserving water are to: fill 1 sink with wash water and 1 sink with rinse water when you are washing dishes, upgrade to air- cooled appliances,adjust your sprinklers so only your lawn is watered, and not your house, street, or sidewalk. Choose shrubs or groundcovers only, because turfs can absorb too much water, and when you walk on it, it becomes squishy and moist. [edit]Agricultural applications

Overhead irrigation, center pivot design For crop irrigation, optimal water efficiency means minimizing losses due to evaporation, runoff or subsurface drainage while maximizing production. Anevaporation pan in combination with specific crop correction factors can be used to determine how much water is needed to satisfy plant requirements. Flood irrigation, the oldest and most common type, is often very uneven in distribution, as parts of a field may receive excess water in order to deliver sufficient quantities to other parts. Overhead irrigation, using center-pivot or lateral-moving sprinklers, has the potential for a much more equal and controlled distribution pattern. Drip irrigation is the most expensive and least-used type, but offers the ability to deliver water to plant roots with minimal losses. However, drip irrigation is increasingly affordable, especially for the home gardener and in light of rising water rates. There are also cheap effective methods similar to drip irrigation such as the use of soaking hoses that can even be submerged in the growing medium to eliminate evaporation. "Water Conservation". Retrieved 2011-02-20. As changing irrigation systems can be a costly undertaking, conservation efforts often concentrate on maximizing the efficiency of the existing system. This may include chiseling compacted soils, creating furrow dikes to prevent runoff, and using soil moisture and rainfall sensors to optimize irrigation schedules.[9]Usually large gains in efficiency are possible though measurement and more effective management of the existing irrigation system. Infiltration basins, also called recharge pits, capture rainwater and recharge ground water supplies. Use of these management practices reduces soil erosion caused by stormwater runoff and improveswater quality in nearby surface waters. [edit]Minimum Water Network Target and Design

The Cost effective minimum water network is a holistic framework/guide for water conservation that helps in determining the minimum amount of freshwater and wastewater target for an industrial or urban system based on the water management hierarchy i.e. it considers all conceivable methods to save water. The technique ensure that the designer desired for payback Resilient period Process is satisfied Screening usingSystematic Hierarchical Approach

(SHARPS) technique.

How to Conserve Water and Use It Effectively Water users can be divided into two basic groups: system users (such as residential users, industries, and farmers) and system operators (such as municipalities, state and local governments, and privately owned suppliers). These users can choose from among many different water use efficiency practices, which fall into two categories: 1. Engineering practices: practices based on modifications in plumbing, fixtures, or water supply operating procedures 2. Behavioral practices: practices based on changing water use habits This chapter explores a number of water use efficiency practices. The practices have been evaluated by many researchers, and there is a growing body of literature that presents the results of many studies related to water use efficiency. This chapter addresses the following questions: What's the problem? What practices might be used to solve it? How effective are they? What do they cost? Where have they been used successfully? Practices for system users residential, industrial/commercial, and agricultural are presented first, followed by practices for system operators. Practices for Residential Users The following sections present examples of conservation and water use efficiency practices that can benefit residential users. Both engineering and behavioral practices are described. Engineering Practices Plumbing An engineering practice for individual residential water users is the installation of indoor plumbing fixtures that save water or the replacement of existing plumbing equipment with equipment that uses less water. Low-flow plumbing fixtures and

retrofit programs are permanent, one-time conservation measures that can be implemented automatically with little or no additional cost over their life times (Jensen, 1991). In some cases, they can even save the resident money over the long term. The City of Corpus Christi, for example, has estimated that an average threemember household can reduce its water use by 54,000 gallons annually and can lower water bills by about $60 per year if water-efficient plumbing fixtures are used (Jensen, 1991). Further support for this conclusion is provided below. Low-Flush Toilets. Residential demands account for about three-fourths of the total urban water demand. Indoor use accounts for roughly 60 percent of all residential use, and of this, toilets (at 3.5 gallons per flush) use nearly 40 percent. Toilets, showers, and faucets combined represent two-thirds of all indoor water use. More than 4.8 billion gallons of water is flushed down toilets each day in the United States. The average American uses about 9,000 gallons of water to flush 230 gallons of waste down the toilet per year (Jensen, 1991). In new construction and building rehabilitation or remodeling there is a great potential to reduce water consumption by installing low-flush toilets. Conventional toilets use 3.5 to 5 gallons or more of water per flush, but low-flush toilets (see figure above) use only 1.6 gallons of water or less. Since low-flush toilets use less water, they also reduce the volume of wastewater produced (Pearson, 1993). Effective January 1, 1994, the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (Public Law 102-486) requires that all new toilets produced for home use must operate on 1.6 gallons per flush or less (Shepard, 1993). Toilets that operate on 3.5 gallons per flush will continue to be manufactured, but their use will be allowed for only certain commercial applications through January l, 1997 (NAPHCC, 1992). Even in existing residences, replacement of conventional toilets with low-flush toilets is a practical and economical alternative. The effectiveness of low-flush toilets has been demonstrated in a study in the City of San Pablo, California. In a 30year-old apartment building, conventional toilets that used about 4.5 gallons per flush were replaced with low-flush toilets that use approximately 1.6 gallons per flush. The change resulted in a decrease in water consumption from approximately 225 gallons per day per average household of 3 persons to 148 gallons per day per household a savings of 34 percent! Although the total cost for replacement of the conventional toilets with low-flush toilets was about $250 per unit (including installation), the water conservation fixtures saved an average of $46 per year from each unit's water bill. Therefore, the cost for the replacement of the conventional toilet with a low-flush toilet could be recovered in 5.4 years. Toilet Displacement Devices. Plastic containers (such as plastic milk jugs) can be filled with water or pebbles and placed in a toilet tank to reduce the amount of

water used per flush. By placing one to three such containers in the tank (making sure that they do not interfere with the flushing mechanisms or the flow of water), more than l gallon of water can be saved per flush. A toilet dam, which holds back a reservoir of water when the toilet is flushed, can also be used instead of a plastic container to save water. Toilet dams result in a savings of 1 to 2 gallons of water per flush (USEPA, l991b). Low-Flow Showerheads. Showers account for about 20 percent of total indoor water use. By replacing standard 4.5-gallon-per-minute showerheads with 2.5-gallon-perminute heads, which cost less than $5 each, a family of four can save approximately 20,000 gallons of water per year (Jensen, 1991). Although individual preferences determine optimal shower flow rates, properly designed low-flow showerheads are available to provide the quality of service found in higher-volume models. Whitcomb (1990) developed a model to estimate water use savings resulting from the installation of low-flow showerheads in residential housing. Detailed data from 308 single-family residences involved in a pilot program in Seattle, Washington, were analyzed. The estimated indoor water use per person dropped 6.4 percent after low-flow showerheads were installed (Whitcomb, 1990). Faucet Aerators. Faucet aerators, which break the flowing water into fine droplets and entrain air while maintaining wetting effectiveness, are inexpensive devices that can be installed in sinks to reduce water use. Aerators can be easily installed and can reduce the water use at a faucet by as much as 60 percent while still maintaining a strong flow. More efficient kitchen and bathroom faucets that use only 2 gallons of water per minute--unlike standard faucets, which use 3 to 5 gallons per minute--are also available (Jensen, 1991). Pressure Reduction. Because flow rate is related to pressure, the maximum water flow from a fixture operating on a fixed setting can be reduced if the water pressure is reduced. For example, a reduction in pressure from 100 pounds per square inch to 50 psi at an outlet can result in a water flow reduction of about one-third (Brown and Caldwell, 1984). Homeowners can reduce the water pressure in a home by installing pressurereducing valves. The use of such valves might be one way to decrease water consumption in homes that are served by municipal water systems. For homes served by wells, reducing the system pressure can save both water and energy. Many water use fixtures in a home, however, such as washing machines and toilets, operate on a controlled amount of water, so a reduction in water pressure would have little effect on water use at those locations. A reduction in water pressure can save water in other ways: it can reduce the likelihood of leaking water pipes, leaking water heaters, and dripping faucets. It can

also help reduce dishwasher and washing machine noise and breakdowns in a plumbing system. A study in Denver, Colorado, illustrates the effect of water pressure on water savings. Water use in homes was compared among different water pressure zones throughout the city. Elevation of a home with respect to the elevation of a pumping station and the proximity of the home to the pumping station determine the pressure of water delivered to each home. Homes with high water pressure were compared to homes with low water pressure. An annual water savings of about 6 percent was shown for homes that received water service at lower pressures when compared to homes that received water services at higher pressures. Gray Water Use. Domestic wastewater composed of wash water from kitchen sinks and tubs, clothes washers, and laundry tubs is called gray water (USEPA, 1989). Gray water can be used by homeowners for home gardening, lawn maintenance, landscaping, and other innovative uses. The City of St. Petersburg, Florida, has implemented an urban dual distribution system for reclaimed water for nonpotable uses. This system provides reclaimed water for more than 7,000 residential homes and businesses (USEPA, 1992). Landscaping Lawn and landscape maintenance often requires large amounts of water, particularly in areas with low rainfall. Outdoor residential water use varies greatly depending on geographic location and season. On an annual average basis, outdoor water use in the arid West and Southwest is much greater than that in the East or Midwest. Nationally, lawn care accounts for about 32 percent of the total residential outdoor use. Other outdoor uses include washing automobiles, maintaining swimming pools, and cleaning sidewalks and driveways. Landscape Irrigation. One method of water conservation in landscaping uses plants that need little water, thereby saving not only water but labor and fertilizer as well (Grisham and Fleming, 1989). A similar method is grouping plants with similar water needs. Scheduling lawn irrigation for specific early morning or evening hours can reduce water wasted due to evaporation during daylight hours. Another water use efficiency practice that can be applied to residential landscape irrigation is the use of cycle irrigation methods to improve penetration and reduce runoff. Cycle irrigation provides the right amount of water at the right time and place, for optimal growth. Other practices include the use of low-precipitation-rate sprinklers that have better distribution uniformity, bubbler/soaker systems, or drip irrigation systems (RMI, 1991). Xeriscape Landscapes. Careful design of landscapes water usage nationwide. Xeriscape landscaping is an approach to landscaping for water conservation Traditional landscapes might incorporate one or could significantly reduce innovative, comprehensive and pollution prevention. two principles of water

conservation, but xeriscape landscaping uses all of the following: planning and design, soil analysis, selection of suitable plants, practical turf areas, efficient irrigation, use of mulches, and appropriate maintenance (Welsh et al., 1993). Benefits of xeriscape landscaping include reduced water use, decreased energy use (less pumping and treatment required), reduced heating and cooling costs because of carefully placed trees, decreased storm water and irrigation runoff, fewer yard wastes, increased habitat for plants and animals, and lower labor and maintenance costs (USEPA, 1993). More than 40 states have initiated xeriscape projects. Some communities use contests and demonstration gardens to promote public awareness. El Paso Water Utilities and the Council of El Paso Garden Clubs sponsor an annual "Accent Sun Country" contest. The contest spotlights homes that have water-conserving landscapes consisting of plants and grasses that require only a minimum of supplemental water and yet beautify the homes. The winning entries are publicized, and cash prizes are awarded. People are invited to tour the grounds to get ideas on how they, too, can save water, time, and money while maintaining an attractive landscape (RMI, 1991). The offices of the Southwest Florida Water Management District in Tampa and Brooksville offer free xeriscape tours every month. The tours begin with a slide show on the principles of xeriscape and continue with a walking tour of water-saving landscaping (Xeriscape tours, 1993). Behavioral Practices Behavioral practices involve changing water use habits so that water is used more efficiently, thus reducing the overall water consumption in a home. These practices require a change in behavior, not modifications in the existing plumbing or fixtures in a home. Behavioral practices for residential water users can be applied both indoors in the kitchen, bathroom, and laundry room and outdoors. In the kitchen, for example, 10 to 20 gallons of water a day can be saved by running the dishwasher only when it is full. If dishes are washed by hand, water can be saved by filling the sink or a dishpan with water rather than running the water continuously. An open conventional faucet lets about 5 gallons of water flow every 2 minutes (Florida Commission, 1990). Water can be saved in the bathroom by turning off the faucet while brushing teeth or shaving. Water can be saved by taking short showers rather than long showers or baths and turning the water off while soaping. This water savings can be increased even further by installing low-flow showerheads, as discussed earlier. Toilets should be used only to carry away sanitary waste. Households with lead-based solder in pipes that flush the first several gallons of water should collect this water for alternative nonpotable uses (e.g., plant watering).

Water can be saved in the laundry room by adjusting water levels in the washing machine to match the size of the load. If the washing machine does not have a variable load control, water can be saved by running the machine only when it is full. If washing is done by hand, the water should not be left running. A laundry tub should be filled with water, and the wash and rinse water should be reused as much as possible. Outdoor water use can be reduced by watering the lawn early in the morning or late in the evening and on cooler days, when possible, to reduce evaporation. Allowing the grass to grow slightly taller will reduce water loss by providing more ground shade for the roots and by promoting water retention in the soil. Growing plants that are suited to the area ("indigenous" plants) can save more than 50 percent of the water normally used to care for outdoor plants. As much as 150 gallons of water can be saved when washing a car by turning the hose off between rinses. The car should be washed on the lawn if possible to reduce runoff. Additional savings of water can result from sweeping sidewalks and driveways instead of hosing them down. Washing a sidewalk or driveway with a hose uses about 50 gallons of water every 5 minutes (Florida Commission, 1990). If a home has an outdoor pool, water can be saved by covering the pool when it is not in use. Practices for Industrial/Commercial Users Industrial/commercial users can apply a number of conservation and water use efficiency practices. Some of these practices can also be applied by users in the other water use categories. Engineering Practices Water Reuse and Recycling Water reuse [BROKEN] is the use of wastewater or reclaimed water from one application such as municipal wastewater treatment for another application such as landscape watering. The reused water must be used for a beneficial purpose and in accordance with applicable rules (such as local ordinances governing water reuse). Some potential applications for the reuse of wastewater or reclaimed water include other industrial uses, landscape irrigation, agricultural irrigation, aesthetic uses such as fountains, and fire protection (USEPA, 1992). Factors that should be considered in an industrial water reuse program include (Brown and Caldwell, 1990): Identification of water reuse opportunities Determination of the minimum water quality needed for the given use

Identification of wastewater sources that satisfy the water quality requirements Determination of how the water can be transported to the new use The reuse of wastewater or reclaimed water is beneficial because it reduces the demands on available surface and ground waters (Strauss, 1991). Perhaps the greatest benefit of establishing water reuse programs is their contribution in delaying or eliminating the need to expand potable water supply and treatment facilities (USEPA, 1992). Water recycling [BROKEN] is the reuse of water for the same application for which it was originally used. Recycled water might require treatment before it can be used again. Factors that should be considered in a water recycling program include (Brown and Caldwell, 1990): Identification of water reuse opportunities Evaluation of the minimum water quality needed for a particular use Evaluation of water quality degradation resulting from the use Determination of the treatment steps, if any, that might be required to prepare the water for recycling Cooling Water Recirculation The use of water for cooling in industrial applications represents one of the largest water uses in the United States. Water is typically used to cool heat-generating equipment or to condense gases in a thermodynamic cycle. The most waterintensive cooling method used in industrial applications is once-through cooling, in which water contacts and lowers the temperature of a heat source and then is discharged. Recycling water with a recirculating cooling system can greatly reduce water use by using the same water to perform several cooling operations. The water savings [BROKEN]are sufficiently substantial to result in overall cost savings to the industry (see box). Three cooling water conservation approaches that can be used to reduce water use are evaporative cooling, ozonation, and air heat exchange (Brown and Caldwell, 1990). In industrial/commerical evaporative cooling systems, water loses heat when a portion of it is evaporated. Water is lost from evaporative cooling towers as the result of evaporation, drift, and blowdown. (Blowdown is a process in which some of the poor-quality recirculating water is discharged from the tower in order to reduce the total dissolved solids.) Water savings associated with the use of evaporative cooling towers can be increased by reducing blowdown or water discharges from cooling towers. The use of ozone to treat cooling water (ozonation) can result in a five-fold reduction in blowdown when compared to traditional chemical treatments and should be considered as an option for increasing water savings in a cooling tower (Brown and Caldwell, 1990).

Air heat exchange works on the same principle as a car's radiator. In an air heat exchanger, a fan blows air past finned tubes carrying the recirculating cooling water. Air heat exchangers involve no water loss, but they can be relatively expensive when compared with cooling towers (Brown and Caldwell, 1990). The Pacific Power and Light Company's Wyodak Generating Station in Wyoming decided to use dry cooling to eliminate water losses from cooling-water blowdown, evaporation, and drift. The station was equipped with the first air-cooled condenser in the western hemisphere. Steam from the turbine is distributed through overhead pipes to finned carbon steel tubes. These are grouped in rectangular bundles and installed in A-frame modules above 69 circulating fans. The fans force some 45 million cubic feet per minute (ft3/min) of air through 8 million square feet of finnedtube surface, condensing the steam (Strauss, 1991). The payback comes from the water savings. Compared to about 4,000 gallons per minute (gal/min) of makeup (replacement water) for equivalent evaporative cooling, the technique reduces the station's water requirement to about 300 gal/min (Strauss, 1991). Rinsing [BROKEN]

Another common use of water by industry is the application of deionized water for removing contaminants from products and equipment. Deionized water contains no ions (such as salts), which tend to corrode or deposit onto metals. Historically, industries have used deionized water excessively to provide maximum assurance against contaminated products. The use of deionized water can be reduced without affecting production quality by eliminating some plenum flushes (a rinsing procedure that discharges deionized water from the rim of a flowing bath to remove contaminants from the sides and bottom of the bath), converting from a continuousflow to an intermittent-flow system, and improving control of the use of deionized water (Brown and Caldwell, 1990). Deionized water can be recycled after its first use, but the treatment for recycling can include many of the processes required to produce deionized water from municipal water. The reuse of once-used deionized water for a different application should also be considered by industry, where applicable, because deionized water is often more pure after its initial use than municipal water (Brown and Caldwell, 1990). Landscape Irrigation Another way that industrial/commercial facilities can reduce water use is through the implementation of efficient landscape irrigation practices. There are several general ways that water can be more efficiently used for landscape irrigation,

including the design of landscapes for low maintenance and low water requirements (refer to the previous section on xeriscape landscaping), the use of water-efficient irrigation equipment such as drip systems or deep root systems, the proper maintenance of irrigation equipment to ensure that it is working properly, the distribution of irrigation equipment to make sure that water is dispensed evenly over areas where it is needed, and the scheduling of irrigation to ensure maximum water use (Brown and Caldwell, 1990). For additional information on efficient water use for irrigation, refer to the practices for residential users and agricultural users in this chapter. Behavioral Practices Behavioral practices involve modifying water use habits to achieve more efficient use of water, thus reducing overall water consumption by an industrial/commercial facility. Changes in behavior [BROKEN] can save water without modifying the existing equipment at a facility. Monitoring the amount of water used by an industrial/commercial facility can provide baseline information on quantities of overall company water use, the seasonal and hourly patterns of water use, and the quantities and quality of water use in individual processes. Baseline information on water use can be used to set company goals and to develop specific water use efficiency measures. Monitoring can make employees more aware of water use rates and makes it easier to measure the results of conservation efforts. The use of meters on individual pieces of water-using equipment can provide direct information on the efficiency of water use. Records of meter readings can be used to identify changes in water use rates and possible problems in a system (Brown and Caldwell, 1990). Many of the practices described in the section for residential users can also be applied by commercial users. These include low-flow fixtures, water-efficient landscaping, and water reuse and recycling (e.g., using recycled wash water for prerinse). Practices for Agricultural Users Engineering Practices Irrigation Water-saving irrigation practices fall into three categories: field practices, management strategies, and system modifications. Field practices are techniques that keep water in the field, distribute water more efficiently across the field, or encourage the retention of soil moisture. Examples of these practices include the chiseling of extremely compacted soils, furrow diking to prevent runoff, and leveling of the land to distribute water more evenly. Typically, field practices are not very costly.

Management strategies involve monitoring soil and water conditions and collecting information on water use and efficiency. The information helps in making decisions about scheduling applications or improving the efficiency of the irrigation system. The methods include measuring rainfall, determining soil moisture, checking pumping plant efficiency, and scheduling irrigation. System modifications require making changes to an existing irrigation system or replacing an existing system with a new one. Because system modifications require the purchase of equipment, they are usually more expensive than field practices and management strategies. Typical system modifications include adding drop tubes to a center pivot system, retrofitting a well with a smaller pump, installing surge irrigation, or constructing a tailwater recovery system (Kromm and White, 1990). Water Reuse and Recycling Agricultural irrigation represents approximately 40 percent of the total water demand nationwide. Given that high demand, significant water conservation benefits could result from irrigating with reused or recycled water. Water reuse [BROKEN] is the use of wastewater or reclaimed water from one application for another application. Reused water must be used for a beneficial purpose and in accordance with applicable rules (USEPA, 1991a). Water recycling is the reuse of water for the same application for which it was originally intended. Factors that should be considered in an agricultural water reuse program include: The identification of water reuse opportunities Determination of the minimum water quality needed for the given use Identification of wastewater sources that satisfy the water quality requirements Determination of how the water can be transported to the new use (Brown and Caldwell, 1990) Water reuse for irrigation is already in widespread use in rural areas and is also applicable in areas where agricultural sites are near urban areas and can easily be integrated with urban reuse applications (USEPA, 1992). Behavioral Practices Behavioral practices involve changing water use habits to achieve more efficient use of water. Behavioral practices for agricultural water users can be applied to irrigation application rates and timing. Changes in water use behavior can be implemented without modifying existing equipment.

For example, better irrigation scheduling can result in a reduction in the amount of water that is required to irrigate a crop effectively. The careful choice of irrigation application rates and timing can help farmers to maintain yields with less water. In making scheduling decisions, irrigators should consider: The uncertainty of rainfall and crop water demand The limited water storage capacity of many irrigated soils The limited pumping capacity of irrigation systems Rising pumping costs as a result of higher energy prices Local NRCS-Conservation Districts and Cooperative Extension Service offices can play an important role in promoting better irrigation scheduling. Accurate information on crop water use requires information on solar radiation and other weather variables that can be collected by local weather stations. An additional method that can be used to improve irrigation scheduling and might result in high returns is the use of equipment such as resistance blocks, tensiometers, and neutron probes to monitor soil moisture conditions to help in determining when water should be applied (Bosch and Ross, 1990). Practices for System Operators Engineering Practices Metering Metering. [BROKEN] The measurement of water use with a meter provides essential data for charging fees based on actual customer use. Billing customers based on their actual water use has been found to contribute directly to water conservation. Meters also aid in detecting leaks throughout a water system. In 1977, for example, Boston, Massachusetts, could not account for the use of 50 percent of the water in its municipal water system. After installing meters, the city identified leaks and undertook a vigorous leak detection program (Grisham and Fleming, 1989). Unaccounted-for water dropped to 36 percent after metering and leak detection programs were started. Submetering. [BROKEN] Submetering is used in units such as apartments, condominiums, and trailer homes to indicate water use by those individual units; the entire complex of units is metered by the main supplier. Submetering of water use in apartment or business complexes makes it possible to bill tenants for the water that they actually use rather than for a percentage of the total water use for the complex. Submetering makes water users more aware of how much water they use and its cost, and tenants who conserve water can benefit from lower water use costs. Submetering is reported to reduce water usage by 20 to 40 percent (Rathnau, 1991).

Leak Detection One way to detect leaks is to use listening equipment to survey the distribution system, identify leak sounds, and pinpoint the exact locations of hidden underground leaks. As mentioned in the previous section, metering can also be used to help detect leaks in a system. An effective way to conserve water is to detect and repair leaks in municipal water systems. [BROKEN] Repairing leaks controls the loss of water that water agencies have paid to obtain, treat, and pressurize. The early detection of leaks also reduces the chances that leaks will cause major property damage. When water leaks from a system before it reaches the consumer, water agencies lose revenue and incur unnecessary costs. Such costs should provide an incentive for system operators to implement a leak detection program. Programs for finding and repairing leaks in water mains and laterals (conduits) might be cost-effective in spite of their high initial costs. Leak detection programs have been especially important in cities that have large, old, deteriorating systems (RMI, 1991). Water Main Rehabilitation A water utility can improve the management and rehabilitation of a water distribution network by using a distribution system database. Using the database can help to lower maintenance costs and can result in more efficient use of the water resource. The database can help the utility manager to set priorities and efficiently allocate rehabilitation funds (Habibian, 1992). A comprehensive database should include information on the following: The characteristics of the system's components, such as size, age, and material The condition of mains, such as corrosion Soil conditions or type Failure and leak records Water quality High/low pressure problems Operating records, such as pump and valve operations Customer complaints Meter data Operating and rehabilitation costs Water Reuse Another practice that should be considered by water system operators who operate publicly owned treatment works is the reuse of treated wastewater. As discussed earlier, water reuse [BROKEN] is the use of wastewater or reclaimed water from one application for another application. Some potential applications for water reuse

include landscape irrigation, agricultural irrigation, aesthetic uses such as fountains, industrial uses, and fire protection (USEPA, l991a). These factors should be considered in a water reuse program: The identification of water reuse opportunities The determination of the minimum water quality needed for the given use The identification of wastewater sources that satisfy the water quality requirements The determination of how the water can be transported to the new use (Brown and Caldwell, 1990) Well Capping Well capping is the capping of abandoned artesian wells whose rusted casings spill water in a constant flow into drainage ditches. In Seminole County, Florida, state hydrologists estimate that 1,500 abandoned artesian wells are discharging 54 Mgal/d. To put that in perspective, utilities in Seminole County pump less than 40 Mgal/d. The cost to plug such wells is about $750 (1990 dollars) per well. The state legislature has required that all such wells be capped beginning in 1993 (Florida Commission, 1990). Planning and Management Practices In addition to engineering practices, system operators can use several other practices to conserve water or improve water use efficiency. Pricing Information and education promoting conservation do not appear to be effective by themselves in achieving a conservation goal without at the same time imposing significant price increases to provide a financial incentive to conserve water (Martin and Kulakowski, 1991). Customers use less water when they have to pay more for it and use more when they know they can afford it. However, most people consider water to be a "free good" and are not willing to pay higher prices that reflect the true costs associated with the water delivered to their homes. Rate structures have the advantage of avoiding the costs of overt regulation, restrictions, and policing while retaining a greater degree of individual freedom of choice for water customers. Overall charges for water service increased at an average compound rate of 7 percent per year during the 1980s nearly double the rate of inflation (Russet and Woodcock, 1992). There is concern over "price gouging" due to increased water rates (Collinge, 1992). Some pricing has been objected to on the grounds that it can lead to a substantial excess of revenues over costs an excess that might be inequitable and, in some states, unconstitutional (Collinge, 1992).

Water utility managers must establish and design water rates that meet revenue requirements and are fair and equitable to all customer classes in the water system. This task involves the following procedures: Determination of the water utility's total annual revenue requirements for the period for which the rates are to be in effect Determination of service costs by allocation of the total annual revenue requirements to the basic water system cost components and distribution of these costs to the various customer classes in accordance with their service requirements Design of water rates to recover the cost of service from each class of customer (Mui et al., 1991) Several price rate structuring alternatives are available for water system operators. Increasing Block Rate, or Tiered, Pricing. Increasing block rate, or tiered, pricing reduces water use by increasing per-unit charges for water as the amount used increases. For example, the first volume of water (block) used is charged a base rate, the second block is charged the base rate plus a surcharge, and the third block is charged the base rate plus a higher surcharge. It is necessary to increase real prices significantly to overcome the effects of conservation (Martin and Kulakowski, l991). For example, as the cost of water increased in Tucson, Arizona, residents used 33 percent less water between 1974 and 1980. A 10 percent increase in water rates provided about 3 percent more revenue while triggering a 7 percent reduction in use (Billings and Day, 1989). Using seasonal increasing block rate pricing during summer and winter months, to encourage year-round conservation, resulted in estimated water savings for the single-family residential class in Tucson of an average 2.23 Mgal/d during 1983-1986 (Cuthbert, 1989). Decreasing Block Rate Pricing. Decreasing block rate prices reflect per-unit costs of production and delivery that go down as customers consume more water. The monthly water use records of 101 customers were measured in a study of municipal water use in the city of Denton, Texas. Summer water use records from 1976 to 1980 during a decreasing block rate period were compared to summer use records from 1981 to 1985 during an increasing block rate period. It was found that the decreasing block rate scenario encouraged greater water use, whereas the increasing block rate scenario resulted in a reaction to the price increase and a corresponding decrease in water use (Nieswiadomy and Molina, 1989). Time-of-Day Pricing. Time-of-day pricing charges users relatively higher prices during a utility's peak use periods. Because customers are sensitive to price increases, these charges curtail demand. Time-of-day pricing can cut generating capacity and reduce reliance on expensive secondary fuel sources (Sexton et al., 1989).

Water Surcharges. A water surcharge imposes a higher rate on excessive water use. The customer pays more money per gallon for water use that is considered higherthan-average. Surcharges include unit surcharges, winter/ summer ratios, and alternative seasonal rates. The unit surcharge method establishes a threshold level for excess consumption based on average daily per capita or per-household consumption. A surcharge is imposed for all water use above that threshold level. For the winter/summer ratio, metered water use during the winter period is compared to consumption during the corresponding summer period, and a higher rate or surcharge is imposed for water consumption above the average winter use. Typically, an increase in usage of 14-20 percent occurs during the summer. Under an alternative seasonal rate structure, all water used during the summer or peak season is billed at a higher rate than that used during the other seasons. The increased rate is applied to all customers at all water-use levels (Schlette and Kemp, 1991). Retrofit Programs Retrofit programs are another tool system operators can use to promote water use efficiency practices. Retrofitting involves the replacement of existing plumbing equipment with equipment that uses less water. The most successful water-saving fixtures are those which operate in the same manner as the fixtures they are replacing--for example, toilet tank inserts, shower flow restrictors, and low-flow showerheads. (For more information, refer to the practices for residential users.) As discussed previously, retrofit programs are permanent, one-time conservation measures that can be implemented with little or no additional cost over their lifetimes (Jensen, 1991). A retrofit program can involve the use of education programs to let users know which fixtures are best, where to get them, and how to install them. System operators can also purchase water-efficient fixtures and resell them at cost to the users, but the most successful retrofit programs have been those in which the system operator purchases, distributes, and installs the fixtures (AWWA, n.d.). Retrofit programs have been shown to be cost-effective and useful in conserving water in many cases. An apartment building in New England with 151 units was retrofitted with low-flow showerheads and faucet aerators at a cost of $1,074. As a result of the retrofit 1,725,000 gallons of water, $8,590 for energy, and $980 for water were saved in 1 year (AWWA, n.d.). In another retrofit program, the Lower Colorado River Authority installed low-flow showerheads and toilet dams in an apartment complex and public housing program in Marble Falls, Texas. Indoor per capita water use was reduced by 21 percent (from 81 to 64 gal/cap/day) in the apartment complex and was reduced 11 percent (from 102 to 91 gal/cap/day) in the public housing program (Jensen, 1991).

Current use of low-flow toilets throughout Texas could reduce the need to build new water and wastewater treatment plants by 15 percent, resulting in a savings of as much as $3.4 billion during the next 50 years. Residential water and sewer bills could also be reduced by as much as $200 million over the long term. The Texas Water Development Board estimates that the use of water-efficient plumbing fixtures should save a typical four-member household 55,800 gallons of water and $627 in reduced water and energy costs per year. The Board estimates that the use of low-flow fixtures might reduce water use statewide by 805 Mgal/d by the year 2040 (Jensen, 1991). Retrofit programs can be combined with water audit programs (discussed below) to further improve potential water savings. Residential Water Audit Programs Residential water audit programs involve sending trained water auditors to participating family homes, free of charge, to encourage water conservation efforts. Auditors visit participating homes to identify water conservation opportunities, such as repairing leaks and low-flow plumbing, and to recommend changes in water use practices to reduce home water use. The audit programs[BROKEN] try to stretch existing water supplies by getting water users to use water more efficiently (Whitcomb, 1990). The largest percentage of indoor use comes from bathing and toilet flushing. Therefore, the bathroom is an ideal place for water system operators to focus water conservation efforts (Grisham and Fleming, 1989). Public Education Public education [BROKEN] programs can be used to inform the public about the basics of water use efficiency: How water is delivered to them The costs of water service Why water conservation is important How they can participate in conservation efforts Public education is an essential component of a successful water conservation program. A number of tools can be used to educate the public [BROKEN]: bill inserts, feature articles and announcements in the news media, workshops, booklets, posters and bumper stickers, and the distribution of water-saving devices. Public school education is also an important means for instilling water conservation awareness (Grisham and Fleming, 1989). Another way to provide public information and education, as well as to collect realworld data on water conservation and use efficiency, is through the use of demonstration projects. In Tucson, Arizona, the Casa del Agua, a single-family home, has been used to demonstrate and study water conservation and reuse

techniques and technologies. In 1985, the University of Arizona designed and retrofitted the Casa del Agua with water-conserving fixtures, a rainwater harvesting system, gray water reuse and storage systems, and drought-tolerant plants. Measurements of water use and water quality at the Casa del Agua have provided a useful collection of data for evaluating the possible benefits of conservation techniques and technologies in a residential home (Karpiscak et al., 1991). A study of water demand in the United States using American Water Works Association (AWWA) data indicated that water users are more sensitive to a change in price in the South and the West than in the other regions of the country. Public education appears to have reduced water usage in the West. A heightened awareness of water's scarcity might make educational programs more effective in the West than in the rest of the country (Nieswiadomy, 1992). Index of Water Efficiency An index of water efficiency, or "W-Index," can be used as a device to evaluate residential water savings and as a way to motivate water users to adopt watersaving practices. A W-Index can serve as a measure of the effectiveness of water efficiency features in a home. The index provides a calculated numerical value for each dwelling unit, which is derived from the number and kind of water-saving features present, including indoor and outdoor water savers and water harvesting or recycling systems. Architects, builders, appraisers, homeowners, water suppliers, or water management agencies can use the W-Index as a basis for evaluating the water-saving capability of any particular single- or multi-family dwelling unit (DeCook et al., 1988). Typically, an overall W-Index rating of W-50 would be considered fair, W-80 good, and W-110 excellent, based on a specific set of community water conservation goals (DeCook et al., 1988). The W-Index has been applied to the Casa del Agua, the Tucson, Arizona, water conservation demonstration home discussed in the preceding section. The Casa del Agua received a value of W-139. The index was applied to about 30 other homes in the Tucson area, with resulting values ranging from W-75 to W-100. Planning for Resource Protection Monitoring and managing land use and waste disposal practices around water supply sources can potentially reduce the need for new water supply development and keep water treatment costs to a minimum (Gollnitz, 1988). Adverse effects on a water supply source can be lessened through land use controls such as land preservation, nonregulatory and regulatory watershed programs, environmental assessment requirements, and zoning (Gollnitz, 1988). The protection of a water

source by a utility can range from simple sanitary surveys of a watershed to the development and implementation of complex land use controls. Water supply source protection should play an important role in the overall management of a municipal water utility. Contamination of a water source can result from point and nonpoint sources of pollution such as chemical spills, waste discharges, or the improper use and runoff of insecticides and herbicides. The contamination of a water supply source can result in the need to develop expensive treatment systems or to find new sources for water supply. Drought Management Planning When less rain falls than usual, there is less water to maintain normal soil moisture, stream flows, and reservoir levels and to recharge ground water. Falling levels of surface waters create unattractive areas of exposed shoreline and reduce the capacity of surface waters to dilute and carry municipal and industrial wastewater. Water quality often decreases as water quantity decreases, adversely affecting fish and wildlife habitats. In addition, dry conditions make trees more prone to insect damage and disease and increase the potential for grass and forest fires (TVA, n.d.). A drought management plan [BROKEN] should address a range of issues, from political and technical matters to public involvement. Managing a resource essential to people's welfare during disaster and dealing with the associated emotional, economic, and physical consequences makes drought management a very challenging task.

Water. We need water every time now and then. Water conservation has become an essential practice in all regions, even in areas where water seems abundant. In addition to saving money on your utility bill, water conservation helps prevent water pollution in nearby lakes, rivers and local watersheds. Conserving water can also extend the life of your septic system by reducing soil saturation, and reducing any pollution due to leaks. Overloading municipal sewer systems can also cause untreated sewage to flow to lakes and rivers. The smaller the amount of water flowing through these systems, the lower the likelihood of pollution. In some communities, costly sewage system expansion has been avoided by communitywide household water conservation. The followings are tips for water conservation at our house and yard..... 1. Check faucets and pipes for leaks

A small drip from a worn faucet washer can waste 20 gallons of water per day. Larger leaks can waste hundreds of gallons. 2. Don't use the toilet as an ashtray or wastebasket Every time you flush a cigarette butt, facial tissue or other small bit of trash, five to seven gallons of water is wasted. 3. Check your toilets for leaks Put a little food coloring in your toilet tank. If, without flushing, the color begins to appear in the bowl within 30 minutes, you have a leak that should be repaired immediately. Most replacement parts are inexpensive and easy to install. 4. Use your water meter to check for hidden water leaks Read the house water meter before and after a two-hour period when no water is being used. If the meter does not read exactly the same, there is a leak. 5. Install water-saving shower heads and low-flow faucet aerators Inexpensive water-saving low-flow shower heads or restrictors are easy for the homeowner to install. Also, long, hot showers can use five to ten gallons every unneeded minute. Limit your showers to the time it takes to soap up, wash down and rinse off. "Low-flow" means it uses less than 2.5 gallons per minute. You can easily install a ShowerStart showerhead, or add a ShowerStart converter to existing showerheads, which automatically pauses a running shower once it gets warm. Also, all household faucets should be fit with aerators. This single best home water conservation method is also the cheapest! 6. Put plastic bottles or float booster in your toilet tank To cut down on water waste, put an inch or two of sand or pebbles inside each of two plastic bottles to weigh them down. Fill the bottles with water, screw the lids on, and put them in your toilet tank, safely away from the operating mechanisms. Or, buy an inexpensive tank bank or float booster. This may save ten or more gallons of water per day. Be sure at least 3 gallons of water remain in the tank so it will flush properly. For new installations, consider buying "low flush" toilets, which use 1 to 2 gallons per flush instead of the usual 3 to 5 gallons. Replacing an 18 liter per flush toilet with an ultra-low volume (ULV) 6 liter flush model represents a 70% savings in water flushed and will cut indoor water use by about 30%. 7. Insulate your water pipes. It's easy and inexpensive to insulate your water pipes with pre-slit foam pipe insulation. You'll get hot water faster plus avoid wasting water while it heats up.

8. Take shorter showers. One way to cut down on water use is to turn off the shower after soaping up, then turn it back on to rinse. A four-minute shower uses approximately 20 to 40 gallons of water. 9. Turn off the water after you wet your toothbrush There is no need to keep the water running while brushing your teeth. Just wet your brush and fill a glass for mouth rinsing. 10. Rinse your razor in the sink Fill the sink with a few inches of warm water. This will rinse your razor just as well as running water, with far less waste of water. 11. Use your dishwasher and clothes washer for only full loads Automatic dishwashers and clothes washers should be fully loaded for optimum water conservation. Most makers of dish washing soap recommend not pre-rinsing dishes which is a big water savings. With clothes washers, avoid the permanent press cycle, which uses an added 20 liters (5 gallons) for the extra rinse. For partial loads, adjust water levels to match the size of the load. Replace old clothes washers. New Energy Star rated washers use 35 - 50% less water and 50% less energy per load. If you're in the market for a new clothes washer, consider buying a water-saving front load washer. 12. Minimize use of kitchen sink garbage disposal units In-sink 'garburators' require lots of water to operate properly, and also add considerably to the volume of solids in a septic tank which can lead to maintenance problems. Start a compost pile as an alternate method of disposing food waste. 13. When washing dishes by hand, don't leave the water running for rinsing If your have a double-basin, fill one with soapy water and one with rinse water. If you have a single-basin sink, gather washed dishes in a dish rack and rinse them with a spray device or a panful of hot water. Dual-swivel aerators are available to make this easier. If using a dishwasher, there is usually no need to pre-rinse the dishes. 14. Don't let the faucet run while you clean vegetables Just rinse them in a stoppered sink or a pan of clean water. Use a dual-setting aerator. 15. Keep a bottle of drinking water in the fridge. Running tap water to cool it off for drinking water is wasteful. Store drinking water in the fridge in a safe drinking bottle.

water conservation in the yard and garden... 16. Plant drought-resistant lawns, shrubs and plants If you are planting a new lawn, or over seeding an existing lawn, use droughtresistant grasses such as the new "Eco-Lawn". Many beautiful shrubs and plants thrive with far less watering than other species. Replace herbaceous perennial borders with native plants. Native plants will use less water and be more resistant to local plant diseases. Consider applying the principles of xeriscape for a low-maintenance, drought resistant yard. Plant slopes with plants that will retain water and help reduce runoff. Group plants according to their watering needs. 17. Put a layer of mulch around trees and plants Mulch will slow evaporation of moisture while discouraging weed growth. Adding 2 4 inches of organic material such as compost or bark mulch will increase the ability of the soil to retain moisture. Press the mulch down around the drip line of each plant to form a slight depression which will prevent or minimize water runoff. For information about different mulch materials and their best use, click here. 18. Don't water the gutter Position your sprinklers so water lands on the lawn or garden, not on paved areas. Also, avoid watering on windy days. 19. Water your lawn only when it needs it A good way to see if your lawn needs watering is to step on the grass. If it springs back up when you move, it doesn't need water. If it stays flat, the lawn is ready for watering. Letting the grass grow taller (to 3") will also promote water retention in the soil. 20. Deep-soak your lawn When watering the lawn, do it long enough for the moisture to soak down to the roots where it will do the most good. A light sprinkling can evaporate quickly and tends to encourage shallow root systems. Put an empty tuna can on your lawn when it's full, you've watered about the right amount. Visit our natural lawn care page for more information. 21. Water during the early parts of the day; avoid watering when it's windy Early morning is generally better than dusk since it helps prevent the growth of fungus. Early watering, and late watering, also reduce water loss to evaporation. Watering early in the day is also the best defence against slugs and other garden pests. Try not to water when it's windy - wind can blow sprinklers off target and speed evaporation.

22. Add organic matter and use efficient watering systems for shrubs, flower beds and lawns Adding organic material to your soil will help increase its absorption and water retention. Areas which are already planted can be 'top dressed' with compost or organic matter. You can greatly reduce the amount of water used for shrubs, beds and lawns by: - the strategic placement of soaker hoses - installing a rain barrel water catchment system - installing a simple drip-irrigation system Avoid over-watering plants and shrubs, as this can actually diminish plant health and cause yellowing of the leaves. When hand watering, use a variable spray nozzle for targeted watering. 23. Don't run the hose while washing your car Clean the car using a pail of soapy water. Use the hose only for rinsing - this simple practice can save as much as 150 gallons when washing a car. Use a spray nozzle when rinsing for more efficient use of water. Better yet, use a waterless car washing system; there are several brands, such as EcoTouch, which are now on the market. 24. Use a broom, not a hose, to clean driveways and sidewalks 25. Check for leaks in pipes, hoses, faucets and couplings Leaks outside the house may not seem as bad since they're not as visible. But they can be just as wasteful as leaks indoors. Check frequently to keep them drip-free. Use hose washers at spigots and hose connections to eliminate leaks. Water conservation comes naturally when everyone in the family is aware of its importance, and parents take the time to teach children some of the simple watersaving methods around the home which can make a big difference.

Water Use Checklist There are a number of simple steps that homeowners can take to reduce home water use without significant up front investment.

Audit your Water Use

Home water audit To conduct a home water audit yourself, or with help from a professional, consult your utility company. Many water providers will conduct home water audits for free or will provide you with home water audit kits at little or no cost! If using instructions from the Internet, be sure the source is reputable and trustworthy.

Monitor your water bills Monitor your water bill for unusually high use. Your bill and water meter are tools that can help you discover leaks.

Fix Leaks

Indoor leaks You can significantly reduce water use by simply repairing leaks or drips in fixturesfaucets and showerheads-or pipes. Also, if your water heater's tank leaks, you may need a new water heater

Outdoor leaks Don't forget to periodically check the outdoor hoses, sprinklers, and faucets for leaks. Also, remember to keep the sprinkler heads in good shape.

Smarter Appliances and Fixtures

Fixtures Low flow fixtures, including faucet aerators and low-flow showerheads, are generally inexpensive to replace and are one of the most cost-effective water conservation

measures. Consider EPA WaterSense-labeled aerators, faucets, and showerheads for improved efficiency without sacrificing performance.

Toilet Older toilets, manufactured before the 1992 Energy Policy Act mandated more water efficient versions, use up to 3.5 gallons per flush, and are responsible for much of the water wasted in American homes. Consider installing a WaterSense labeled toilet, which uses less water (a maximum of 1.3 gallons per flush), while offering equal or superior performance.

Appliances To save water and energy, consider a high-efficiency ENERGYSTAR labeled model when purchasing a new dishwasher or washing machine. Also, consider appliances that offer cycle and load size adjustments, which are more water and energy efficient.

Use Only the Water you Need

Everyday activities Always use only the water you need. Do not let faucets or sprinklers run unnecessarily. For instance, turn the water off while you brush your teeth or shave. Also, when washing dishes by hand, don't let the water run while rinsing.

Appliance use Wash only full loads in your dishwasher and washing machine; or set the water level for the size of your load, if possible, to use less water.

Reuse Water

Water reuse in the home

Don't pour water down the drain when there may be another use for it. For instance, when you give your pet fresh water, reuse the old water for your houseplants.

Rainwater collection Rain barrels are mosquito-proof containers that collect and store rainwater that would otherwise wind up in storm drains and streams. Rain water can be used to irrigate lawn and garden areas, which make up a large amount of total household water use during the summer.

Lawn & Garden with Care

Lawns Reduce the amount of lawn in your yard by re-naturalizing certain areas. For instance, consider lawn alternatives (i.e. native shrubs or groundcover) for steep slopes, isolated strips, shady areas or near streams and lakes, where it takes a lot of extra work to maintain grass. Only use turf where it aesthetically highlights the house or buildings and where it has practical function, such as in play or recreation areas. Select a type of grass that can withstand drought periods and become dormant during hot, dry seasons.

Plantings Plant native or drought tolerant grasses, ground covers, shrubs, and trees. Group plants with similar watering needs together to avoid overwatering some while underwatering others. Also, use a layer of organic mulch around plants to reduce evaporation, retain moisture, reduce weed growth, and save water, time and money.

Watering practices Water your lawn during the coolest part of the day; and don't water your lawn on windy days when most of the water blows away or evaporates. Also, avoid overwatering. Most of the year, lawns only need one inch of water per week, and a

heavy rain eliminates the need for watering for up to two weeks. Apply water only as fast as the soil can absorb it.

Irrigation system Use soaker hoses or drip irrigation for shrubs and trees to apply water directly to the roots where it's needed. If you decide to use a sprinkler, look for models that produce droplets, not mist, and set them to water lawns and gardens only. Also, install a rain sensor on any automatic irrigation so your system won't run when it's raining.

Outdoor Activities:

Pool and recreation Install a water-saving pool filter. When backflushing your pool, consider using the water on your landscaping. Also, try to cover pools and spas to reduce evaporation of water. Avoid using recreational water toys and ornamental water features (i.e. fountains) that require a constant stream of water, unless they use recycled water.

Car washing Use a commercial car wash that recycles water. If you wash your own car, use a shut-off nozzle that can be adjusted down to a fine spray on your hose, or use water from a bucket.

Conserving Water Did you know that less than 1% of all the water on Earth can be used by people? The rest is salt water (the kind you find in the ocean) or is frozen. Communities across the country are starting to face challenges in maintaining healthy and affordable water supplies; that's why it's more important than ever to use our water

wisely and not waste it. In addition, it takes large amounts of energy to produce and transport clean water and to process waste water. A typical household uses approximately 260 gallons of water every day. We can reduce this amount and save money by using water more efficiently -- detecting and fixing leaky faucets, installing high efficiency clothes washers and toilets, and watering the lawn and garden with the minimum amount of water needed. Water-Efficient Appliances and Fixtures Landscaping and Irrigation Managing Stormwater Water Use and Energy Home Maintenance and Household Practices New Homes

For the Water Use Checklist, please click here Water-Efficient Appliances and Fixtures Most of us know we can save water if we turn off the tap while brushing our teeth (as much as 3,000 gallons per year!), but did you know that there are products that will help save water when the tap is on? WaterSense and ENERGYSTAR, programs sponsored by EPA, have identified high-performance, water-efficient appliances, fixtures, water systems, and accessories that reduce water use in the home and help preserve the nation's water resources. By saving water, you also save energy; the link is discussed in detail here. Look for the WaterSense Label WaterSense, a partnership program sponsored by EPA, seeks to protect the future of our nation's water supply by promoting water efficiency and enhancing the market for water-efficient products, programs, and practices. As communities across the country begin facing challenges regarding water supply and water infrastructure, WaterSense can help consumers identify water-efficient products and programs. The WaterSense label tells the consumer that products and programs that carry the label meet water efficiency and performance criteria, and will help save water, money, and energy.

For more information on EPA's WaterSense program, as well as water saving tips, go to: http://www.epa.gov/watersense/index.htm Toilets

Although they take a bit more attention than ordinary toilets, composting toilets can help conserve water and energy, reduce water pollution, and may generate useful garden compost. Check to see if composting toilets are allowed under your local building codes. Toilets are by far the main source of water use in the home, accounting for nearly 30 percent of residential indoor water consumption. Toilets also happen to be a major source of wasted water due to leaks and inefficiency. Older toilets, manufactured before 1992 when the Energy Policy Act mandated water efficient toilets, use up to 3.5 gallons per flush. Replacing these toilets with WaterSense labeled toilets could save nearly 2 billion gallons per day across the country. Switching to high-efficiency toilets can save a family of four, on average, $2,000 in water bills over the lifetime of the toilets. There are a number of high-efficiency toilet options, including dual flush technology. Dual flush toilets have two flush volumes-a full flush for solids and a reduced flush for liquids only. Whether you're remodeling a bathroom, building a new home, or simply replacing an old, leaky toilet, a WaterSense labeled toilet is a high-performing, water-efficient option worth considering. Composting toilets are another option for those who want to be very green. Composting toilets have been an established technology for more than 30 years,

and recent advances have made them easy to use and similar in look and feel to regular toilets. As they require little to no water, composting toilet systems can provide a solution to sanitation and environmental problems in unsewered, rural, and suburban areas. For more information on water efficient toilets for your home, go to: http://www.epa.gov/watersense/pp/het.htm http://www.epa.gov/owmitnet/pdfs/comp.pdf Faucets and Showerheads Faucets Faucets account for more than 15 percent of indoor household water use-more than 1 trillion gallons of water across the United States each year. WaterSense labeled bathroom sink faucets and accessories can reduce a sink's water flow by 30 percent or more without sacrificing performance. If every household in the United States installed WaterSense labeled bathroom sink faucets or faucet accessories, we could save more than $350 million in water utility bills and more than 60 billion gallons of water annually-enough to meet public water demand in a city the size of Miami for more than 150 days! If you are not in the market for a new faucet, consider replacing the aerator in your older faucet with a more efficient one. The aerator-the screw-on tip of the faucetultimately determines the maximum flow rate of a faucet. Aerators are inexpensive to replace and are an effective water-efficiency measure. Also keep in mind that you can significantly reduce water use by simply repairing leaks in fixtures-toilets, faucets, and showerheads-or pipes. Showerheads Showering accounts for approximately 17 percent of residential indoor water use in the United States-more than 1.2 trillion gallons of water consumed each year. You can purchase quality, high-efficiency shower fixtures for around $10 to $20 a piece and achieve water savings of 25-60 percent. Select a high-efficiency showerhead with a flow rate of less than 2.5 gpm (gallons per minute) for maximum water efficiency. Before 1992, some showerheads had flow rates of 5.5 gpm, so you might want to replace older models if you're not sure of the flow rate.

For more information on water-efficient faucets, showerheads, and accessories, got to: http://www.epa.gov/watersense/pubs/ws_bathroom_faucets.htm http://www.epa.gov/WaterSense/pp/showerheads.htm Appliances If all U.S. households installed water-efficient appliances, the country would save more than 3 trillion gallons of water and more than $18 billion dollars per year! For instance, the average washing machine uses about 41 gallons of water per load, and is the second largest water user in your home. High-efficiency washing machines use 35 to 50 percent less water, as well as 50 percent less energy per load. If you are in the market for a new dishwasher or clothes washer, consider buying an efficient, water-saving ENERGY STAR model to reduce water and energy use. To save more water, look for a clothes washer with a low water factor. A water factor is the number of gallons per cycle per cubic foot that a clothes washer uses. So, if a washer uses 18 gallons per cycle and has a tub volume of 3.0 cubic feet, then the water factor is 6.0. The lower the water factor, the more efficient the washer is. For more information on water- and energy-efficient appliances, go to: http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=appliances.pr_appliances http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/water_heating/index.cfm/mytopi c=13050 Hot Water Systems Water heating is the third largest energy expense in your home. It typically accounts for about 13% of your utility bill, and can account for 14%-25% of the energy consumed in your home. You can reduce your monthly water heating bills by selecting the appropriate water heater for your home or pool-such as tankless, heat pump, or solar hot water heaters-and by using some energy-efficient water heating strategies. If your water heater's tank leaks, you may need a new water heater. If you are not in the market for a new hot water heater, consider installing an insulation blanket on your water heater tank, and insulate at least the first 3 to 6 feet of the hot and cold water pipes connected to the water heater. When installing a hot water heater insulation blanket: For electric hot-water storage tanks, be careful not to cover the thermostat.

For natural gas or oil hot-water storage tanks, be careful not to cover the water heater's top, bottom, thermostat, or burner compartment. Always make sure to follow the manufacturer's recommendations

These strategies will help get hot water to you faster, saving thousands of gallons of water per year in each household. For more information on energy efficient hot water heaters, go to: Efficient Hot Water Systems and Strategies Top of page

Landscaping and Irrigation Of the 26 billion gallons of water consumed daily in the United States, approximately 7.8 billion gallons, or 30 percent, is devoted to outdoor uses. The majority of this is used for irrigation. In the summer, the amount of water used outdoors by a household can exceed the amount used for all other purposes in the entire year. This is especially true in hot, dry climates. Many people believe that stunning gardens and beautiful lawns are only possible through extensive watering, fertilization, and pesticide application. However, eyecatching gardens and landscapes that save water, prevent pollution, and protect the environment are, in fact, easily achieved. The following are some water-efficient landscaping and irrigation methods. Landscaping Choose climate-appropriate, drought-tolerant, and native/adapted plant species The typical suburban lawn consumes 10,000 gallons of water above and beyond rainwater each year. Using native plants and landscape designs that optimize local conditions can reduce irrigation water use, as well as reduce soil erosion, lower maintenance costs, and preserve natural resources. By making your landscape a GreenScape, you can save time and money by eliminating unnecessary watering. Select plants that grow well in your area of the country and are appropriate given the amount of sun, rainfall, and soil type. Because native plants are adapted to local soils and climatic conditions, they typically do not require fertilizers, and are more resistant to pests and disease. In

most climate zones, it makes sense to use low-water plants to save the time and expense of watering. Also, focus on preserving as many existing trees and shrubs as possible because established plants usually require less water and maintenance. When selecting plants, avoid those labeled "hard to establish," "susceptible to disease," or "needs frequent attention," as these types of plants frequently require greater amounts of supplemental water, fertilizers, and pesticides. Be careful when selecting non-indigenous species, as some of them may be invasive. An invasive plant might be a water guzzler and will surely choke out native species. Reduce turf grass areas How and where turf is placed in the landscape has a significant impact on the amount of irrigation water needed to support the landscape. Lawns require a large amount of supplemental water and generally more intensive maintenance than other vegetation. Use turf grass where it aesthetically highlights your house and where it has a practical function, such as in play or recreation areas. Grouping turf areas can increase watering efficiency and significantly reduce evaporative and runoff losses. Select a type of grass that can withstand drought periods and become dormant during hot, dry seasons. Consider replacing Kentucky blue grass (the most common turf outside of the Southern U.S.) with low water grasses. There are now many options widely available that demand up to 2/3 less water. Appropriate amounts of water and the natural dormant periods mean the grass will go brown during the summer, but watering it once a month will allow it to spring back later. Plant shrubs, trees and other vegetation in place of lawns or bare, eroding areas Trees, shrubs, or other leafy plants help absorb, intercept and slow down rainfall, thereby reducing runoff. After a rainfall, large quantities of water are retained on the surface of leaves in the form of droplets. Subsequently, plants help control storm water runoff. Plants also absorb carbon dioxide (a principle greenhouse gas), and they help cool the earth's surface; both functions help to reduce global warming. Re-naturalize your lawn or xeriscape In many areas of the country, including the Northeast, Mid-Atlantic, Midwest, and Pacific Northwest, you can convert areas of your lawn to a more natural landscape by allowing the area to grow as it would if the lawn were not there. Don't mow, fertilize or apply pesticides. Don't rake leaves. Spread mulch if you want to help kill back the grass within the naturalizing area. With time (2-5 years), this will allow

native plants to take root, re-establish their presence through succession, as well as help restore natural habitat. This also means you'll use less fertilizer and pesticides and you won't have to mow the re-naturalized area! Although the re-naturalized area may not appear very attractive for a while (and a neighbor may even raise a comment or two), it can help to spread mulch and plant some ornamental plants appropriate for your climate to give the re-naturalizing area a garden-like appearance as it gets established. You can do as much of this as you wish to achieve a happy balance between a totally natural look and a garden look. Once the native vegetation has replaced the lawn, small shrubs, vines, bushes, trees and other natural vegetation will dominate and create a maintenance-free portion of your yard. Eventually the vegetation will grow thick and dense and provide a nice visual screen or green buffer between your home and surrounding properties when leafed-out. Re-naturalized areas help to absorb rainwater better than lawns and can lead to less storm water runoff from your property. Once you have achieved the desired size of the re-naturalized area, you can encircle it with field stone or other edging materials, if you wish. Also consider re-naturalizing areas with steep slopes, shade, or along streams and lakes, where it takes a lot of extra work to maintain grass. Leaving, or creating, a "buffer" of dense native vegetation along streams and lakes will filter and slow runoff, shade and cool the water, provide homes for wildlife, and prevent stream bank erosion. In arid parts of the country such as the West, Southwest, and Rocky Mountain regions, consider xeriscaping, a cost-effective and increasing popular landscaping option. Xeriscaping takes many forms but is defined as landscape design tailored to withstand drought conditions, by using draught tolerant plants and grouping plants with similar watering needs. Xeriscaped landscapes also require little or no fertilizer or pesticides, and have lower maintenance needs than lawns. For more information on water efficient landscaping, go to: http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/partnerships/greenscapes/owners.htm http://www.epa.gov/watersense/docs/ws_watering508.pdf http://www.lrconline.com/Extension_Notes_English/pdf/Naturalize.pdf http://www.denverwater.org/cons_xeriscape/xeriscape/xeriscape_index.html

Water-Efficient Irrigation Systems and Practices With common watering practices, a large portion of the water applied to lawns and gardens is not absorbed by the plants. It is lost through evaporation, runoff, or by

watering too quickly or in excess of the plants' needs. Efficient irrigation systems and practices reduce these losses by applying only as much water as is needed to keep your plants and lawn healthy. Although not watering your lawn, garden, or other landscape is the most waterefficient practice, sometimes irrigation is necessary. Irrigating lawns, gardens, and landscapes can be accomplished either manually or with an automatic irrigation system. Manual watering - Manual watering with a hand-held hose tends to be the most water-efficient method, as households that manually water with a hose typically use 33 percent less water outdoors than those who use an automatic irrigation system. Households with automatic timers use 47 percent more water; those with in-ground sprinkler systems use 35 percent more water; and those with drip irrigation systems use 16 percent more water than households that manually water. Automatic irrigation systems - Drip-type irrigation systems, including water efficient spray heads, are considered the most efficient of the automated irrigation methods because they deliver water directly to the plants' roots. In-ground sprinkler and drip irrigation systems need to be operated and maintained properly to be water-efficient. Install system controllers such as rain sensors that prevent sprinklers from turning on during and immediately after rainfall, or soil moisture sensors that activate sprinklers only when soil moisture levels drop below pre-programmed levels. While controllers come in all types of shapes and sizes, the most important features are how well they can be programmed to handle diverse landscape and weather conditions. Consider purchasing one with a weather-based controller. It is also important to revise your watering schedule as the seasons change. Over-watering with automated sprinklers is most common during the spring and fall because irrigation schedules are set to summer watering needs. Irrigation Practices

Over-watering a lawn and adjacent paved areas not only consumes unnecessary water, but also wastes energy, since it takes energy to produce and distribute clean water to our homes. Did you know that watering too much or too little is the cause of many common plant health problems? You can have healthier plants, save money on water bills, and conserve precious water resources by learning to give your lawn and garden just what they need, and no more. Less is more - If you step on your lawn and the grass springs back, it does not need to be watered. In addition to wasting water, over-watering can increase leaching of fertilizers into ground water and can harm your lawn and plants. Watering plants too much and too frequently also results in shallow roots, weed growth, disease, and fungus. Familiarize yourself with the settings on your irrigation controller and adjust the watering schedule regularly to conform with seasonal weather conditions. Use alternative sources of water - To further reduce your water consumption, consider using alternative sources of irrigation water, such as gray water, reclaimed water, and collected rainwater via rain barrels. Most of the water we use to irrigate landscapes is treated, potable drinking water. By reducing the amount of drinking water used for landscape irrigation, we reduce the burden on water treatment facilities, which helps reduce the need for water treatment works expansion. Homes with access to alternative sources of irrigation water can reduce their water bills significantly. However, in some drought-prone localities, reclaiming water is not allowed; therefore, check with public health or municipal officials before using alternative sources of water. Information on local water regulations may be available on local government Web sites. Make every drop count - The typical single-family suburban household uses at least 30 percent of their water for irrigation. Some experts estimate that

more than 50 percent of landscape water goes to waste due to evaporation or runoff caused by over-watering. Easy ways to lower water bills and get more water to plants include: - Water in the early morning-if you water at mid-day, much of the water just evaporates. Evening watering should be avoided because it can encourage the growth of mold or plant diseases. - Water lawns separately from other plantings. Make sure sprinklers are not watering pavement. - Water new trees and shrubs longer and less frequently than shallow-rooted plants, which require smaller amounts of water more often. Use soaker hoses or drip irrigation systems for trees and shrubs. Note: Once established, trees and shrubs in many areas of the U.S. generally do not require any watering, exceptions being arid regions. - When using a hose, control the flow with an automatic shut-off nozzle. - Minimize or eliminate chemical fertilizing, which artificially promotes new growth that will need additional watering. - Raise your lawn mower cutting height - longer grass blades help shade each other, reduce evaporation, and inhibit weed growth. - When soil is dry or compacted, it won't absorb water quickly. If water puddles, stop watering until the water has time to soak in. - Amend your soil with compost and mulch to hold water and reduce evaporation. - When outdoor use of city or well water is restricted during a drought, use the leftover water from the bath or sink on plants or the garden. Don't use water that contains bleach, automatic-dishwashing detergent, fabric softener, or other chemicals. - In a dry spell, you can also allow an established lawn to go dormant in nonarid parts of the country. Water just once a month and brown areas of the lawn will bounce back in the fall. For more information on EPA's GreenScapes program for homeowners and WaterSense irrigation partners, go to: GreenScaping for homeowners Water- or sensor-based Irrigation controls Landscape irrigation services Water efficient irrigation brochure Top of page

Managing Stormwater Rain rushes off roofs, pavement and compacted soil in developed areas. This rush of stormwater causes flooding downstream, erodes soil and stream banks, and muddies the water, which harms fish and other wildlife. Stormwater picks up chemicals, debris, dirt, and other pollutants and flows into a storm sewer system or directly to a lake, stream, river, wetland, or coastal water. Anything that enters most storm sewer systems is discharged untreated into the waterbodies we use for swimming, fishing and providing drinking water. Reducing irrigation water use, in combination with reducing impervious surface areas and pollutants such as pesticides, helps to minimize the negative impacts of stormwater runoff. Let the Rain Soak In

Porous paving bricks and pervious parking areas can help reduce storm water runoff by allowing rainwater to soak into the ground. You can help slow runoff and help the soil hold the moisture plants need in summer by directing downspouts out into lawns, rain gardens, or rain barrels; and limiting impervious "hardscape" surfaces. Raingardens - Raingardens are landscaped areas designed to soak up rainwater from your roof, driveway, and/or lawn. These gardens collect rainwater runoff and filter and slowly release it into the ground, and typically can retain 30 percent more rainwater than a conventional patch of lawn. By reducing the volume and velocity of storm water runoff, rain gardens help reduce soil erosion, filter fine particulates, and capture fertilizer and excess nutrients that can pollute rivers and lakes. Planting

dense strips of native trees, shrubs and groundcovers next to streams, lakes and ditches helps to stabilize the soil and to slow and filter runoff. Mulch - Mulch is a layer of organic material like leaves, aged wood chips, or grass clippings that you spread around your plants. In the Rocky Mountains and Southwest, rock mulches are preferable. Mulch stabilizes soil temperature, prevents weeds, adds nutrients to the soil to help feed plants, and helps to conserve water. Mulch can be used in and around: - Flower beds and vegetable gardens - Trees, shrubs and woody perennials - Lawns - Mulch your lawn? Yes, you can "grasscycle" (leave the clippings on the lawn when mowing). The clippings quickly decompose and release valuable nutrients back into the soil to feed the grass, reducing the need for fertilizer by 25 to 50 percent. Compost - Compost helps sandy soils hold nutrients and water, loosens clay soils, and feeds the beneficial soil life so it can feed and protect your plants. You can make your own compost at home, or buy it in bags or bulk. Limit impervious surfaces - Use porous pavement, gravel paving blocks, or other pavement options that let rain seep into the soil, in place of asphalt and traditional concrete. Porous pavement is a special type of pavement that allows rain and snowmelt to pass through it, thereby reducing the runoff from a site and surrounding areas. In addition, porous pavement can filter pollutants from the runoff.

Rain gardens reduce stormwater runoff from roofs and impervious surfaces.

Capture Rainwater Another alternative is to collect rainwater from rooftops in rain barrels - mosquitoproof containers that collect and store rainwater that would otherwise wind up in storm drains and streams. Rain provides free "soft water" to homeownerscontaining no chlorine, lime or calcium-making it ideal for gardens, flower pots, and car and window washing. A rain barrel can also be used to collect water and store it for when you need it most-during periods of drought-to water plants, wash your car, or to top off a swimming pool. A rain barrel will save the average homeowner about 1,300 gallons of water during the peak summer months, or 40% of total household water use. In some drought-prone regions, rain barrels may not be legal, so check with local authorities before using them. Reduce fertilizer and pesticide use Chemical fertilizers and pesticides applied to lawns and gardens wash off and pollute streams and water bodies. In addition, yard clippings and leaves can wash into storm drains and contribute excessive nutrients and organic matter to the watershed. Use chemical pesticides and fertilizers sparingly and always in strict accordance with the application directions. Use compost and other non-toxic alternatives whenever possible. For more information about pesticide use in your lawn and garden, go to: http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/controlling/garden.htm.

Rain barrels are a cost-effective way to collect and store water for garden and lawn irrigation and other purposes. Check to see if rain barrels are permitted in your area.

For more information on managing stormwater around your home, go to: Stormwater overview GreenScaping Porous pavement Rain barrels Composting Top of page

Water Use and Energy You may wonder what water use and energy have to do with each other. In most cases, electricity or gas are used to heat water, and this costs you money. In addition, your water utility uses energy to purify and pump water to your home, as well as treat sewage generated by the community. Currently, about eight percent of U.S. energy demand goes to treating, pumping, and heating water, which is enough electricity to power more than 5 million homes for an entire year. Water heating also accounts for 19 percent of home energy use. By reducing your household water use, you not only reduce your water bill, but you also help to reduce the energy required to pump and treat public water supplies. In addition, by reducing water use and saving energy in the process, you are decreasing the amount of greenhouse gases produced to generate electricity, thereby helping to address climate change. In fact: If just 1 percent of American homes replaced an older toilet with a new WaterSense labeled toilet, the country would save more than 38 million kilowatt-hours of electricity-enough electricity to power more than 43,000 households for one month. If one out of every 100 American homes were retrofitted with water-efficient fixtures, we could save about 100 million kilowatt hours (kWh) of electricity per year-avoiding 80,000 tons of greenhouse gas emissions. That is equivalent to removing nearly 15,000 automobiles from the road for one year! If 20 percent of U.S. homes used high-efficiency clothes washers, national energy savings could be 285 billion BTUs per day - enough to supply the energy needs of over one million homes.

Water use and energy use are closely related!

For more information on how water use impacts your energy bills, go to: Benefits of water efficiency Water efficiency in the home Reduce hot water use for energy savings Saving water saves energy: make the drops-to-watts connection Top of page

Home Maintenance and Household Practices Below are home maintenance strategies and everyday household practices to help you conserve water. By making just a few small changes, you can save a significant amount of water, which will help you save money and preserve water supplies for current and future generations. Maintenance Inside the House Fix Leaks - You can significantly reduce water use by simply repairing leaks in fixtures (faucets and showerheads), pipes, and toilets. A leaky faucet wastes gallons of water in a short period of time. A leaky toilet can waste 200 gallons per day. That would be like flushing your toilet more than 50 times for no reason! If your water heater tank leaks, you may need a new water heater.

Lawn, Garden, and Outdoors Lawn and Garden Avoid over-watering your lawn or garden. Using moisture sensors to determine watering needs is a better strategy than using a fixed schedule or estimating watering needs based on rainfall. In addition to wasting water, over-watering can increase leaching of fertilizers into groundwater, and can harm your lawn and plants. Water new trees and shrubs longer and less frequently than shallow-rooted plants, which require smaller amounts of water more often. Use soaker hoses or drip irrigation systems for trees and shrubs. Position automatic sprinklers to water the lawn and garden only-not the street or sidewalk.

Water your lawn or garden during the coolest part of the day (early morning is best). Watering when it's hot and sunny is wasteful because most of the water evaporates before the plants have time to absorb it. Also avoid watering on windy days. When using a hose, control the flow with an automatic shut-off nozzle. Minimize or eliminate chemical fertilizing, which artificially promotes new growth that will need additional watering. Raise your lawn mower cutting height - longer grass blades help shade each other, reduce evaporation, and inhibit weed growth. When outdoor use of city or well water is restricted during a drought, use the leftover water from the bath or sink on plants or the garden. Don't use water that contains bleach, automatic-dishwashing detergent, fabric softener, or other chemicals. Incorporate compost into the soil to help improve water absorption and retention. Use mulch around shrubs and garden plants to reduce evaporation from the soil surface and to cut down on weed growth.

Other Outdoor Uses Wash your bike or car with a bucket and sponge instead of a hose to save water. A hose can waste 6 gallons per minute if you leave it running, but using a bucket and sponge only uses a few gallons. Alternatively, consider using a commercial car wash that recycles its water, rather than letting it run off into sewer drains. Use a pool cover to reduce evaporation when a pool is not being used. Consider purchasing a new water-saving swimming pool filter. Sweep driveways, sidewalks, and steps rather than hosing them off.

Daily Practices Bathroom Do not let water run unnecessarily. Letting your faucet run for five minutes while shaving or brushing teeth uses about as much energy as letting a 60watt light bulb run for 14 hours, and uses up to 8 gallons of water a day! Take short showers instead of tub baths. A shower only uses 10 to 25 gallons, while a bath takes up to 70 gallons! If you do take a bath, be sure to plug the drain right away and adjust the temperature as you fill the tub.

Kitchen and Laundry

Wash only full loads of laundry or dishes, and select the appropriate water level or load size option on the washing machine or dishwasher. Do not use water to defrost frozen foods; thaw foods in the refrigerator overnight. Scrape, rather than rinse, dishes before loading them into the dishwasher. Compost food waste instead of using the garbage disposal or throwing it in the trash. Keep drinking water in the refrigerator instead of letting the faucet run until the water is cool.

For more information on household water conservation, go to: http://www.epa.gov/watersense/water/simple.htm http://www.epa.gov/watersense/pubs/res.htm New Homes Building or buying a new home is a big decision and the resulting environmental impacts can be big, too. But soon it will be easy to make water-efficient choices just by looking for the EPA WaterSense label when you build or buy a new home. WaterSense labeled new homes will be designed to reduce water consumption by incorporating the latest water-saving technologies that meet criteria for both reducing indoor and outdoor water use, and by educating homeowners about water efficiency. On average, a WaterSense labeled new home will be designed to use about 20 percent less water per year than similar new homes today. Stay tuned for the latest news about WaterSense New Homes by visiting the WaterSense Web site. If you're building a new home, consider the following ways to save water and money on your utility bills: Install a pressure-regulating valve to reduce the pressure of water entering your house to 60 pounds per square inch (psi). This helps with leaks, saves water and money, and can lower the chance of damage from burst pipes. Insulate hot water pipes. This gets hot water to the user quicker, reducing the amount of water wasted and decreasing your utility bills. Design the hot water system to minimize the distance between the hot water heater and each fixture (faucets, showers, appliances). Two systems that can help are recirculating and manifold systems, or you can accomplish

this by centrally locating the water heater instead of putting it in a garage or other far away area of the home. Install WaterSense labeled fixtures, which perform as well as or better than their less efficient counterparts. Install ENERGY STAR qualified appliances, and look for a clothes washer with a water factor of 6 or less.

100 Ways To Conserve

There are a number of ways to save water, and they all start with you.

#2 When washing dishes by hand, don't let the water run while rinsing. Fill one sink with wash water and the other with rinse water. #3 Some refrigerators, air conditioners and ice-makers are cooled with wasted flows of water. Consider upgrading with air-cooled appliances for significant water savings. #4 Adjust sprinklers so only your lawn is watered and not the house, sidewalk, or street. #5 Run your clothes washer and dishwasher only when they are full. You can save up to 1,000 gallons a month. #6 Choose shrubs and groundcovers instead of turf for hard-to-water areas such as steep slopes and isolated strips. #7 Install covers on pools and spas and check for leaks around your pumps. #8

Use the garbage disposal sparingly. Compost vegetable food waste instead and save gallons every time. #9 Plant in the fall when conditions are cooler and rainfall is more plentiful.

For cold drinks keep a pitcher of water in the refrigerator instead of running the tap. This way, every drop goes down you and not the drain.

#11 Monitor your water bill for unusually high use. Your bill and water meter are tools that can help you discover leaks. #12 Water your lawn and garden in the morning or evening when temperatures are cooler to minimize evaporation. #13 Wash your fruits and vegetables in a pan of water instead of running water from the tap. #14 Spreading a layer of organic mulch around plants retains moisture and saves water, time and money. #15 Use a broom instead of a hose to clean your driveway and sidewalk and save water every time. #16 If your shower fills a one-gallon bucket in less than 20 seconds, replace the showerhead with a water-efficient model. #17 Collect the water you use for rinsing fruits and vegetables, then reuse it to water houseplants. #18 If water runs off your lawn easily, split your watering time into shorter periods to allow for better absorption. #19

We're more likely to notice leaks indoors, but don't forget to check outdoor faucets, sprinklers and hoses for leaks. #20 If you have an automatic refilling device, check your pool periodically for leaks. #21 Check the root zone of your lawn or garden for moisture before watering using a spade or trowel. If it's still moist two inches under the soil surface, you still have enough water. #22 When buying new appliances, consider those that offer cycle and load size adjustments. They're more water and energy efficient. #23 Shorten your shower by a minute or two and you'll save up to 150 gallons per month. #24 Upgrade older toilets with water efficient models. #25 Adjust your lawn mower to a higher setting. A taller lawn shades roots and holds soil moisture better than if it is closely clipped. #26 When cleaning out fish tanks, give the nutrient-rich water to your plants. #27 Use sprinklers for large areas of grass. Water small patches by hand to avoid waste.

Put food coloring in your toilet tank. If it seeps into the toilet bowl without flushing, you have a leak. Fixing it can save up to 1,000 gallons a month.

#29 When running a bath, plug the tub before turning the water on, then adjust the temperature as the tub fills up. #30

Walkways and patios provide space that doesn't ever need to be watered. These useful "rooms" can also add value to your property. #31 Collect water from your roof to water your garden. #32 Designate one glass for your drinking water each day or refill a water bottle. This will cut down on the number of glasses to wash. #33 Rather than following a set watering schedule, check for soil moisture two to three inches below the surface before watering. #34 Install a rain sensor on your irrigation controller so your system won't run when it's raining. #35 Don't use running water to thaw food. Defrost food in the refrigerator for water efficiency and food safety.

Use drip irrigation for shrubs and trees to apply water directly to the roots where it's needed.

#37 Grab a wrench and fix that leaky faucet. It's simple, inexpensive, and you can save 140 gallons a week. #38 Reduce the amount of lawn in your yard by planting shrubs and ground covers appropriate to your site and region. #39 When doing laundry, match the water level to the size of the load. #40 Teach your children to turn off faucets tightly after each use. #41

Remember to check your sprinkler system valves periodically for leaks and keep the sprinkler heads in good shape.

Use a water-efficient showerhead. They're inexpensive, easy to install, and can save you up to 750 gallons a month. See how Waterpik EcoFlow can help reduce your water use.

#43 Soak pots and pans instead of letting the water run while you scrape them clean. #44 Don't water your lawn on windy days when most of the water blows away or evaporates. #45 Water your plants deeply but less frequently to encourage deep root growth and drought tolerance. #46 Know where your master water shut-off valve is located. This could save water and prevent damage to your home. #47 To decrease water from being wasted on sloping lawns, apply water for five minutes and then repeat two to three times. #48 Group plants with the same watering needs together to avoid overwatering some while underwatering others. #49

Use a layer of organic material on the surface of your planting beds to minimize weed growth that competes for water. #50 Use a minimum amount of organic or slow release fertilizer to promote a healthy and drought tolerant landscape. #51 Trickling or cascading fountains lose less water to evaporation than those spraying water into the air. #52 Use a commercial car wash that recycles water. #53 Avoid recreational water toys that require a constant flow of water. #54 Turn off the water while brushing your teeth and save 25 gallons a month. #55 Use a rain gauge, or empty tuna can, to track rainfall on your lawn. Then reduce your watering accordingly. #56 Encourage your school system and local government to develop and promote water conservation among children and adults. #57 Learn how to shut off your automatic watering system in case it malfunctions or you get an unexpected rain. #58 Set a kitchen timer when watering your lawn or garden to remind you when to stop. A running hose can discharge up to 10 gallons a minute. #59 If your toilet flapper doesn't close after flushing, replace it. #60 Make sure there are water-saving aerators on all of your faucets.

Next time you add or replace a flower or shrub, choose a low water use plant for year-round landscape color and save up to 550 gallons each year.

#62 Install an instant water heater near your kitchen sink so you don't have to run the water while it heats up. This also reduces energy costs. #63 Use a grease pencil to mark the water level of your pool at the skimmer. Check the mark 24 hours later to see if you have a leak. #64 If your dishwasher is new, cut back on rinsing. Newer models clean more thoroughly than older ones. #65 Use a trowel, shovel, or soil probe to examine soil moisture depth. If the top two to three inches of soil are dry it's time to water. #66 If installing a lawn, select a turf mix or blend that matches your climate and site conditions. #67 When you save water, you save money on your utility bills too. Saving water is easy for everyone to do. #68 When the kids want to cool off, use the sprinkler in an area where your lawn needs it the most. #69 Make sure your swimming pools, fountains, and ponds are equipped with recirculating pumps. #70 Bathe your young children together. #71 Consult with your local nursery for information on plant selection and placement for optimum outdoor water savings. #72 Winterize outdoor spigots when temperatures dip below freezing to prevent pipes from leaking or bursting.

#73 Insulate hot water pipes for more immediate hot water at the faucet and for energy savings. #74 Wash your car on the lawn, and you'll water your lawn at the same time.

Drop your tissue in the trash instead of flushing it and save water every time.

#76 Direct water from rain gutters and HVAC systems toward water-loving plants in the landscape for automatic water savings. #77 Make suggestions to your employer about ways to save water and money at work. #78 Support projects that use reclaimed wastewater for irrigation and industrial uses. #79 Use a hose nozzle or turn off the water while you wash your car. You'll save up to 100 gallons every time. #80 Share water conservation tips with friends and neighbors. #81 If your toilet was installed before 1992, reduce the amount of water used for each flush by inserting a displacement device in the tank. #82 Setting cooling systems and water softeners for a minimum number of refills saves both water and chemicals, plus more on utility bills. #83 Washing dark clothes in cold water saves both on water and energy while it helps your clothes to keep their colors. #84 Leave lower branches on trees and shrubs and allow leaf litter to accumulate on the soil. This keeps the soil cooler and reduces evaporation.

#85 Report broken pipes, open hydrants and errant sprinklers to the property owner or your water provider. #86 Let your lawn go dormant during the summer. Dormant grass only needs to be watered every three weeks or less if it rains. #87 Plant with finished compost to add water-holding and nutrient-rich organic matter to the soil. #88 Use sprinklers that deliver big drops of water close to the ground. Smaller water drops and mist often evaporate before they hit the ground. #89 Listen for dripping faucets and running toilets. Fixing a leak can save 300 gallons a month or more. #90 Water only when necessary. More plants die from over-watering than from underwatering. #91 One more way to get eight glasses of water a day is to re-use the water left over from cooked or steamed foods to start a scrumptious and nutritious soup.

Adjust your watering schedule each month to match seasonal weather conditions and landscape requirements.

#93 Turn off the water while you wash your hair to save up to 150 gallons a month. #94 Wash your pets outdoors in an area of your lawn that needs water. #95 When shopping for a new clothes washer, compare resource savings among Energy Star models. Some of these can save up to 20 gallons per load, and energy too.

#96 Apply water only as fast as the soil can absorb it. #97 Aerate your lawn at least once a year so water can reach the roots rather than run off the surface. #98 When washing dishes by hand, fill the sink basin or a large container and rinse when all of the dishes have been soaped and scrubbed. #99 Catch water in an empty tuna can to measure sprinkler output. One inch of water on one square foot of grass equals two-thirds of a gallon of water. #100 Turn off the water while you shave and save up to 300 gallons a month. #101 When you give your pet fresh water, don't throw the old water down the drain. Use it to water your trees or shrubs. #102 If you accidentally drop ice cubes when filling your glass from the freezer, don't throw them in the sink. Drop them in a house plant instead. #103 To save water and time, consider washing your face or brushing your teeth while in the shower. #104 While staying in a hotel or even at home, consider reusing your towels. #105 When backflushing your pool, consider using the water on your landscaping. #106 For hanging baskets, planters and pots, place ice cubes under the moss or dirt to give your plants a cool drink of water and help eliminate water overflow. #107 Throw trimmings and peelings from fruits and vegetables into your yard compost to prevent using the garbage disposal. #108

When you have ice left in your cup from a take-out restaurant, don't throw it in the trash, dump it on a plant. #109 Have your plumber re-route your gray water to trees and gardens rather than letting it run into the sewer line. Check with your city codes, and if it isn't allowed in your area, start a movement to get that changed. #110 Keep a bucket in the shower to catch water as it warms up or runs. Use this water to flush toilets or water plants. #111 When you are washing your hands, don't let the water run while you lather.

TRADITIONAL
Water has been harvested in India since antiquity, with our ancestors perfecting the art of water management. Many water harvesting structures and water conveyance systems specific to the ecoregions and culture has been developed. They harvested the rain drop directly. From rooftops, they collected water and stored it in tanks built in their courtyards. From open community lands, they collected the rain and stored it in artificial wells. They harvested monsoon runoff by capturing water from swollen streams during the monsoon season and stored it various forms of water bodies. They harvested water from flooded rivers

1. Trans-Himalayan Region
Zing

2. Western Himalaya
Kul Naula Kuhl Khatri

3. Eastern Himalaya
Apatani

4. Northeastern Hill Ranges

Zabo Cheo-oziihi Bamboo drip irrigation

5. Brahmaputra valley
Dongs Dungs/jampois

6. Indo-Gangetic Plains
Ahars-pynes Bengal's Inundation channels Dighis Baolis

7. Thar Desert

Kunds/kundis Kuis/beris Baoris/bers Jhalaras Nadi Tobas Tankas Khadins Vav/Vavdi/Baoli/Bavadi Virdas Paar

8. Central Highlands
Talab/Bandhis Saza Kuva Johads Naada/bandh Pat Rapat Chandela tank Bundela tank

9. Eastern highlands
Katas/Mundas/Bandhas

10. Deccan Plateau

Cheruvu Kohli tanks Bhandaras Phad Kere The Ramtek Model

11. Western Ghats

Surangam

12. Western coastal plains

Virdas

13. Eastern Ghats

Korambu

14. Eastern Coastal Plains

Eri Ooranis

15. The Islands

JackWells

mor

Paar system: Paar is a common water harvesting practice in the western Rajasthan region. It is a common place where the rainwater flows from the agar (catchment) and in the process percolates into the sandy soil. In order to access the rajani pani (percolated water) kuis or beris are dug in the agor (storage area). Kuis or beris are normally 5 metres (m) to 12 m deep. The structure was constructed through traditional masonary technology. Normally six to ten of them are constructed in a paar. However depending on the size of the paar the numbers of kuis or beris are decided. Bhatti mentions that there are paars in Jaisalmer district where there are more than 20 kuis are in operation. This is the most predominant form of rainwater harvesting in the region. Rainwater harvested through PAAR technique is known as Patali paani. See also: Jethu Singh Bhatti Manapia

Technology Rural
Techniques Traditional

Zing Kul Naula Kuhl Khatri Apatani Zabo Cheo-oziihi Bamboo-drip irrigation Dongs

Talab / Bandhis

Dungs Ahar-pyne Bengal's Inundation channels

Talabs are reservoirs. They may be natural, such as the ponds (pokhariyan) at Tikamgarh in the Bundelkhand region. They can be human-made, such the lakes in Udaipur. A reservoir area of less than five bighas is called a talai; a medium sized lake is called a bandhi or talab; bigger lakes are called sagar or samand. The pokhariyan serve irrigation and drinking purposes. When the water in these reserviors dries up just a few days after the monsoon, the pond beds are cultivated with rice.

Dighis Baolis kunds Kuis Baoris Jhalaras Nadi Tobas Tankas Khadins Vav Virdas Talab Saza kuva Johads Bandh Pat Rapat Chandela Tank Bundela Tank Katas Cheruvu Kohli tanks Bhandaras Phad Kere The Ramtek Model Surangam Korambu Eri Ooranis Jackwells Contemporary

Saza Kuva
An open well with multiple owners (saza = partner), saza kuva is the most important source of irrigation in the Aravalli hills in Mewar, eastern Rajasthan. The soil dug out to make the well pit is used to construct a huge circular foundation or an elevated platform sloping away from the well. The first is built to accomodate the rehat, a traditional water lifting device; the sloping platform is for the chada, in which buffaloes are used to lift water.Saza kuva construction is generally taken up by a group of farmers with adjacent landholdings; a harva, a man with special skills in groundwater detection, helps fix the site.

Johad
Johads are small earthen check dams that capture and conserve rainwater, improving percolation and groundwater recharge. Starting 1984, the last sixteen years have seen the revival of some 3000 johadsspread across more than 650 villages in Alwar district, Rajasthan. This has resulted in a general rise of the groundwater level by almost 6 metres and a 33 percent increase in the forest cover in the area. Five rivers that used to go dry immediately following the monsoon have now become perennial, such as the River Arvari, has come alive.

AT A GLANCE

Community based Water management Initiatives

Rural Water

Pat

Bhitada village , Jhabua district of Madhya pradesh developed the unique pat system. This system was devised according to the peculiarities of the terrain to divert water from swift-flowing hill streams into irrigation channels called pats.

Harvesting

Tank Management
SEE ALSO

No water Water war Look up! How to harvest In rural areas In urban areas Jal yodhas Way ahead
READ MORE :

Source: Making water everybody's business

The diversion bunds across the stream are made by piling up stones and then lining them with teak leaves and mud to make them leakproof. The pat channel has to negotiate small nullahs that join the stream off and on, and also sheer cliffs before reaching the fields. These sections invariably get washed away during the monsoons. Stone aqueducts have to be built to span the intervening nullahs. The villagers irrigate their fields by turns. The channel requires constant maintenance and it is the duty of the family irrigating the fields on a particular day to take care of the pat on that particular day. It takes about two weeks to get the pat flowing and the winter crop is sown in early November.

Naada / Bandha
Naada/bandha are found in the Mewar region of the Thar desert. It is a stone check dam, constructed across a stream or gully, to capture monsoon runoff on a stretch of land. Submerged in water, the land becomes fertile as silt deposits on it and the soil retains substantial amounts of water.

A rapat is a percolation tank, with a bund to impound rainwater flowing through a watershed and a waste weir to dispose of the surplus flow. If the height of the structure is small, the bund may be built of masonary, otherwise earth is used. Rajasthan Source:CRIDA rapats, being small, are all masonry structures. Rapats and percolation tanks do not directly irrigate land, but recharges well within a distance of 3-5 km downstream. Silting is a serious problem with small rapats and the estimated life of a rapat varies from 5 to 20 years.

Rapat

Chandela Tank

These tanks were constructed by stopping the flow of water in rivulets flowing between hills by erecting massive earthen embankments, having width of 60m or more. These hills with long stretches of quartz reefs running underneath them, acted as natural ground water barrier helping to trap water between the ridges. The earthen embankments were supported on both sides with walls of coarse stones, forming a series of stone steps. These tanks are made up of lime and mortar and this is the reason why these tanks survived even after thousand years but the only problem, which these tanks are facing, is siltation of tank beds. Chandela tanks usually had a convex curvature somewhere in the middle of the embankment; many older and smaller tanks were constructed near the human settlement or near the slopes of a cluster of hills. These tanks served to satisfy the drinking water needs of villagers and cattle.

Bundela Tank
These tanks are bigger in size as compared to Chandela tanks. These tanks had solidly constructed steps leading to water in the tank; But these structures had chabootaras, pavillions and royal orchards designed to show off the glory of the king who built them. But these tanks are not as cost effective and simple as Chandela tanks. These tanks were constructed to meet the growing water demands in the area, maintenance of these tanks was done by the person employed by the king but in case of smaller tanks villagers collectively removed silt and repair embankment.

A kund or kundi looks like an upturned cup nestling in a saucer. These structures harvest rainwater for drinking, and dot the sandier tracts of the Thar Desert in western Rajasthan and some areas in Gujarat. Essentially a circular underground well, kunds have a saucer-shaped catchment area that gently slopes towards the centre where the well is situated. A wire mesh across water-inlets prevents debris from falling into the well-pit. The sides of the well-pit are covered with (disinfectant) lime and ash. Most pits have a dome-shaped cover, or at least a lid, to protect the water. If need be, water can be drawn out with a bucket. The depth and diameter of kunds depend on their use (drinking, or domestic water requirements). They can be owned by only those with money to invest and land to construct it. Thus for the poor, large public kunds have to be built. Also see Ran Singh who makes kunds

Kunds / Kundis

Kuis / Beris
Found in western Rajasthan, these are 10-12 m deep pits dug near tanks to collect the seepage. Kuis can also be used to harvest rainwater in areas with meagre rainfall. The mouth of the pit is usually made very narrow. This prevents the collected water from evaporating. The pit gets wider as it burrows underunder the ground, so that water can seep in into a large surface area. The openings of these entirely kuchcha (earthen) structures are generally covered with planks of wood, or put under lock and key. The water is used sparingly, as a last resource in crisis situations. Magga Ram Suthar, of village Pithla in Jaisalmer district in Rajasthan, is an engineer skilled in making kuis/beris. Also see Magga Ram Suthar who has mastered the art of making beris

Baoris / Bers

Baoris or bers are community wells, found in Rajasthan, that are used mainly for drinking. Most of them are very old and were built by banjaras (mobile trading communities) for their drinking water needs. They can hold water for a long time because of almost negligible water evaporation.

Jhalaras

Jhalaras were human-made tanks, found in Rajasthan and Gujarat, essentially meant for community use and for religious rites. Often rectangular in design, jhalaras have steps on three or four sides. Jhalars areground water bodies which are built to ensure easy & regular supply of water to the surrounding areas . the jhalars are rectangular in shape with steps on three or even on all the four sides of the tank . the steps are built on a series of levels . The jhalaras collect subterranean seepage of a talab or a lake located upstream . The water from these jhalaras was not used for drinking but for only community bathing and religious rites . Jhodhpur city has eight jhalaras two of which are inside the town & six are found outside the city . The oldest jhalara is the mahamandir jhalara which dates back to 1660 AD

Nadis
Nadis are village ponds, found near Jodhpur in Rajasthan. They are used for storing waterfrom an adjoining natural catchment during the rainy season. The site was selected by the villagers based on an available natural catchments and its water yield potential. Water availability from nadi would range from two months to a year after the rains. They are dune areas range from 1.5 to 4.0 metres and those in sandy plains varied from 3 to 12 metres. The location of the nadi had a strong bearing on its storage capacity due to the related catchment and runoff characteristics.

Tobas

Tobas is the local name given to a ground depression with a natural catchment area. A hard plot of land with low porosity, consisting of a depression and a natural catchment area was selected for the construction of tobas.

Tankas

Tankas (small tank) are underground tanks, found traditionally in most Bikaner houses. They are built in the main house or in the courtyard. They were circular holes made in the ground, lined with fine polished lime, in which raiwater was collected. Tankas were often beautifully decorated with tiles, which helped to keep the water cool. The water was used only for drinking. If in any year there was less than normal rainfall and the tankas did not get filled, water from nearby wells and tanks would be obtained to fill the household tankas. In this way, the people of Bikaner were able to meet their water requirements. The tanka system is also to be found in the pilgrim town of Dwarka where it has been in existence for centuries. It continues to be used in residential areas, temples, dharamshalas and hotels.

Khadin

A khadin, also called a dhora, is an ingenious construction designed to harvest surface runoff water for agriculture. Its main feature is a very long (100-300 m) earthen embankment built across the lower hill slopes lying below gravelly uplands. Sluices and spillways allow excess water to drain off. The khadinsystem is based on the principle of harvesting rainwater on farmland and subsequent use of this water-saturated land for crop production.

First designed by the Paliwal Brahmins of Jaisalmer, western Rajasthan in the 15th century, this system has great similarity with the irrigation methods of the people of Ur (present Iraq) around 4500 BC and later of the Nabateans in the Middle East. A similar system is also reported to have been practised 4,000 years ago in the Negev desert, and in southwestern Colorado 500 years ago.

Vav / vavdi / Baoli / Bavadi

Traditional stepwells are called vav or vavadi in Gujarat, or baolis or bavadisin Rajasthan and northern India. Built by the nobility usually for strategic and/or philanthropical reasons, they were secular structures from which everyone could draw water. Most of them are defunct today. The construction of stepwells date from four periods: Pre-Solanki period (8th to 11th century CE); Solanki period (11th to 12th century CE); Vaghela period

Of late, though, some villages in Bihar have taken up the initiative to re-build and re-use the system. One such village is Dihra. It is a small village 28 km southwest of Patna city. In 1995, some village youths realised that they could impound the waters of the Pachuhuan (a seasonal stream passing through the village that falls into the nearby river Punpun) and use its bed as a reservoir to meet the village's irrigation needs. Essentially, this meant creating an ahar-pyne system After many doubts, the village powers-that-be gave the go-ahead. Money was collected and work began in May 1995. After a month of shramdaan (voluntary labour) the villagers completed their work mid-June. Their efforts have borne fruit. By 2000 AD, the ahar was irrigating 80 ha of land. The people grow two cereal crops and one crop of vegetables every year. The returns from the sale of what they produce are good. The village is no longer a poor one.

Bengal's Inundation Channel

Bengal once had an extraordinary system of inundation canals. Sir William Willcocks, a British irrigation expert who had also worked in Egypt and Iraq, claimed that inundation canals were in vogue in the region till about two centuries ago. Floodwater Source:Making Water Everybody's entered the fields through the Business inundation canals, carrying not only rich silt but also fish, which swam through these canals into the lakes and tanks to feed on the larva of mosquitoes. This helped to check malaria in this region. According to Willcocks, the ancient system of overflow irrigation had lasted for thousands of years. Unfortunately, during the Afghan-Maratha war in the 18th century and the subsequent British conquest of India, this irrigation system was neglected, and was never revived. According to Willcocks, the distinguishing features of the irrigation system were: 1.) the canals were broad and shallow, carrying the crest waters of the river floods, rich in fine clay and free from coarse sand; 2.) the canals were long and continuous and fairly parallel to each other, and at the right distance from each other for purposes of irrigation; 3.) irrigation was performed by cuts in the banks of the canals, which were closed when the flood was over.

Dungs or Jampois
Dungs or Jampois are small irrigation channels linking rice fields to streams in the Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal.

Cheruvu
Cheruvu are found in Chitoor and Cuddapah districts in Andhra Pradesh. They

are reservoirs to store runoff. Cheruvu embankments are fitted with thoomu(sluices), alugu or marva or kalju (flood weir) and kalava (canal).

Kohli Tanks
The Kohlis, a small group of cultivators, built some 43,381 water tanks in the district of Bhandara, Maharashtra, some 250-300 years ago. These tanks constituted the backbone of irrigation in the area until the government took them over in the 1950s. It is still crucial for sugar and rice irrigation. The tanks were of all sizes, often with provisions to bring water literally to the doorstep of villagers.

Bhanadaras
These are check dams or diversion weirs built across rivers. A traditional system found in Maharashtra, their presence raises the water level of the rivers so that it begins to flow into channels. They are also used to impound water and form a large reservoir. Where a bandhara was built across a small stream, the water supply would usually last for a few months after the rains. They are built either by villagers or by private persons who received rent-free land in return for their public act Most Bandharas are defunct today. A very few are still in use.

Phad

The community-managed phad irrigation system, prevalent in northwestern Maharashtra, probably came into existence some 300-400 years ago. The system operated on three rivers in the Tapi basin - Panjhra, Mosam and Aram - in Dhule and Nasik districts (still in use in some places here).

Source:Making Water Everybody's Business

The system starts with a bandhara (check dam or diversion-weir) built across a rivers. From the bandharas branch out kalvas (canals) to carry water into the fields. The length of these canals varies from 2-12 km. Each canal has a uniform discharge capacity of about 450 litres/second. Charis (distributaries) are built for feeding water from the kalva to different areas of the phad.Sarangs (field channels) carry water to individual fields. Sandams (escapes), along with kalvas and charis, drain away excess water. In this way water reaches the kayam baghayat (agricultural command area), usually divided into

The size of a phad can vary from 10-200 ha, the average being 100-125 ha. Every year, the village decides which phads to use and which to leave fallow. Only one type of crop is allowed in one phad. Generally, sugarcane is grown in one or two phads; seasonal crops are grown in the others. This ensures a healthy crop rotation system that maintains soil fertility, and reduces the danger of waterlogging and salinity. The phad system has given rise to a unique social system to manage water use.

Kere
Tanks, called kere in Kannada, were the predominant traditional method of irrigation in the Central Karnataka Plateau, and were fed either by channels branching off

from anicuts (chech dams) built across streams, or by streams in valleys. The outflow of one tank supplied the next all the way down the course of the stream; the tanks were built in a series, usually situated a few kilometres apart. This ensured a) no wastage through overflow, and b) the seepage of a tank higher up in the series would be collected in the next lower one.

The

Ramtek model has been named after water harvesting structures in the town of Ramtek, Maharashtra. A scientific analysis revealed an intricate network of groundwater and surface waterbodies, intrinsically connected through surface and underground canals. A fully evolved system, this model harvested runoff through tanks, supported by high yielding wells and structures like baories, kundis, and waterholes. This system, intelligently designed to utlise every raindrop falling in the watershed area is disintegrating due to neglect and ignorance.
Constructed and maintained mostly by malguzars (landowners), these tanks form a chain, extending from the foothills to the plains, conserving about 6070 per cent of the total runoff. Once tanks located in the upper reaches close to the hills were filled to capacity, the water flowed down to fill successive tanks, generally through interconnecting channels. This sequential arrangement generally ended in a small waterhole to store whatever water remained unstored. The presence of the Ramtek ridge in the middle, having a steep slope on both sides, results in quick runoffs and little percolation. This might have led the residents of the southern plains of the Ramtek hills to construct different types of water conservation structures (like tanks) where they could trap the maximum

Zings

Zings are water harvesting structures found in Ladakh. They are small tanks, in which collects melted glacier water. Essential to the system is the network of guiding channels that brings the water from the glacier to the tank. As glaciers melt during the day, the channels fill up with a trickle that in the afternoon turns into flowing water. The water collects towards the evening, and is used the next day. A water official called the churpun ensures that water is equitably distributed.

Kul

Kuls are water channels found in precipitous mountain areas. These channels carry water from glaciers to villages in the Spiti valley of Himachal Pradesh. Where the terrain is muddy, the kul is lined with rocks to keep it from becoming clogged. In the Jammu region too, similar irrigation systems called kuhls are found.

Naula

Naula is a surface-water harvesting method typical to the hill areas of Uttaranchal. These are small wells or ponds in which water is collected by making a stone wall across a stream.

Khatris are structures, about 10x12 feet in size and six feet deep carved out in the hard rock mountain. The specially trained masons construct them at a cost of Rs 10,000-20,000 each. These traditional water harvesting structures are found in Hamirpur, Kangra and Mandi districts of Himachal Pradesh. There are two types of khatris: one for animals and washing purposes in which rain water is collected from the roof through pipes, and other used for human consumption in which rainwater is collected by seepage through rocks. Interestingly, the khatris are owned by individual as well as by a community. There are government khatris as well, which are maintained by the panchayat.

Khatri

Kuhl

Kuhls are a traditional irrigation system in Himachal Pradesh- surface channels diverting water from natural flowing streams (khuds). A typical communitykuhl services six to 30 farmers, irrigating an area of about 20 ha. The system consists of a temporary headwall (constructed usually with river boulders) across a khud (ravine) for storage and diversion of the flow through a canal to the fields. By modern standards, building kuhls was simple, with boulders and labour forming the major input. The kuhl was provided with moghas (kuchchaoutlets) to draw out water and irrigate nearby terraced fields. The water would flow from field to field and surplus water, if and, would drain back to the khud. The kuhls were constructed and maintained by the village community. At the beginning of the irrigation season, the kohli (the water tender) would organise the irrigators to construct the headwall, repair the kuhl and make the system operational. The kohli played the role of a local engineer. Any person refusing to participate in construction and repair activities without valid reason, would be denied water for that season. Since denial of water was a religious punishment, it ensured community participation and solidarity. A person was also free to

participate by providing a substitute for his labour. The kohli also distributed and managed the water.

Zabo

The zabo (the word means 'impounding run-off') system is practiced in Nagaland in north-eastern India. Also known as the ruza system, it combines water conservation with forestry, agriculture and animal care. Villages such as Kikruma, where zabos are found even today, are located on a high ridge. Though drinking water is a major Source:Dying Wisdom problem, the area receives high rainfall. The rain falls on a patch of protected forest on the hilltop; as the water runs off along the slope, it passes through various terraces. The water is collected in pond-like structures in the middle terraces; below are cattle yards, and towards the foot of the hill are paddy fields, where the run-off ultimately meanders into.

Cheo-ozihi
The river Mezii flows along the Angami village of Kwigema in Nagaland. The riverwater is brought down by a long channel. From this channel, many branch channels are taken off, and water is often diverted to the terraces through bamboo pipes. One of the channels is named Cheo-oziihi - oziihi means water and Cheo was the person responsible for the laying of this 8-10 km-long channel with its numerous branches. This channel irrigates a large number of terraces in Kwigwema, and some terraces in the neighbouring village. There are three khels and the village water budget is divided among them.

Eri
Approximately one-third of the irrigated area of Tamil Nadu is watered by eris (tanks) . Erishave played several important roles in maintaining ecological harmony as flood-control systems, preventing soil erosion and wastage of runoff during periods of heavy rainfall, and recharging the groundwater in the surrounding areas. The presence of eris provided an appropriate micro-climate for the local areas. Without eris, paddy cultivation would have been impossible.

Till the British arrived, local communities maintained eris. Historical data from Chengalpattu district, for instance, indicates that in the 18th century about 45 per cent of the gross produce of each village was allocated to maintain erisand other irrigation structures. Assignments of revenue-free lands, calledmanyams, were made to support village functionaries who undertook to maintain and manage eris. These allocations ensured eri upkeep through regular desilting and maintenance of sluices, inlets and irrigation channels. The early British rule saw disastrous experiments with the land tenure system in quest for larger land revenues. The enormous expropriation of village resources by the state led to the disintegration of the traditional society, its economy and polity. Allocations for maintenance of eris could no longer be supported by the village communities, and these extraordinary water harvesting systems began to decline. Read more about Ganesan, the neerkatti who managed eris

Ooranis

The tanks, in south Travancore, though numerous, were in most cases oornis containing just enough water to cultivate the few acres of land dependent on them. The irregular topography of the region and the absence of large open spaces facilitated the construction of only small tanks unlike large ones seen in the flat districts of the then Madras Presidency, now Tamil Nadu.

Dongs
Dongs are ponds constructed by the Bodo tribes of Assam to harvest water for irrigation. These ponds are individually owned with no community involvement.

Bamboo Irrigation

Drip

Meghalaya has an ingenious system of tapping of stream and springwater by using bamboo pipes to irrigate plantations. About 18-20 litres of water entering the bamboo pipe system per minute gets transported over several hundred metres and finally gets reduced to 20-80 drops per minute at the site of the plant. This 200-year-old system is used by the tribal farmers of Khasi and Jaintia hills to drip-irrigate their black pepper cultivation. Bamboo pipes are used to divert perennial springs on the hilltops to the lower reaches by gravity. The channel sections, made of bamboo, divert and convey water to the plot site where it is distributed without leakage into branches,

again made and laid out with different forms of bamboo pipes. Manipulating the intake pipe positions also controls the flow of water into the lateral pipes. Reduced channel sections and diversion units are used at the last stage of water application. The last channel section enables the water to be dropped near the roots of the plant. Bamboos of varying diameters are used for laying the channels. About a third of the outer casing in length and internodes of bamboo pieces have to be removed while fabricating the system. Later, the bamboo channel is smoothened by using a dao, a type of local axe, a round chisel fitted with a long handle. Other components are small pipes and channels of varying sizes used for diversion and distribution of water from the main channel. About four to five stages of distribution are involved from the point of the water diversion to the application point.

Apatani

This is a wet rice cultivation cum fish farming system practiced in elevated regions of about 1600 m and gentle sloping valleys, having an average annual rainfall about 1700 mm and also rich water resources like springs and streams. This system harvests both ground and surface water for irrigation. It is practiced by Apatani tribes of ziro in the lower Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh. In Apatani system , valleys are terraced into plots separated by 0.6 meters high earthen dams supported by bamboo frames. All plots have inlet and outlet on opposite sides. The inlet of lowlying plot functions as an outlet of the high lying plot. Deeper channels connect the inlet point to outlet point. The terraced plot can be flooded or drained off with water by opening and blocking the inlets and outlets as and when required. The stream water is tapped by constructing a wall of 2-4 m high and 1 m thick near forested hill slopes. This is conveyed to agricultural fields through a channel network.

Virdas
Virdas are shallow wells dug in low depressions called jheels (tanks). They are found all over the Banni grasslands, a part of the Great Rann of Kutch in Gujarat. They are systems built by the nomadic Maldharis, who used to roam these grasslands. Now settled, they persist in using virdas. These structures harvest rainwater. The topography of the area is undulating, with depressions on the ground. By studying the flow of water during the monsoon, the Maldharis identify these depressions and make their virdasthere.

Essentially, the structures use a technology that helps the Maldharis separate potable freshwater from unpotable salt water. After rainwater infiltrates the soil, it gets stored at a level above the salty groundwater because of the difference in their density. A structure is built to reach down (about 1 m) to this upper layer of accumulated rainwater. Between these two layers of sweet and saline water, there exists a zone of brackish water. As freshwater is removed, the brackish water moves upwards, and accumulates towards the bottom of the virda.

Katas / Mundas / Bandhas

The katas, mundas andbandhas were the main irrigation sources in the ancient tribal kingdom of the Gonds (now in Orissa and Madhya Pradesh). Most of these katas were built by the village headmen known as gountias, who in turn, received the land from the Gond kings. Land here is classified into four groups on the basis of its topography:aat, (highland); mal (sloped land); berna (medium land); and bahal (low land). This classification helps to select A kata is constructed north to south, or east to west, of a village. A strong earthen embankment, curved at either end, is built across a drainage line to hold up an irregularly-shaped sheet of water. The undulations of the country usually determine its shape as that of a long isosceles triangle, of which the dam forms the base. It commands a valley, the bottom of which is the bahalland and the sides are the mal terrace. As a rule, there is a cut high up on the slope near one end of the embankment from where water is led either by a small channel or tal, or from field to field along terraces, going lower down to the fields. In years of normal rainfall, irrigation was not needed because of moisture from percolation and, in that case, the surplus flow was passed into a nullah. In years of scanty rainfall, the centre of the tank was sometimes cut so that the lowest land could be irrigated.

Surangam
Kasaragod district in the northern Malabar region of Kerala is an area whose people cannot depend directly on surface water. The terrain is such that there is high discharge Source:Dying Wisdom in rivers in the monsoon and low discharge in the dry months. People here depend, therefore on groundwater, and on a special water harvesting structure called surangam. The word surangam is derived from a Kannada word for tunnel. It is also known as thurangam, thorapu, mala, etc, in different parts of Kasaragod. It is

a horizontal well mostly excavated in hard laterite rock formations. The excavation continues until a good amount of water is struck. Water seeps out of the hard rock and flows out of the tunnel. This water is usually collected in an open pit constructed outside the surangam. A surangam is about 0.45-0.70 metres (m) wide and about 1.8-2.0 m high. The length varies from 3-300 m. Usually several subsidiary surangams are excavated inside the main one. If the surangam is very long, a number of vertical air shafts are provided to ensure atmospheric pressure inside. The distance between successive air shafts varies between 50-60 m. The approximate dimensions of the air shafts are 2 m by 2 m, and the depth varies from place to place. Surangams are similar to qanats which once existed Babylon around 700 BC.1,2 By 714 BC, this technology Persia (now Iran) and India. The initial cost of digging 150 per 0.72 m dug) is the only expenditure needed, as maintenance. Traditionally, a surangam was excavated and was completed over generations. Today, engineers Nair are faster and keep the tradition alive. in Mesopotamia and had spread to Egypt, a surangam (Rs 100it hardly requires any at a very slow pace such as Kunnikannan

Korambus
Korambu is a temporary dam stretching across the mouth of channels, made of brushwood, mud and grass. It is constructed by horizontally fixing a strong wooden beam touching either banks of the canal. A series of vertical wooden beams of appropriate height is erected with their lower ends resting firmly on the ground and the other ends tied to the horizontal beam. Closely knitted or matted coconut thatch is tied to this frame. A coat of mud is applied to the matted frame. A layer of grass is also applied carefully which prevents dissolution of the applied mud. Korambu is constructed to raise the water level in the canal and to divert the water into field channels. It is so built that excess water flows over it and only the required amount of water flows into the diversion channels. The height of the Korambu is so adjusted that the fields lying on the upstream are not submerged. Water is allowed to flow from one field to another until all the field are irrigated. They are built twice a year especially before the onset of the monsoon season in order to supply water during winter and summer season. In Kasargod and Thrissur districts of Kerala, Korambu is known as chira.

Jackwells
The difference in the physiography, topography, rock types and rainfall meant that the tribes in the different islands followed different methods of harvesting rain and groundwater. For instance, the southern part of the Great Nicobar Island near Shastri Nagar has a relatively rugged topography in comparison to the northern part of the islands. The shompen tribals here made full use of the topography to harvest water. In lower parts of the undulating terrain, bunds were made using logs of hard bullet wood, and water would collect in the pits so formed. They make extensive use of split bamboos in their water harvesting systems. A full length of bamboo is cut longitudinally and placed along a gentle slope with the lower end leading into a shallow pit. These serve as conduits for rainwater which is collected drop by drop in pits called Jackwells. Often, these split bamboos are placed under trees to harvest the throughfalls (of rain) through the leaves. A series of increasingly bigger

jackwells is built, connected by split bamboos so that overflows from one lead to the other, ultimately leading to the biggest jackwell, with an approximate diameter of 6 m and depth of 7 m so that overflows from one lead to the other.

Jal Yodhas
When it comes to the Indian sub-continent, given the delay in implementing plans to conserve natural resources, people prefer to depend on themselves. Jal Yodhas (Water warriors) is a tale of individual efforts that can act as a precursor to bring a shift in peoples' attitude towards conservation of natural resources, particularly water. This section is about ordinary men with extraordinary will in the context of water harvesting. Initial failures did not deter these men of steel who in most cases have faced rebellion from their own people.

Fashioning change

Water improves agriculture. Agriculture improves animal husbandry. People begin to take care of their watershed, which means more trees and forests. With watershed development, prosperity beckons. Going beyond water is a philosophy and a practice. Some have gone beyond water to alleviating, actually eradicating, rural poverty. They have dared to traverse the path from ecological regeneration to economic miracle, from water to wealth. Those with this water vision overwhelmingly belong to civil society. All of them have developed watersheds as a platform for social change.

Quietly at work
Taking forward the work of these pioneers are those invisible rural engineers who don't go to Indian Institutes of Technology to try and do quantum physics, or genome or defense research in the US for the US. These rural engineers prefer to find ways to better harvest the rain. And so fashion local ecological and social change.

Rural

Anil Agarwal

Anna Hazare Anupam Mishra A Vaidyanathan

Bhinde B B Hardikar Bhupal Singh CR Shanmugam Chewang Norphel

Devendra ERR Sadasivam

Ganesan Hardev Singh Jadeja Harnath Jagawat

Janaki Jawan Lal Rebari

K G Vyas Komal Lochan Jani Kunhikannan Nair

Laxman Singh Laxmi Narayan joshi

Magga Ram Maharaja Gaj Singh

Manna Singh Mansukh Bhai Suvagia

M I H Ansari Narayan

Hazary

Obensao Kikon

P R Mishra Popat Pawar Premjibhai Patel Pt Punyadhar Jha

R K Gupta R S Jamir Rajendra Singh

Rakesh Trivedi Ram Karan Bhadana

Ran Singh Ranjit Kumar Ravindra Shetye

Roland Martins Sachidanand Bharti Shamjibhai Antala

Shivanajayya Shree Padre TR Sureshchandra

Tiameren Aier V Radha and Manisha Mhaiskar

Vasimalai M P Vijay Kedia Vilasrao Salunke

Urban water harvesting in India is still in its youth. There are a number of people who worked, against all odds, to make this concept popular. They, theHarvesters, can be found in most urban centres in India Experience is the best teacher There are no limits to technological innovations in rainwater harvesting.Innovators are those who have learned from their experiences and contributed to the betterment of rainwater harvesting technology in India. War over waterbodies Petitioners are those who are waging a battle against the forces that are bent upon killing the country's waterbodies

Harvesters Ashutosh Agnihotri Brig Jagdev Singh D C Chowta DV Subramanaian K R Gopinath KR Narayanan Lakshmi Narayanan M N Mitra Madhu Bhatnagar Mangalam Balasubramaniam Mohit Ray Pawan Garg R Ramani Shanta

Sheela Nair Shekhar Raghavan Surinder Bansal Tej Razdan Venkatraman Vijay Kumar Innovators Indukanth Ragade M Mohan Rao R. Jeyakumar S Vishwanath

Petitioners Dossier

What is the source of all water? Rain, of course

River water; water in lakes, ponds and wells; water that seeps into the ground, collecting in the belly of the earth; tapwater; even bottled water! The source of all water is rain. Let us understand this: Supply comes from the sky. Let us apply this understanding: in order to meet demand, then, what we actually need to do is harvest the rain. Not dam a river, and block its flow. Not boost water out the ground, and suck the earth dry. Not build canals, lay kilometers of pipes. But merely harvest the rain

In essence, harvesting water means harvesting the rain. In India, the monsoon is a deluge. Flash floods churn up dry river beds. Dry wells come to life; lakes and ponds brim with water. In India the monsoon is brief. We get about 100 hours of rain in a year. It is this 100-hour bounty that must be caught, stored, and used over the other 8,660 hours that make up a year. The water harvesting rationale: extend the fruits of the monsoon. The water harvesting basis: catch water where it falls. The water harvesting method: build systems that enable such an extension, and create a structure to manage the extension.These structures are eco-region specific.

The water harvesting experience: millennial and born of local wisdom; scientific and still in use; participatory and the basis of people's movements; the focus of innovation in the present and the best way to a nonscarce future. But, what is the potential of rainwater harvesting? Understand the water arithmetic.

A Lesson

There was a thirsty crow. It peered into an earthen pitcher. There was water at the bottom. "Dregs," it cawed alarmed. But it was thirsty. It began to drop pebbles into the pitcher. Drop by drop, the water rose to the top. The crow drank and flew away sated. It could have used a pneumatic drill to smash through to the water. It didn't. This water harvester of a crow could teach us a thing or two.

The water arithmetic.

We stare at the dregs of our ingenuity, at a resource scientifically misutilised. We are cawing alarmed. But we only keep cawing, raucously at that. Lets get on, like the crow. Fashion a pebble-by-pebble approach to meet our needs.

First recognise that the source of all water on earth is not the river, is not the underground aquifer, is not the lake, well or stream. Rain is the source of all water. Second, recognise that in India the monsoon is a deluge. Rain spatters the earth. Fills ponds. Lakes brim. Rivers heave. But the monsoon is also brief. We receive most of its rainfall in just 100 hours out of 8,760 hours in a year. But this is enough to meet our water needs, provide food security and eradicate rural poverty.

Water Balance in India

According to a study, India receives 400 million hectare meters (mham) of rain and snowfall. Another 20 mham flow in as surface water from outside the country. This total 420 mham provide the country with river flows of 180 mham. Another 67 mham is available as groundwater. About 173 mham is lost as evaporation or becomes soil moisture - which can be captured directly as rainwater or as runoff from small catchments in and near villages or towns. If even 20 - 3- mham can be captured through rainwater harvesting, tremendous pressure can greatly extend the availability of clean water. Why is Cherrapunji today short of drinking water when it gets more than 11 meters of rainfall annually? Simply because it does not capture the rain that falls over it.

Third, recognise the rainwater needs to be harvested through capturing, storing and recharging it and later using it during prolonged parched periods. The key component of water management is 'storage'

especially in India. Small means even more water. Michael Evenari, an Israeli scientist's study clearly demonstrates that ten dams with one hectare catchment will store more water than one dam of ten hectare. Several other studies conducted by the Central Soil and Water Conservation Research Institute in different parts of the country revealed similar results. Any land can be used to harvest rainwater. (See potential) In tune with the terrain, with nothing imposed. It is just a matter of using material locally abundant - stones, mud, bamboo etc.

The hidden link: The most beautiful thing about water harvesting is that there is a human-rain-land
synergy. What the table shows clearly is that rainwater harvesting is possible in all human-land-rain scenarios. Synergies exist between rainfall, human population density and land availability
Region Annual level of rainfall Rain yield potential from one hectare of land (*) Human population density Land Surface Number of availability quality people for water for water whose harvesting collection water efficiency needs can be met at 100 litres per person per day from one hectare of land

Ruralarid

100 mm

1 million litres

Low

High

27

Ruralhumid

2,000 mm

20 million litres

High

Low

More rooftops and built-up surfaces available with high runoff

553

Urban

Very high

Very low

(*)Assuming rainwater collection efficiency of 100 per cent

Water is what we make of it. COLLECTIVELY, promoting environmental self-reliance.

Watershed management
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject. Please help improve the article with a good introductory style. (October 2009)

Water portal

Watershed management is the process of creating and implementing plans, programs, and projects to sustain and enhance watershed functions that affect the plant, animal, andhuman communities within a watershed boundary.[1] Features of a watershed that agencies seek to manage include water supply, water quality, drainage, stormwater runoff, water rights, and the overall planning and utilization of watersheds. Landowners, land use agencies, stormwater management experts, environmental specialists, water use purveyors and communities all play an integral part in the management of a watershed.
Contents
[hide]

1 Sources of pollution 2 Controlling pollution 3 Governance 4 Environment al law 5 References 6 External links

6.1 Co astal Zones

[edit]Sources

of pollution

In an agricultural landscape, common contributors to water pollution are nutrients and sediment which typically enter stream systems after rainfall washes them off poorly managed agricultural fields, called surface runoff, or flushes them out of the soil through leaching. These types of pollutants are considered nonpoint source pollution because the exact point where the pollutant originated cannot be identified. Such pollutants remain a major issue for water ways because the inability to trace their sources hinders any attempt to limit the pollution.[2] Point source pollution originates a specific point

of contamination such as if a manure containment structure fails and its contents enter the drainage system. In urban landscapes, issues of soil loss through erosion, from construction sites for example, and nutrient enrichment from lawn fertilizers exist. Point source pollution, such as effluent from wastewater treatment plants and other industries play a much larger role in this setting. Also, the greatly increased area of impervious surfaces, such as concrete, combined with modern storm drainage systems, allows for water and the contaminants that it can carry with it to exit the urban landscape quickly and end up in the nearest stream.
[edit]Controlling

pollution

In agricultural systems, common practices include the use of buffer strips, grassed waterways, the reestablishment of wetlands, and forms of sustainable agriculture practices such as conservation tillage, crop rotation and intercropping. After certain practices are installed, it is important to continually monitor these systems to ensure that they are working properly in terms of improving environmental quality. In urban settings, managing areas to prevent soil loss and control stormwater flow are a few of the areas that receive attention. A few practices that are used to manage stormwater before it reaches a channel are retention ponds, filtering systems and wetlands. It is important that stormwater is given an opportunity to infiltrate so that the soil and vegetation can act as a "filter" before the water reaches nearby streams or lakes. In the case of soil erosion prevention, a few common practices include the use of silt fences, landscape fabric with grass seed and hydroseeding. The main objective in all cases is to slow water movement to prevent soil transport.
[edit]Governance

The second World Water Forum held in The Hague in March 2000 raised some controversies that exposed the multilateral nature and imbalance in the demand and supply management of freshwater. While donor organisations, private and government institutions backed by the World Bank, believe that freshwater should be governed as an economic good by appropriate pricing, NGOs however, held that freshwater resources should be seen as a social good[3]. The concept of network governance where all stakeholders form partnerships and voluntarily share ideas towards forging a common vision can be used to resolve this clash of opinion in freshwater management. Also, the implementation of any common vision presents a new role for NGOs because of their unique capabilities in local community coordination, thus making them a valuable partner[4] in network governance.

Watersheds replicate this multilateral terrain with private industries and local communities interconnected by a common watershed. Although these groups share a common ecological space that could transcend state borders, their interests, knowledge and use of resources within the watershed are mostly disproportionate and divergent, resulting to the activities of a specific group adversely impacting on other groups. Classic examples being the Minamata Bay poisoning that occurred from 1932 to 1968, killing over 1784 individuals and the Wabigoon River incidence of 1962. Furthermore, while some knowledgeable groups are shifting from efficient water resource exploitation to efficient utilization, net gain for the watershed ecology could be lost when other groups seizes the opportunity to exploit more resources. This gap in cooperative communication among multilateral stakeholders within an interconnected watershed, even with the likely presence of the usually reactive and political boundary-constraint state regulations, makes it necessary for the institutionalisation of an ecological-scale[5] cooperative network of stakeholders. This concept supports an integrated management style for interconnected natural resources; resonating strongly with the Integrated Water Resources Management system proposed by Global Water Partnership. Moreover, the need to create partnerships between donor organisations, private and government institutions and community representatives like NGOs in watersheds is to enhance an organisational society[6] among stakeholders. This posits a type of publicprivate partnership, commonly referred to as Type II partnership[7], which essentially brings together stakeholders that share a common watershed under a voluntary, idea sharing and collectively agreed vision aimed at granting mutual benefits to all stakeholders. Also, it explicates the concept of network governance, which is ..the only alternative for collective action[8], requiring government to rescale its role in decision making and collaborate with other stakeholders on a level playing field rather than in an administrative or hierarchicalmanner. Several riparian states have adopted this concept in managing the increasingly scarce resources of watersheds. These include, the nine Rhine states, with a common vision of pollution control[9], theLake Chad and river Nile Basins, whose common vision is to ensure environmental sustainability[10]. As a partner in the commonly shared vision, NGOs has adopted a new role in operationalising the implementation of regional watershed management policies at the local level. For instance, essential local coordination and education are areas where the services of NGOs have been effective[11]. This makes NGOs the nuclei[12] for a successful watershed management.

[edit]Environmental

law

Main article: Environmental law Environmental laws often dictate the planning and actions that agencies take to manage watersheds. Some laws require that planning be done, others can be used to make a plan legally enforceable and others set out the ground rules for what can and cannot be done in development and planning. Most countries and states have their own laws regarding watershed management. Those concerned about aquatic habitat protection have a right to participate in the laws and planning processes that affect aquatic habitats. By having a clear understanding of whom to speak to and how to present the case for keeping our waterways clean a member of the public can become an effective watershed protection advocate.
[edit]