CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION THORPEDO T211 Even the name screams power and performance.

Affectionately named after its designer, John Thorp, the six cylinders Jabiru 3300 equipped T211 is not an ordinary aircraft. The combination of a light, yet strong airframe with 120 horsepower provides a tremendous power to weight ratio which creates short take off runs, strong climbs and impressive cruise speeds. The Thorpedo is the first U.S. manufactured aircraft to earn the Special Airworthiness certificate under the Light Sport Aircraft ruling. The FAA type certified heritage ensures a proven design that has been tested to a higher standard. With all its power, this nimble aircraft outperforms many in its class. The available digital panel, luxurious interior and other options make this an efficient or spirited recreational aircraft, suitable for both the seasoned pilot and the new sport pilot alike. Almost all the trainer and light sport aircraft have fixed landing gear system. The landing gear system itself produces about 20 40% of the total drag produced in an airplane. We know that the resultant power needed to overcome this drag will vary as the cube of velocity, hence if the drag produced in the aircraft is reduced, the total power consumed by the aircraft will be reduced by a great extent. In order to do so, the perfect alternative would be the retractable landing gear system, which will not on ly increase the performance of the aircraft but will also enhance the maneuverability of the aircraft. We will also be observing the various changes which will occur with respect to aerodynamics and performance of the aircraft. The present wing of the aircraft does not have the thickness to incorporate the landing gear of the aircraft, thus we will have to change the wing of the aircraft keeping in mind the lift co efficient and the Reynolds no. at which the aircraft flies. Hence to check the results we have made a prototype of the aircraft and tested the same in the wind tunnel.
2

The project is an industrial project sponsored by Taneja Aerospace and Aviation Ltd., Hosur. Part of the Pune based Indian Seamless group, TAAL was established in 1994 as the first private sector company in the country to manufacture general aviation i.e. non -military aircraft. The companys vision at the time was to create a nucleus facility for the development of an aeronautical industry in India, TAAL entered into collaboration with Partenavia of Italy to manufacture the six-seat twin piston engine P68C aircraft and the eleven-seat twin turbo-prop Viator aircraft. While TAAL continues to manufacture Light Transport and Trainer Aircraft, the company has since diversified its activi ties and has established a significant presence in many segments of the aviation and aeronautical industries in India.

CHAPTER 2 DRAG

DRAG

In fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called air resistance or fluid resistance) refers to forces that oppose the relative motion of an object through a fluid (a liquid or gas). Drag forces act in a direction opposite to the oncoming flow velocity. Unlike other resistive forces such as dry friction, which is nearly independent of velocity, drag forces depend on velocity. For a solid object moving through a fluid, the drag is the component of the net aerodynamic or hydrodynamic force acting opposite to the direction of the movement. The component perpendicular to this direction is considered lift. Therefore drag opposes the motion of the object, and in a powered vehic le it is overcome by thrust. In aerodynamics, and depending on the situation, atmospheric drag can be regarded as an inefficiency requiring expense of additional energy during launch of the space object or as a bonus simplifying return from orbit. VARIOUS TYPES OF DRAG: 1) PARASITE DRAG: i) FORM DRAG ii) SKIN FRICTION DRAG iii) INTERFERENCE DRAG 2) LIFT-INDUCED DRAG 3) WAVE DRAG 2.1 PARASITE DRAG: Parasitic drag (also called parasite drag) is drag caused by moving a solid object through a fluid. Parasitic drag is made up of multiple components including viscous pressure drag (form drag), and drag due to surface roughness (skin friction drag). Additionally, the presence of multiple bodies in relative proximity may incur so called interference drag, which is sometimes described

as a component of parasitic drag. In aviation, induced drag tends to be greater at lower speeds because a high angle of attack is required to maintain lift, creating more drag. However, as speed increases the induced drag becomes much less, but parasitic drag increases because the fluid is flowing faster around protruding objects increasing friction or drag. At even higher s peeds in the transonic, wave drag enters the picture. Each of these forms of drag changes in proportion to the others based on speed. The combined overall drag curve therefore shows a minimum at some airspeed - an aircraft flying at this speed will be at or close to its optimal efficiency. Pilots will use this speed to maximize endurance (minimum fuel consumption), or maximize gliding range in the event of an engine failure. 2.2 LIFT-INDUCED DRAG: Lift-induced drag (also called induced drag) is drag which occurs as the result

of the creation of lift on a three-dimensional lifting body, such as the wing or fuselage of an airplane. Induced drag consists of two primary components, including drag due to the creation of vortices ( vortex drag) and the presence of additional viscous drag (lift-induced viscous drag). The vortices in the flowfield, present in the wake of a lifting body, derive from the turbulent mixing of air of varying pressure on the upper and lower surfaces of the body, which is a necessary condition for the creation of lift. With other parameters remaining the same; as the lift generated by a body increases, so does the lift-induced drag. For an aircraft in flight, this means that as the angle of attack, and therefore the lift coefficient, increases to the point of stall, so does the lift-induced drag. At the onset of stall, lift is abruptly decreased, as is lift-induced drag, but viscous pressure drag, a component of parasite drag, and increase s due to the formation of turbulent unattached flow on the surface of the body.

FIG 2.1 2.3WAVE DRAG:

INDUC D DR G Vs LIFT

Wave drag (also called compressi ilit drag) is drag which is created by the presence of a body moving at high speed through a compressible fluid. In aerodynamics, Wave drag consists of multiple components depending on the speed regime of the flight. In transonic flight (Mach numbers greater than 0.5 and less than 1.0), wave drag is the result of the formation of shockwaves on the body, formed when areas of local supersonic (Mach number greater than 1.0) flow are created. In practice, supersonic flow occurs on bodies traveling well below the speed of sound, as the local speed of air on a body increases when it accelerates over the body, in this case above Mach 1.0. Therefore, aircraft flying at transonic speed often incur wave drag through the normal course of operation. In transonic flight, wave drag is commonly referred to as transonic compressibility drag. Transonic compressibility drag increases significantly as the speed of flight increases towards Mach 1.0, dominating other forms of drag at these speeds. In supersonic flight (Mach numbers greater than 1.0), wave drag is the result of shockwaves present on the body, typically obli ue shockwaves formed at the leading and trailing edges of the body. In highly supersonic flows, or in bodies with turning angles sufficiently large, unattached shockwaves, or bow waves will instead form. Additionally, local areas of transonic flow behind the initial shockwave may occur at lower supersonic speeds, and can lead to the development of additional, smaller shockwaves present on the surfaces of other
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lifting bodies, similar to those found in transonic flows. In supersonic flow regimes, wave drag is commonly separated into two components, supersonic lift-dependent wave drag and supersonic volume -dependent wave drag.

CHAPTER 3 DRAG REDUCTION TECHNIQUES

DRAG REDUTION TECHNIQUES

Drag reduction is one of the main objectives of the transport aircraft manufacturers. The drag breakdown of a transport aircraft at cruise shows that the skin friction drag and the lift-induced drag constitute the two main sources of drag, approximately one half and one third of the total drag. Hybrid laminar flow technology and innovative wing tip devices offer the greatest potential for drag reduction. Aircraft performance improvement in off-design conditions can also be obtained through trailing edge optimization, control of the shock boundary layer interaction and of the boundary layer separation. The paper will give an overview of the results obtained for the differe nt mentioned topics and will try to evaluate the potential gains offered by the different technologies. Drag reduction of civil transport aircraft directly concerns performance, but also indirectly, of course, cost, and environment. Fuel consumption repres ents about 22% of the Direct Operating Cost (DOC) which is of utmost importance for the airlines, for a typical long range transport aircraft. Drag reduction directly impacts on the DOC: a drag reduction of 1% can lead to a DOC decrease of about 0 .2% for a large transport aircraft. Other trade offs corresponding to a 1% drag reduction are 1.6 tons on the operating empty weight or 10 passengers. The environmental factors, such as noise, air pollution around airports and impact on climate change, whi ch are well underlined in [1], will also play an important role for future growth of the civil aviation. The impact of air travel on the environment will then become an increasing powerful factor on aircraft design. It is also important to recall the ma in goals of the vision 2020 launched by the European commission: a 50% cut in CO2 emissions per passenger kilometer and an 80% cut in nitrogen oxide emissions. These objectives cannot be reached without breakthrough in today technologies.

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Drag reduction is a great challenge but there is certainly room for improvements. The drag breakdown of a civil transport aircraft shows that the skin friction drag and the lift-induced drag constitute the two main sources of drag, approximately one half and one thi rd of the total drag for a typical long range aircraft at cruise conditions. This is why specific research on these topics has been initiated in European Research centers and it seems that Hybrid Laminar Flow technology and innovative wing tip devices offe r the greatest potential. Aircraft performance improvement can also be obtained through trailing edge optimization, control of the shock boundary layer interaction and of boundary layer separation. In the following sections, the different technologies which were investigated at ONERA will be presented and illustrated by experimental results.

3.1 SKIN FRICTION DRAG REDUCTION

Two methods are generally considered for skin friction drag reduction. The first one aims at reducing the turbulent skin friction while the second one aims at delaying transition to maintain large extent of laminar flow.
3.1.1 Turbulent skin friction reduction

A skin friction drag reduction can be obtained with the use of passive boundary layer manipulators. Among the various devices, V-groove rib-lets have demonstrated substantial reductions (up to 8%) of the local skin friction. An experimental verification in a large wind tunnel was carried out in 1988 on a 1/11 scale complete model of the Air bus A320. For the test, 2/3 of the wetted model surface was covered with the rib -lets for which the previously mentioned V-groove cross-section has been chosen. Viscous flow computations on the wing and on the fuselage have shown that a rib-let depth of 0.023 mm can allow a average value of h + w=8 to be obtained. Wind tunnel test was successful and total drag reductions up to 1.6% have been demonstrated at corresponding cruise Mach number conditions.
11

With the guidelines of the previous wind tunnel investigations and the recommendations coming from the structure, material and system teams, a flight test was prepared with the Airbus A320 No 1. 600 m2 rib-let film covering 75% of the wetted surface was installed on the aircraft and the tests took place in 1989. Overall performance and local data were measured with and without the rib-lets, and drag reduction predictions based on the wind tunnel tests were confirmed. Operational aspect and maintenance problems have then been

investigated and in-service application has been decided by the Cathay Pacific Airways airline on an A340.Significant fuel consumption has been obtained. However, this in service application showed that the rib-let film has to be replaced after 2-3 years. The applications of this technology depend now on the quality improvement of the rib-let film: the characteristics of the film have to be maintained at least for 5 years in order to obtain benefits.

3.1.2 Hybrid laminar flow technology

A substantial reduction in fuel consumption and in CO2 emissions will certainly require the adoption of laminar flow control in order to reduce the skin friction. For small aircraft with low swept wing, laminar flow can be maintained by shaping the airfoil and this concept is currently considered for new small jet aircraft. However for high Reynolds number and high sweep encountered on a large transport aircraft, suction has to be applied. In the Hybrid Laminar Flow concept, the laminar flow can be maintained by the application of suction in the region of the leading edge to control the development of cross flow instabilities combined with favorable pressure gradients in the spar box region. It is first necessary to ensure that the attachment line remains laminar and to avoid contamination phenomenon. Anti contamination devices have to be used to avoid the contamination of the attachment line by the turbulent structures coming from the fuselage.
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The suction system has to be designed according to various aerodynamic and structure requirements. Main features of suction systems are laser drilled titanium panel and suction chambers controlled by independent ducts. The geometrical characteristics of perforated panel such as hole diameter, porosity as well as chamber sizes are determined taking into account the suction velocity range, computed by stability approach, and pressure distributions for various aerodynamic conditions. With suction systems, premature transition can be caused by outflow and by roughness effects due to hi gh velocities in the suction holes. Pressure drop methods and suction criteria have to be used to avoid these premature transitions. Surface imperfections such as isolated roughness, gaps, steps and waviness can provoke premature transition. It is then necessary to study their effects on transition and to develop calculation methods and criteria in orde r to estimate these effects. Recent studies have shown that modern manufacturing techniques can provide smooth surfaces, compatible with laminar flow. Recent progress carried out towards the understanding of transition characteristics of swept-wing flows would allow to control the transition by passive means. Some experiments presented in have shown that transition governed by cross flow instabilities can be delayed using artificial roughness. In this concept, the artificial vortices interact nonlinearly with the natural vortices in such a way that the natural vortices are strongly reduced. In this approach, the drag reduction could be lower than th e one expected with the HLF concept, but the drawbacks are also very limited. It is worthwhile to investigate these passive means through basic experiments and non-linear PSE computations, because they can contribute to the system simplification needed for a future laminar aircraft.

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3.2 LIFT-INDUCED DRAG REDUCTION

The second major drag component is the lift -induced drag. The classical way to decrease the lift-induced drag is to increase the aspect ratio of the wing. Wing aspect ratio is a compromise between aerodynamic and structure characteristics and it is clear that for a given technology there is not a great possibility to increase aspect ratios. The alternative is to develop wing tip devices acting on the tip vortex which is at the origin of the lift-induced drag. Basic studies have shown that drag reduction can be obtained with variations in plan form geometry along a small fraction of the wing-span and with aft-swept configurations. Furthermore, the presents, as examples among the investigated shapes, the wing tip turbine, the wing tip sails, the wing grid, the blended winglet and the spiroid tip.

Fig 3.1 various wingtip devices

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The concept of the blended winglet is to modify a large part of the wing tip together with the winglet itself in order to obtain a very smooth blended shape. The blended winglet is expected to be more efficient than a narrow one to reduce the flow acceleration that occurs in the cross flow curvature and to decrease the vortex intensity as important chord va riation is avoided. The spiroid tip is a spiral loop obtained when joining by their tip a vertical winglet and a horizontal one. This unconventional device seems promising to reduce the tip vortex intensity but has a complex geometry difficult to optimize. Total drag reduction of about 2% can be expected with such wing tip devices. However, for industrial applications, wingtip devices have a strong influence on the wing structure and aero- elastic effects have to be taken into account through a multidisciplinary optimization approach.

3.3 WAVE DRAG REDUCTION

Even if the wave drag contribution to the total drag of a modern transport aircraft is not high, there is room for some significant improvements through adaptation of the aircraft to the variation of the flight conditions : an increase of the cruise Mach number for example. This aerodynamic adaptation can be realized with shock control or trailing edge devices.
3.3.1 Shock control devices

Among the different passive shock boundary layer control concepts investigated, the bump concept seems promising. This concept is based on the local modification of the airfoil surface in the shock region. The straight shock is transformed into a lambda shock configuration and its strength is reduc ed by the presence of the compression waves.

15

3.3.2 Trailing edge devices

For wave drag reduction, the concept of the thi ck cambered trailing edge which increases the rear loading and reduces the upper surface pressure recovery seems also very promising. This concept has then been investigated on a wing body configuration under a co-operation with Airbus France. Tests were carried out on a half-model in the wind tunnel and the results have been carefully analyzed through far -field drag extraction techniques. The computed and measured drag reduction obtained when the thick cambered trailing edge is installed in the outer part of the wing. It is clear that the thick cambered trailing edge concept can be used by the designer as an additional degree of freedom. Its effects can also be obtained th rough a trailing edge deflector. These results show that characteristics of the flow can be strongly modified with the use of a trailing edge device which allows drag reduction and greater buffet margin to be obtained. Important investigations are currently carried out to adapt the wing geometry to the different flight conditions: cruise, take -off and landing.

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CHAPTER 4 LANDING GEAR

17

LANDING GEAR

Landing gear is the structure under a plane's fuselage that allows it to land safely. The earliest landing gear consisted of skids, but designers soon attached wheels to the skids. Landing gear must have some mechanism for absorbing the force of the landing in addition to the airplane's weight. Early gear used flexible material for landing gear struts (the structure that connected the airframe and the wheels). Some landing gear use a shock absorbing system called the oleo strut that cushions the landing and keeps the plane level while landing. The Thorpedo T211 Aircraft is currently equipped with the oleo strut type of landing gear. The diagram below shows the typical configuration of the oleo strut type of landing gear

Fig 4.1

Courtesy: www.pilotfriend.com

The above diagram also shows us how the landing gear works as a shock absorber on sudden impact during landing. Landplanes are fitted with either a nose wheel or tail wheel. The gear is always sprung. This can be by the use of spring metal, rubber or by oleo. An oleo is in effect a spring and shock absorber combined. Most modern aircraft have are fitted with a nosewheel (tricycle). Earlier designs are most likely to have a tail wheel (taildragger). However, the THORPEDO T211 Aircraft is fitted with tricycle type of landing gear.

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4.1 RETRACTABLE LANDING GEAR

Aircraft designers of the 1920s knew that reducing drag on an airplane in flight was important to improving speed and fuel efficiency, as well as maneuverability and controllability. But they still had relatively little understanding of what actually caused drag on airplanes. Various structures obviously caused drag, but they had first to identify the most important sources before they could address them. In 1927, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) opened its new Propeller Research Tunnel (PRT) at Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory in Virginia. The PRT was a very large wind tunnel for the time, with a diameter of 20 feet (6.1 meters). It was designed to allow the testing of an entire airplane fuselage with engine and propeller, as opposed to simply a part of an airplane or a scale model. NACA aeronautical engineers suspected that the aircraft landing gear contributed to much of the drag of an airplane, and the PRT was the first wind tunnel that would allow them to test this. Landing gear consists of the wheels that stick out below the fuselage so that an airplane can roll down the runway during landing and takeoff. In early aircraft, they were fixed in an open position so that they protruded at all times, even while the plane was flying and nowhere near the ground. Tests in the PRT immediately demonstrated that landing gear contributed up to 40 percent of fuselage drag, which shocked the researchers. They realized that reducing the drag produced by the landing gear would significantly improve the performance of the airplane in flight.

19

The retractable landing gear system used in modern day aircrafts is shown in the figure below:

Fig 4.2

Courtesy: www.google.com

Hydraulic pump is used to pressurize the hydraulic fluid. This fluid pressure is used for retraction and release of landing gear. Few trainer aircrafts are equipped with the retractable landing gear as the Mooney - Ovation GX aircraft as shown in the diagram below

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Fig 4.3

Courtesy: www.mooney.com

21

CHAPTER 5 DESIGN

22

AUTOCAD

AutoCAD is a CAD (Computer Aided Design or Computer Aided Drafting) software application for 2D and 3D design and drafting, developed

and sold by Autodesk, Inc. Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer technology for the design of objects, real or virtual. CAD often involves more than just shapes. As in the

manual drafting of technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD often must convey also symbolic information such as materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances, according to application -specific conventions.

Fig 5.1: SIDE VIEW

23

Fig 5.2: TOP VIEW Fig 5.1 and 5.2 shows us the side view and the top view of the model aircraft.

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CHAPTER 6 WING SELECTION

25

Following six terms are essential in determining the shape of a typical airfoil:

(1) The leading edge (2) The trailing edge (3) The chord line (4) The camber line (or mean line) (5) The upper surface (6) The lower surface

Fig 6.1

For Thorpedo T211 aircraft, Wing Span, b = 7.62m Wing Area, S = 9.75m2 S = b x Croot Solving,
Croot = 1.28m

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Aspect Ratio, A.R

= = 5.953m

Wing loading,

= 576.607N/m2

Stall Velocity, Vstall = 39 knots =20.063m/s

CLmax = Density at sea level Hence,

CLmax = 2.338746

= 1.225kg/m3

Reynolds number :

Reynolds's number, Re = 0
0

= 1.667x10-5 Ns/m2 = 1.225kg/m3

Re = 3.8318023 x 10 6

Hence it is transient flow.

27

When a retractable landing gear is installed it needs provisions to be stored within airplane body. In Thorpedo T211 aircraft fuel is stored within the fuselage. Hence the wings are hollow. This space can be utilized for storing the under carriage once its retracted. But, the existing airfoil NACA 1410 is a thin airfoil and cannot accommodate it. So a new airfoil which is thicker and has more CLmax, in order to counter the extra weight of landing gear mechanism, is selected. NACA 4415 airfoil meets all these requirements.

NACA 4415
15 Z
10

5 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

-5

Fig 6.2

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National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA )

Mathematical theory has not, as yet, been applied to the discontinuous motion past a cambered surface. For this reason, we are able to design aerofoil only by consideration of those forms which have been successful, by applying general rules learned by experience, and by then testing the airfoils in a reliable wind tunnel. NACA 4415 is defined as a shape that has a maximum camber of 4 percent of the chord (first digit); the maximum camber occurs at a position of 0.4 chord from the leading edge (the second digit), and the maximum thickness is 15percent (the last two digits). NACA 1410 is defined as a shape that has a maximum camber of 1percent of the chord (first digit); the maximum camber occurs at a position of 0.4 chord from the leading edge (the second d igit), and the maximum thickness is 10 percent (the last two digits).

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CHAPTER 7 FABRICATION OF MODEL

30

The fabrication process of the aircraft model can be sub-divided into 3 basic steps viz.
7.1 Carving:

Carving of the aircraft model means precise shaping the wood into the desired without using any powered tools. The wood used for the fabrication of the model is the Balsa wood, which are lightweight, simple to construct and inexpensive to gather materials for. Extreme accuracy has to be maintained in making the model as the whole success of the project depends on it. Various tools that were used are wooden files, sand paper, hacksaw blade, bench knives, straight chisels, skew chisels etc.
7.2 Fixing:

The second stage of the fabrication is to fix the various parts of the aircraft more or less like assembly. The parts that were fixed to the fuselage were the wings, propeller, vertical stabilizer and the horizontal stabilizer. Various adhesives were used in this process like fevicol, anabond and m -seal.
7.3 Primer Coating / Artwork :

Once the adhesives have dried then comes the final stage in fabrication process the artwork. Before the model is painted primer coating has to be given to model. A primer is a preparatory coating put on materials before painting. Priming ensures better adhesion of paint to the surface, increases paint

31

durability, and provides additional protection for the material being painted.

Fig 7.1 FABRICATION OF MODEL The above figure gives us a pictorial description as how the model looks w ith primer coated over it. Once the primer has dried off the model has been painted with the desired colors.

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CHAPTER 8 WIND TUNNEL

33

8.1WIND TUNNEL

The "Wind tunnel" is a facility, by artificially producing airflow relative to a stationary body, that measures aerodynamic force and pressure distribution to simulate the actual flight of airplane or orbiting plane in the air.
TYPES:

Wind tunnels are often denoted by the speed in the test section relative to the speed of sound. The ratio of the air speed to the speed of sound is called the Mach number. Tunnels are classified as Subsonic (M < 0.8), Transonic (0.8 < M < 1.2) , Supersonic (1.2 < M < 5.0) , or Hypersonic (M > 5.0).
8.2 OPEN CIRCUIT SUBSONIC WIND TUNNEL :

Fig 8.1 Open Circuit Wind Tunnel

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8.2.1 Honey comb: Honey comb along with the wire mesh protects the wind tunnel from foreign objects. It also provides laminar flow for the wind tunnel test section. 8.2.2 Effuser: It converts the available pressure energy to kinetic energy which is located upstream of the test. 8.2.3 Test section: The models to be tested are placed inside the test section by means of supports and balances. The instruments necessary for recording the data are also fixed in the wind tunnel. 8.2.4 Diffuser: Diffuser is locates at the downstream of the test section, it converts the kinetic energy to pressure energy. 8.2.5 Propeller driving unit: A fan or a propeller is fitted with electric motor to drive airflow to the test section.
8.3 Measurement of aerodynamic forces

Ways that air velocity and pressures are measured in wind tunnels:


Air velocity through the test section (called the throat) is determined by Bernoulli's principle. Measurement of the dynamic pressure, the static pressure, and (for compressible flow only) the temperature rise in the airflow

35

Direction of airflow around a model can be determined by tufts of yarn attached to the aerodynamic surfaces

Direction of airflow approaching an aerodynamic surface can be visualized by mounting threads in the airflow ahead of and aft of the test model

Dye, smoke, or bubbles of liquid can be introduced into the airflow upstream of the test model, and their path around the model can be photographed

8.4 Force and moment measurements:

With the model mounted on a force balance, one can measure lift, drag, lateral forces, yaw, roll, and pitching moments over a range of angle of attack. This allows one to produce common curves such as lift coefficient versus angle of attack. The force balance itself creates drag and potential turbulence that will affect the model and introduce errors into the measurements. The supporting structures are therefore typically smoothly shaped to minimize turbulence.

8.5 Flow visualization:

In general, flow visualization is an experimental means of examining the flow pattern around a body or over its surface. The flow is "visualized" by introducing Yarn Tufts, smoke or pigment to the flow in the area under investigation. The primary advantage of such a method is the ability to provide a description of a flow over a model without complicated data reduction and analysis. Smoke flow visualization involves the injection of streams of vapor into the flow. The vapor follows filament lines (lines made up of all the fluid particles passing through the injection point). In steady flow the filament lines are identical to streamlines (lines everywhere tangent to the velocity vector). Flow visualization can thus reveal the entire flow pattern around a body.
36

8.6 TUFT WANDS:

The least expensive method for flow visualization is a tuft wand. This method is very much versatile and at the same time the flow pattern around the test object is visible. A long tuft on a pole is useful for tracking the flow near the object. Flow visualization foe the moment is possible if the trace particles location can be identified at any time in th e flow field.

Fig 8.2

Courtesy: www.nasa.gov

37

8.7 T

component balancing: The Three-Component Balance provides an easy-to-use support system

for wind tunnel models. It measures lift, drag and pitching moment exerted on the model. The balance attaches to the vertical wall of the wind tunnel working section. It is designed for air flows from right to left when the balance is viewed from the front. The balance comprises a mounting plate secured to the wind tunnel working section. A triangular force plate is held on the mounting plate by a mechanism that constrains it to move in a plane parallel to the mounting plate only, while leaving it free to rotate about a hori ontal axis. This arrangement provides the necessary three degrees of freedom. Models used with the equipment will need a mounting stem. The forces acting on the model are transmitted by cables to three strain gauged load cells. The output from each load cell is taken via an amplifier to a microprocessor-controlled display module. The display module mounts onto the wind tunnel control and instrumentation frame and includes a digital display to show the lift, drag and pitching moment directly.

Fig 8.3 Three component balancing system

Courtesy: www.google.com

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CHAPTER 9 MODEL TESTING

39

9.1MODEL TESTING IN WIND TUNNEL

The wind tunnel is calibrated initially. The model is mounted in the wind tunnel force balance with the help of a strut fixed at its center of gravity. After ensuring that all the connections are proper the tunnel is started with an initial velocity. The velocity is increased gradually; the lift and drag values are noted simultaneously for corresponding velocities. The model is tested with landing gear and then without the landing gear. In order to fix a retractable landing gear mechanism we have proposed another wing with a thicker airfoil. The model with a newly proposed wing is tested in the wind tunnel and the corresponding values are noted. From the tabulations it is observed that the drag in the airplane is reduced to a certain percentage without the landing gear. The flow over the wings is observed in all the three cases by tuft flow visualization technique.
9.2 DIFFICULTIES FACED DURING TESTING

The propeller in the airplane did not run during the testing due to its misalignment during fabrication. We used a white tape to tighten and hence we could rectify the problem. The strut fixed to the airplane was slightly improper causing certain vibrations; hence we welded the strut to a plate and then fixed the model.

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CHAPTER 10 OBSERVATIONS

41

LIFT(N) 1.5 2.8 3.2 4.4 5.8 6.6 7.2

DRAG(N) 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.9

VELOCITY(m/sec) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

L/D 7.5 9.33 8 8.8 8.28 8.25 8

WING 1: WITH PROPELLER AND LANDING GEAR

Table 10.1

LIFT vs DRAG
1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70

0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20

0.10 0.00

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Graph 10.1

WING 1: WITHOUT LANDING GEAR

LIFT(N) 1.6 2.9 4.1 5.5 6.8 7.3 8.2

DRAG(N) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

VELOCITY(m/sec) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

L/D 16 14.5 13.6 13.75 13.6 12.16 11.71

Table 10.2

LIFT vs
0.8

0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2

0.1 0

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Graph 10.2

WING 2: WITHOUT LANDING GEAR

LIFT(N) 1.7 3 4.3 5.6 7.1 9.4 11.6

DRAG(N) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.11 0.5 0.7 0.8

VELOCITY(m/sec) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

L/D 17 15 14.23 14 14.2 13.42 14.5

Table 10.3

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LIFT vs
0.9
0.8

0.7 0.6
0.5

0.4 0.3
0.2

0.1 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Graph 10.3 DRAG DIFFERENCE:

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

Wing 1 with landing gear Wing 2 Without landing gear

Graph 10.4

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CHAPTER 11 COMPARISON

46

COMPARISON

COMPARISON OF DRAG PRODUCED FOR EXISTING WING WITH AND WITHOUT LANDING GEAR:

DRAG PRODUCED WITH LANDING GEAR EXTENDED 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.9
Table 11.1

DRAG PRODUCED WITH NO LANDING GEAR 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Average drag produced with landing gear Extended for existing wing = 0.5428714 Average drag produced with no landing gear For new wing section = 0.4 Therefore, Net percentage reduction in drag = 35.72%

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COMPARISON OF DRAG PRODUCED FOR EXISTING AND NEW SITUATIONS:

DRAG PRODUCED WITH LANDING GEAR EXTENDED FOR EXISTING WING 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.9
Table 11.2

DRAG PRODUCED WITH NO LANDING GEAR FOR NEW WING SECTION 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.8

Average drag produced with landing gear Extended for existing wing = 0.5428714 Average drag produced with no landing gear For new wing section = 0.42857143 Therefore, Net percentage reduction in drag = 21.05%

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COMPARISON OF LIFT PRODUCED FOR EXISTING AND NEW SITUATION:

LIFT PRODUCED WITH LANDING GEAR EXTENDED FOR EXISTING WING 1.5 2.8 3.2 4.4 5.8 6.6 7.2
Table 11.3

LIFT PRODUCED WITH NO LANDING GEAR FOR NEW WING 1.7 3.0 4.3 5.6 7.1 9.4 11.6

Average lift produced with landing gear ` Extended for existing wing = 4.5

Average lift produced with no landing gear For new wing section = 6.1 Therefore, Net percentage increase in lift = 35.5%

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CHAPTER 12 CONCLUSION

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CONCLUSION

Thus, the wind tunnel experiments were carried out with scaled down model in allowed speed in an open type suction wind tunnel. For various speeds drag and lift acting on the model were noted down. L/D ratio for all the readings was calculated. Its value was in confirmation with historical trend line. The entire L/D values lies between 8 and 15. Tests were carried out with model having landing gear extended and retracted. The drags produced in each case were noted. When the landing gears were removed, a drastic reduction in drag of 21.05% was observed . Thus it may be concluded that if the Thorpedo T211 aircraft is provided with provisions for retractable landing gear, drag reduction occurs. The reduction would directly affect the fuel consumption, carbon emission and the range of aircraft. Fuel consumption will be reduced which would help to improve the range. CO 2 emissions are also reduced thus good for environment.

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CHAPTER 13 FUTURE WORKS

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FUTURE WORKS

From the calculations its observed that for the same wing section (naca 1401) (ref. Chapter no.11), if provided with a retractable landing gear system a drag reduction of 35.72% is observed. While for the new wing section (NACA 4415) the percentage drag reduction is just 21.05%. this is mainly due to the increased profile drag of thicker wing. By formulating new methods to contain the lading gear within the available volume a drastic reduction in drag can be achieved. Some suggestions for future works are:
y Mono wheel with out riggers:

A small number of aircraft use a single central landing wheel and are laterally supported by outriggers.
y Collapsible landing gear:

A landing gear whose strut retracts within one another would help in reducing the net area required for the landing gear. If such a system which is also fail proof, is developed net drag force acting on the aircraft can be reduced.

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CHAPTER 13 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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y www.google.com y www.wikipedia.com y www.ad-holdings.co.uk y www.pilotmix.com y www.indusav.com y Introduction to flight- John. d. Anderson y Theory of wing section Ira Abbott y Overview on drag reduction technologie s for civil transport aircrafts -

Author J. Reneaux
y Reymer.

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