CREATIVE WRITING

CREATIVE WRITING or PERSONAL WRITING

This writing includes

• what you see, feel and think
• exploring your own views
• expressing sensitive responses
• recreating your own experiences

It is important that you enjoy writing with imagination and feeling, that you write in a personal
and uninhibited way.

TIPS TO IMPROVE YOUR CREATIVE WRITING

AVOID AND ELIMINATE

1. in CONTENT (what you write about, your topic, your ideas)

o other people’s experience

o sentimentality (indulging the emotions excessively, tenderness, romance or sadness
aroused in an exaggerated way, e.g. to be sentimental about the past)
o melodrama (extravagant action and emotion; overdramatic behaviour, taking things
more seriously than is needed, e.g. calling the police because your child banged a door)
and sensationalism (the use of sensational language, to arouse an intense emotional
response)
o places you have never visited
o love
o drugs
o violent death
o tramps
o “ … and then I woke up; it was all a dream”
o explanation of the obvious
o moralizing conclusions (interpreting in a moral sense; trying to improve your
teacher's/reader's morals)
o unsubstantiated generalizations
o abstractions - honesty, poverty

2. in STYLE

o clichés and hackneyed expressions

o cliché - traditional form of thinking, feeling, acting, and expression
• language (style, phrase and idiom) } can all be clichéd
• subject matter } over-used
• ideas } over-worked
• attitudes }
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 • do not oversimplify
o one/you
o rhetorical questions used as an introduction
o slang
o fragments
o tense switches
o too many adjectives
o (ellipsis) …
o paragraphs too short or too long

THE "WHAT and “HOW” OF WRITING

WHAT refers to the content

Look inside yourself; discover your emotions and thoughts.

HOW refers to your skills, the writer's tools, how the effect is achieved.

Remember: Form and content are inextricably linked; what you write is affected by how you
write it.

TYPES OF COMPOSITIONS; FORM AND GENRE

1. Some kinds of writing requires you to debate with yourself the various sides of a ques-
tion.

1.1 ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING

This requires an intelligent and logical debate on attitudes to a certain issue.

This kind of writing requires logic, structure, and balanced emotion.

You must know the subject well; consider both sides of the issue; argue sincerely; retain the
interest of your reader; and arrive at some conclusion.

1.2 PERSUASIVE WRITING

This is writing with a message. You are trying to persuade someone to agree with your point of
view.
Example : Young people are always wrong

1.3 EXPOSITORY or EXPLANATORY WRITING

This kind of writing presents a point of view, or explains how to do or make something.

1.4 DISCURSIVE WRITING

This is writing which involves discussion based on argument and reason.

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2. Writing which requires an ability to make attractive reading out of personal
reminiscences, or of serious or semi-serious reflections (thoughts) about a topic.

2.1 NARRATIVE WRITING

This kind of writing also incorporates the short story.

This kind of writing includes the following:

• use of significant detail
• believable characters
• imaginative but controlled
• climax or point of the story determines all the other details
• no pointless succession of events

2.2 IMAGINATIVE WRITING

This kind of writing includes science fiction and fantasy writing.

2.3 REFLECTIVE WRITING

This kind of writing is characterized by quiet thought and contemplation.

You may take your personal experiences, reminiscences, attitudes and feelings, and reflect in a
serious, semi-serious or humorous fashion on a given topic.
E.g. Water; Leisure; Christmas presents

You should make the reader share your feelings, attitudes and responses. He/she must meet a
real person in your writing.

2.4 DESCRIPTIVE WRITING

This includes descriptions of familiar scenes and characters. In this writing, avoid stock
descriptions. If you have read it before, so has your teacher!

Describe and react; include clear, colourful, often emotional. descriptions. Don't be excessive.

This kind of writing includes

• a character sketch
• small scenes
• brief episodes

The “HOW” of writing

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1. STRONG VERBS

Strong verbs energize your writing - Steinbeck

Here are three topics that you might like to use to practise this technique:
o Hanging out washing on a windy day
o Opening an umbrella on a windy day
o A juggler

2. DETAILS

Use plenty of DETAILS; details make the difference.

3. PRECISION

“Precision” means the use of the right word in the right context. Be absolutely specific in the
creation of setting. For example, do not talk about “trees” or “flowers”. Be specific. Use the
names of trees and flowers.

o Be specific.
o Provide sharply observed phenomena.
o Use vivid language.
o Think of the
- appearance
- dimension
- materials
- texture
- colour
- shape

REMEMBER: EVERY WORD COUNTS

THE JOUBERT PARK HOTHOUSE

As I entered the luke-warm house of glass, I stopped at a sudden appearance of brightly coloured
flowers; there were yellow flowers, orange flowers, blue and red. It looked like a jungle scene from the
movies. Vines of green moss hung from the ceiling; orchids sat blooming while "peace-in-the-home" ran
across the rocks giving them a sense of a cushion. I walked slowly into the next chamber and my mouth
gaped open to find old man's beard hanging everywhere; many varieties of orchid; the stone-age tree
fern still growing with enthusiasm and other varieties of ferns shedding their spores into the air. The air
was warm and damp as I entered a far bigger room with a pond in the middle; Banana trees grew,
spreading their large fan-like leaves. More ferns grew there. Tall creepers climbed endlessly to reach the
ceiling, and then grew laterally to show off their splendour. Tiny fish swam in the pond, enjoying the
environment I envied. There were large palm trees and other smaller flowers. The third chamber made
my nose tickle as the fragrance of many flowers floated unendingly into the air. The "peace-in-the-home"
was like wallpaper as it once again grew along the stony path.

To me this place was a paradise. I can see it in my dreams. I will build my own paradise like it and to
finish it off I will add birds, parrots and cockatoos, and animals, monkeys and flying squirrels.
Fritz Madel Grade 11
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Suggested topic for you to use to practise: Autumn in the City

Example of student writing:

A corner of the garden, between the pond and the red-brick wall, is lush, though not
colourful. It has the appearance of being carefully tended to create disarray. Smaller plants
scramble over the juicy roots of established shrubs, but are defeated in this race by the dull
brown beetle. The newly fallen rain trickles off waxed leaves, finally plopping onto the dark.
rich soil below. The dripping is constant and soothing until the goldfish in the pond jerks
after the shadow of a leaf, and the silence is disturbed.
- Alison Ibach Grade 12
4. FIGURES OF SPEECH and IMAGERY

IMAGERY

Imagery refers to word pictures created by figurative or poetic language.

We talk of one image, many images, or imagery (the collection of images). Imagery involves
the use of:

1. literal and figurative descriptions using one or more of the senses, sight (visual images),
smell, (olfactory images), touch (tactile images), hearing (auditory images), taste
(gustatory images), and images that create a sense of movement (kinesthetic images).

2. figures of speech, especially similes and metaphors

In these ways, imagery adds meaning to an idea being discussed or clarifies feelings that are
being expressed.

In writing, imagery provides concentrated meaning. Aim at the achievement of vividness and
clarity by the use of imagery.

Example:
... he noticed the celandines, scalloped splashes of gold, on
the side of the ditch.

"I like them," he said, "when their petals go flat back with the
sunshine. They seem to be pressing themselves at the sun.
D.H. Lawrence: Sons and Lovers

Use COMPARISON, in particular SIMILES and METAPHORS.

A SIMILE is a direct comparison between two generally unlike things or actions which have a
common quality. A simile is usually introduced by the words "like", "as" or "than". Other
comparative words that you may find: as ... as; as if ...; so; as ... so. The simile is used for
vividness of expression.

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A METAPHOR is a figure of speech where one thing is described as if it were something else.

In his ‘Image pictures’, Ezra Pound (1885-1972) shows us how we can prune away
unnecessary words, or useless words, or words that convey nothing new, words that obscure
meaning, and ambiguous sentences.

Examine this short poem:

In a station of the metro

The apparition of these faces in the crowd;

Petals on a wet, black bough.
Ezra Pound

Imagery provides more than what is seen. Examine what is suggested in the mind as a
comparison.

WORD PICTURES

This evening I walked to the lake. The sun was shrinking into the horizon leaving stripes to fever the sky
and hang in cloud tatters. The clouds tangled into the trees and were ripped and scratched and then
clawed their way into darkness.

Wraiths wailed at the lakeside and the willows lay faintinq in the water. It rippled and breathed, and
ducks walked out on it against the darkening light. It was an omen-filled night but nothing would happen;
the wraiths would still follow themselves and the ducks would sleep-quieten and the willows would be
always unrecoverinq, and little would change. There have been other such nights.

I walked, step by step, thinking that the memories clogged the air and hung on the trees like so many
shadows. They are shadows that darken me and pull me down into their own nebulous dimension.
Almost they form a tent and build on each other, stretching over the waters and climbing into the clouds.
I thought of the girl I was one year ago. There's a picture of her in my mind that keeps returning.

No, nothing would happen tonight. There have been other such nights. I walked home and slept. When I
woke my room was dark. It was quiet with my sleeping. As I moved the shape of my cat leapt from my
bed to a shelf. She sat licking and chewing the fur of her shoulder for a while. She could only reach this
spot by contortion and so she stood out in a knotted silhouette against the glimmer of light from the
doorway.

I shrank down between my blankets and felt my pillows. They were soft and warm and I turned them to
have some coldness to my cheek.
- Karen Foxcroft Grade 10

There are other figures of speech which are often used in writing: PERSONIFICATION,
ALLITERATION AND THE RHETORICAL QUESTION.

Personification is a figure of speech where the writer talks about something that is not alive
(plants, animals, or objects) as if it were a person (or sometimes an animal). We say this thing
or animal is personified, e.g. The trees whispered.
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Do NOT over-use personification, or use personification that is clichéd and hackneyed.

A Rhetorical Question is a question that is asked to create an effect rather than to get an
answer. An answer is not wanted, needed, or expected.

Rhetorical questions are often used by

• politicians
• parents
• teachers

Think of real-life situations where you have heard rhetorical questions. Do NOT over-use
rhetorical questions in your writing. Do not start an essay with a very obvious rhetorical
question that simply makes the writer look foolish.

Alliteration refers to the repetition of consonants or consonant sounds, usually at the beginning
of two or more successive words or at the beginning of each stressed syllable in a line of poetry.

5. The five SENSES

These are
SIGHT
HEARING
TASTE
TOUCH
SMELL

SIGHT

Example: A Full Moon

The chubby Chinese face

Grins at his stomach gleefully
Sharon Wood

HEARING

THE PEOPLE AROUND ME

From the time I open my eyes in the morning, to the time I cuddle up in my bed, I am surrounded by
noisy, boisterous people. Although company is better than isolation, it is totally exhausting!

Every morning I innocently wake up to the sound of my two-year-old sister gurgling and grunting for
attention; then my parents come into my room, and start to lecture me about how I always make a noise,
and wake up my sister ...

As soon as I miraculously arrive at school, I collide with a heatwave of gossip: "Grant is two-timing
Wendy!"; "Adelino has bunked three consecutive weeks of English!"; "Aida has acquired a pimple on her
left cheek!" and "Helen has developed a sexier way of swaying when she walks!"
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In the girls' cloakroom, conversation revolves around beauty as they suffocate their faces with make-up.
After going through the necessary fixing of their faces, the girls allow conversation to wander to the male
sex where it stays for the rest of the day.

In the boys' cloakroom, who owns the latest and fastest BMW 5 series is discussed, as well as which
grinning terror discovered the most convincing way of bunking, or whose impertinence to the teachers
was the most amusing and daring.
- Carina da Cruz Grade 10

TASTE
An ice cold glass
standing
a bitter dry wine;
all clear
and a thin frost,
dripping,
slowly down the stem
and fingerprints
in wetness
clear against the light.
Karen Foxcroft

TOUCH

A cat at my back

Behind me there's a curl of warmness

with cold ears.
Karen Foxcroft

SMELL
DYLAN THOMAS’S DESCRIPTION OF SEASIDE SMELLS

I can remember the smell of sea and seaweed, wet flesh, wet hair, wet bathing dresses, the
warm smell as of a rabbity field after rain, the smell of pop and splashed sunshades, and
toffee, the stable-and-straw smell of hot, tossed, tumbled, dug, and trodden sand, the swill-
and-gas-Iamp smell of Saturday night, though the sun shone strong, from the bellying beer-
tents, the smell of vinegar on shelled cockles, winkle smell, shrimp smell, the dripping-oily
back-street winter-smell of chips in newspapers, the smell of ships from the sun-dazed
docks round the corner of the sand hills, the smell of the known and paddled-in sea...
- Dylan Thomas's

Note that, as he composes this amusing list of smells, he succeeds in bringing home to us the
sights and sounds as well. We can imagine them because the description of the smells draws
them into our minds. DISCUSS the importance of the use of DETAIL in such a description.

THE USE OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS IN WRITING

Adjectives add life, energy and vitality to your writing. However, use a FEW well-chosen
adjectives and adverbs. Use them SPARINGLY.
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 TOWARDS COLLEGE

Dawn cracked open like a breaking shell. I dazedly opened the drapes and the sun came crashing
through my window and my eyelids burst open. Dust particles danced in the golden rays seeping
through the keyhole.

I was tired, but the staggering train denied my forty minute sleep into town. The smoke cloud above the
vast buildings, hovering, thrived upon human ignorance. I sighed.

Great swarms of people buzzed out of the grey station. Newspaper sellers stood idly along the roadside
shouting today's or yesterday' news - I don’t know; it's all the same anyway.

A constant worry nibbled at my brain, but I tasted nothing.

The streets were an ashen grey covered with blots of Coke cans, flaming red, and food wrappings and
food.

Beggars begged but no one saw their open tins rattling like a thousand snakes. "Rand a pack", shouted
out a half-starving seller. Fumes groped at my throat as I crossed at a traffic light - the little red man
accusingly pointed a finger at me. Pamphlets bloomed around me in their unnatural dye. The grey
building - as most of them are - opened its jaw and casually invited me inside.

- Michael Fernandes Grade 12

THE USE OF PERSONAL EXPERIENCE

Write from your own experience; remember that nothing can replace personal understanding
and experience. Choose a familiar subject and examine your own immediate environment.
Then write with sincerity and honesty. Stand back from a subjective emotion so that the
writing remains well controlled.

Even if the experience is imaginary, you must put yourself centre stage, and think how you
would react. Acquired knowledge must always have what Henry James called a sense of “felt
life”.
NOTE: reactions to events are more important than the events themselves

THE COCOON

I have always had a warm, close family life. My mother and father always had time for me. My dad
helped me with sport and encouraged me to do well. My mother assisted me with schoolwork and
helped me with schoolwork and helped me when I struggled in certain subject. She took me shopping
and we had a great time enjoying each other's company. I was like a silkworm and my life was a
cocoon.

Then my mother was killed and the cocoon broke. I was on my own. My father continued to love me,
yes, but he was very busy. I was almost lost. I didn't. know where to turn. My whole life fell apart in front
of me and all I could do was stand and watch. My father tries so spin the cocoon again, out of love, and I
am doing my best to help him.
- Kim Cromhout Grade 9
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TO SUM UP

Use
• strong verbs
• the senses
• write from personal experience
• adjectives and adverbs sparingly
• imagery
• startling descriptions
• details

AIM CONSCIOUSLY AT ORIGINALITY IN STYLE AND STRUCTURE

FORMING A CHECKLIST

Make a note of the mistakes you make often. Write a list of the mistakes and the corrections.
This list could include

• spelling
• punctuation
• grammatical mistakes

BEFORE you hand in a piece of writing, look over your checklist and proof-read your work to
see how many mistakes you can find and correct.

PLANNING or ORGANIZING

Writing is a craft - it must be practised and absorbed. You need to plan so that your ideas can
be ordered and structured effectively.

TIPS FOR PLANNING

gripping, exciting introduction

conclusive ending

unity of sentence content

unity of paragraph content

links between paragraphs

variety of sentence beginnings

variety of sentence length
variety of sentence construction

careful planning

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 EXERCISES

1. Does the following provide a gripping, exciting introduction?

The Desert

The desert is a very lonely place. There are only large outcrops of rock and huge
sand dunes to make up the country. Living in these rocks, and about the only animal
in a desert is the rattlesnake.

Does the following provide a gripping, exciting introduction?

FEAR
The sun filtered through the tree and the water droplets which had formed on the
elephant grass sparkled in the clear rays of sun that had found a passage through the
trees. The rivers at the end of winter were dry and the kudu had moved inland away
from the river. The leaves on the trees provided the animals with enough water and
protein to live until the spring rains.

2. Discuss how this paragraph provides a conclusive ending:

Every human has a fear of one thing or another. Do not believe anyone
who claims to be fearless; they are most probably afraid of fear itself. Even
Asterix and Obelix, the indomitable Gauls in the comic series, are afraid:
they’re afraid of the sky’ falling on their heads.

3. Unity of sentence content: a good sentence has unity - it expresses one idea.

4. Unity of paragraph content: A paragraph should have only one idea also.

A change of idea, or even a change of emphasis requires a new paragraph.

So you need to organize your thoughts BEFORE writing so your paragraphs flow
properly.

BUILDING A PARAGRAPH

1. Brainstorm
2. Choose a topic sentence. Position it.
3. Links between sentences.
4. Unity of paragraph.
5. Length of paragraph
6. Link to the next paragraph.

Note that
• Paragraphs are like links in a chain
• Paragraphs must follow each other in a regular, logical sequence
• The length and construction of a paragraph will vary according to the writer's purpose
• Short paragraphs provide lightness of touch and are good for quick movement
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• Long paragraphs provide weight and dignity.
• An important topic can be given longer treatment.
• Use balance and proportion for your paragraphs according to your purpose

VARIETY OF SENTENCE BEGINNINGS

There are a number of patterns you might like to try:

• subject verb
• Begin with a word
• Begin with a phrase - adjectival
- adverbial
• Begin with a clause - adjectival
- adverbial
• Begin with a prepositional phrase
• Begin with an infinitive
• Begin with a participle

EXERCISES

Try these exercises:

Complete each of the following sentences:

1. Yesterday, ...
2. Slowly, ...
3. Fatter than Garfield, ...
4. With great concern, ...
5. Whoever left the fridge door open, ...
6. While I was napping, ...
7. Over the roof, ...
8. To leave your cat ...
9. Hanging by his teeth, ...
10. Crouched near the door, ...

VARIETY OF SENTENCE LENGTH

Vary of sentence length is important. Avoid the tedium of too many ponderous long sentences
or the choppy effect of too many short ones.

Sentence variety: use length and inversion to achieve flow

Use of the short sentence

1. often provides a good introduction to a piece of writing
2. used in conclusion, it can clinch an argument or give point to a reflection
3. A series of short sentences can increase tension and excitement
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4. Short sentences can achieve hustle, bustle.

Use of the long sentence

1. Long sentences are necessarily more reflective and should be used to develop narrative
or cogent argument
2. Long sentences achieve peace and tranquillity
3. A symbol may be introduced, e.g. to typify loneliness, peace, quiet. Think about how to
use a symbol such as a solitary bird.

VARIETY OF SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION

Avoid repetitive sentence patterning.

Examples:

1. The youth pedalled to Woolworths on his bicycle, his mind fixed on nothing.
2. The balloon man whistled when he saw the children playing in the puddles.
3. Although it is past midnight, my daughter is still studying.
4. The bells chimed slowly but the old man turned away.
5. The fridge clattered in a way which I was used to but which still annoyed me.
6. If you walk into the road, it will not be my fault if a car hits you.
7. Whenever the motorbikes roar past and shatter my sleep, I curse.

TRY THESE EXERCISES:

1. The teacher ..... into the classroom.

2. On Fridays, ..............., which ...
3. When ........... , the child screams.
4. ................ and ............
5. Our uncle .............. which ......... when ................
6. Although ................., ...................... because ........

THE PROCESS of writing

Follow this process:

• Choose a topic
• Focus on the topic
• Brainstorm
• Revise
• Write
• Edit

Choose a topic about which you

• can enjoy writing
• know something
• can write something original

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Think carefully about the topic and the brainstorm, i.e., putting all the ideas down onto
paper.

Revise
• the quality of ideas
• the number of ideas

Write, making sure that you have the right length.

Edit: make
• improvements
• corrections

FUNCTION AND REGISTER

Always think carefully about your function - why are you writing? Try to do more than just
write because the teacher said so. Think about having your work published in your school
magazine or your class magazine, or pinned on the notice board. Try to get to the point
where you write because you enjoy writing.

Carefully consider your register - what language are you going to use?
This choice depends on your audience - whom you are writing to.

The purpose, audience and context of a piece of writing must be kept in mind. The
audience determines what style, tone, and language you use.

TONE refers to the attitude of the speaker insofar as this is expressed in words. TONE refers
to the WAY something might be said; it refers to the tone of voice in which something is said.

Before you write

• have a discussion
• exchange opinions
• do some fact-finding research

Then:
• jot down your ideas
• relate ideas
• formulate ideas
• collect ideas
• develop the topic
• make discoveries while drafting
• arrange the ideas
• order the ideas

The PROCESS of writing

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Here is a mnemonic to help you remember the main points to keep in mind when you are
planning and writing:

P - precision
R - revision
O - own experience
C - comparisons
E - evaluation
S - senses
S - strong verbs

Remember: perhaps the most difficult thing is getting started - don't wait, doodle, let you mind
wander. Instead, think, focus, let your thoughts turn around the topic; put pen to paper;
stopping, reviewing, sharing.

Make drafts; revise your work; encourage evaluation, comment, re-reading, re-ordering,
re-drafting. Focus on the coherence of your writing. Don’t forget a gripping, lively opening
sentence. Do not worry about making mistakes; errors are part of learning to write effectively.
Read your work to someone or ask someone to read your writing.

The purpose and advantages of proper drafting, editing and polishing of written work is to help
you grow as a writer.

EXERCISE

PLAN an essay on one of the above topics.

Choose a topic where you have something to say, where you are interested and enthusiastic.

Do not lose spontaneity. Experiment to keep your writing lively:

ALWAYS find out how long the composition is meant to be BEFORE you begin to plan!

PARAGRAPHS

Paragraphs are for the benefit of the reader. Use different sentence and paragraph structures for
different purposes.

THE TOPIC SENTENCE or key sentence

In the topic sentence the reader is given the main point of the paragraph. This can be a
sentence or part of a sentence. It contains the main idea of what the paragraph is about. All the
other sentences are related to this topic sentence. Remember, there must be unity of thought.
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* The topic sentence can be the first sentence, and the paragraph amplifies, qualifies or
supports it. The rest of the paragraph illustrates and expands the topic sentence.

* Less often, the writer will make a number of points, and keep the reader waiting to find
out what they all lead up to. In the last sentence, the writer will state the point he has
been leading up to.

* Sometimes the topic sentence is in the middle, with some preparation at the beginning,
and some rounding off afterwards.

EXAMPLES

* The topic sentence comes first:

I was born in a small house in a township on the eastern side of

Johannesburg. The house had only two rooms: the living room, which
included the kitchen, and the bedroom. There was little space for the
five children, and an over-worked mother who kept us all together.

* The topic sentence comes last:

Near the fire sat a middle-aged man with a smooth face, and a large
head. Next to him was a thin woman who rested her aching feet on a
battered tin. To her right, a young man sat staring into the flames, a
frown on his face. These were my only living relatives.

* The topic sentence comes in the middle:

I expect to pass through this world but once. Any good therefor that
I can do, or any kindness that I can show to any fellow-creature, let
me do it now. Let me not defer or neglect it, for I shall not pass this
way again.
R.L. Stevenson

Here the middle sentence states that the writer wants to do now all the good and kindness he
can. He prepares for this statement by giving a reason in the opening sentence. He rounds it
off with another reason in the concluding sentence.

WAYS TO DEVELOP THE TOPIC SENTENCE

We can develop the topic through

- example or illustration
- definition
- comparison or contrast
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 - details
- cause and effect
- repetition
- supporting facts
- explanations

EXERCISES

A. TOPIC SENTENCES

Read the following paragraph. Underline the topic sentence.

The Molefe yard, where Martha lived, was also home to more than twenty other people. It
served a row of five rooms, each about fourteen feet by twelve feet in size. When it rained, the
yard was as muddy as a cattle kraal, and the smell of beer, thrown out by the police on their
raids, combining with the stench of the lavatories, was nauseating.
The Marabi Dance Modikwe Dikobe

Here is a paragraph without a topic sentence. Supply one.

Roberta was the eldest. Of course, Mothers never have favourites, but if their Mother had had a
favourite, it might have been Roberta. Next came Peter, who wished to be an Engineer when he
grew up; and the youngest was Phyllis, who meant extremely well.
The Railway Children E. Nesbit

B. LINKING SENTENCES

Remember that each sentence must have one complete thought. Sentences can be linked
through conjunctions.

Examples of conjunctions:

when which who if although because since what when until although that

BUT

In a paragraph sentences must be linked to each other. How can we do this?

The correct use of logical connectors is very important in your writing. Connectors and
referents achieve coherence (e.g. relative pronouns and words such as "however",
"furthermore", "thus", etc)

For practice, let us look at a paragraph together, and underline the link words.

This was the first train the children saw on that railway which was in time to become so very
dear to them. They did not guess then how they would grow to love the railway, and how soon
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it would become the centre of their new life, nor what wonders and changes it would bring to
them. They only shivered and sneezed and hoped the walk to the new house would not be long.
Peter's nose was colder than he ever remembered it to have been before. Roberta's hat was
crooked, and the elastic seemed tighter than usual. Phyllis's shoe-laces had come undone.
The Railway Children E. Nesbit

Use these link words to join the following sentences: in so doing

The farmer's wife gave a great yawn. She looked up at the beams of the cellar over her head.

Use this link word to join the following sentences: however

She saw an old chopper stuck in one of the beams. It was a broken old rusty chopper.

Fill in the spaces using the link words given below to create a fluent paragraph:

of the two meanwhile at the same time

_____________, through the agency of Whymper, Napoleon was engaged in complicated

negotiations with Frederick and Pilkington. The pile of timber was still unsold. ____________
_______________, Frederick was the more anxious to get hold of it, but he would not offer a
reasonable price. _______________________ there were renewed rumours that Frederick and
his men were plotting to attack Animal Farm and to destroy the windmill, the building of which
had aroused furious jealousy in him.
Animal Farm George Orwell
Now do the same yourself, i.e., find the link words:

Underline the words that link these sentences.

Teachers who have marked examinations know that they have to make quick decisions about
more than one possible answer to a question. This also happens when teachers mark final matric
examinations.

In this village, the truly great man is no longer a warrior. Rather he is the one whose skills
provide security for his family.

Underline the link words in the following paragraph.

What makes a good music video? What techniques should the director employ? What visuals
are the most dynamic and exciting today? In an age of electronic media, these are questions of
crucial importance to the ambitious rock star. Several videos have foundered while others have
achieved billion dollar sales. How to avoid the problems of the former and capitalize on the
success of the latter is what occupies the current rock star's thoughts.

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Here is a paragraph of short jerky sentences. Rewrite the paragraph so that the sentences flow
well. Supply the conjunctions, and the link words.

The walk was dark and muddy. The children stumbled a little on the rough road. Once Phyllis
absently fell into a puddle. They picked her up. She was damp and unhappy. There were no
gas-lamps on the road. The road was uphill. The cart went at a slow pace. They followed the
gritty crunch of its wheels. Their eyes got used to the darkness. They could see the mound of
boxes swaying dimly in front of them.
adapted from The Railway Children by E. Nesbit

Suggestion:

The walk was dark and muddy. The children, as a result, stumbled a little on the rough road.
Once Phyllis absently fell into a puddle. When they picked her up, she was damp and unhappy.
Then, there were no gas-lamps on the road and it was uphill. The cart went at a slow pace.
They followed the gritty crunch of its wheels. When their eyes got used to the darkness, they
could see the mound of boxes swaying dimly in front of them.

LINKS BETWEEN PARAGRAPHS

Example:

In a very little while the animals had destroyed everything that reminded them of Mr Jones.
Napoleon had led them back to the store-shed and served out a double ration of corn to
everybody, with two biscuits for each dog. Then they sang "Beasts of England" from end to
end seven times running, and after that they settled down for the night and slept as they had
never slept before.

But they woke at dawn as usual, and suddenly remembering the glorious thing that had
happened, they all raced out to the pasture together. ....
Animal Farm George Orwell

Example to show the links between paragraphs:

KEEPING A LOW PROFILE

Going into the world is a hazard in that we are vulnerable to criticism

and rejection. We seek yet seldom find, a world where harmonious interaction
is manifested in all spheres of life – be it academic, social and emotional.
This is why we recoil and become reclusive when the first stab of pain
strikes.
At such time, keeping a low profile and letting a wave of solitude
engulf us is too great a temptation for us to resist.
It does not even have to be physical seclusion …

C. CONCLUDING SENTENCES
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Underline the concluding sentence in the following paragraph.

Terrified, the animals waited. It was impossible now to venture out of the shelter of the
buildings. After a few minutes the men were seen to be running in all directions. Then there
was a deafening roar. The pigeons swirled into the air, and all the animals, except Napoleon,
flung themselves flat on their bellies and hid their faces. When they got up again, a huge cloud
of black smoke was hanging where the windmill had been. Slowly the breeze drifted it away.
The windmill had ceased to exist!
Animal Farm George Orwell

Supply a concluding sentence for the following paragraph.

As I am writing this, I am crossing the Indian Ocean aboard a 9,5 m yacht. What am I doing
here?

Sometimes there can be a CLINCHER SENTENCE.

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In it, the main idea is repeated or rephrased, to emphasize or sum up the main idea. It should be
used sparingly for maximum effect.

"Now, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it: our lives are miserable,
laborious and short. We are born, we are given just so much food as will keep the breath in our
bodies, and those of us who are capable of it are forced to work to the last atom of our strength;
and the very instant that our usefulness has come to an end we are slaughtered with hideous
cruelty. No animal in England knows the meaning of happiness or leisure after he is a year old.
No animal in England is free. The life of an animal is misery and slavery: that is the plain
truth."
Animal Farm by George Orwell

D. DETAILS

Eliminate unnecessary details from the following paragraph.

After two years, I was offered a position with a leading magazine as their promotions
executive. The magazine was read by over one million people. By now I had
married a man ten years older than me, who believed women should not work after
marriage. Many men still believe this, even today. There was the inevitable clash of
wills, as I had decided that I wanted to be a career woman. There are more and more
career women as women become independent, and as money does not stretch as far
as it used to. We split up, and I decided to travel. Hong Kong is an amazing city.

E. DEVELOPING THE PARAGRAPH by

* EXAMPLES and ILLUSTRATIONS

To succeed at work today you must know what your job is. If, for example, you
discover your job description is "Executive Manager", you can sit around doing
crossword puzzles until retirement.
adapted from Dave Barry Cosmopolitan 1987

* DEFINITIONS

What is Osteoporosis? It is Greek for porous bones. Osteoporosis is the medical name
for the reduction of bone tissue to a level at which spontaneous fractures occur.

* COMPARISONS and CONTRASTS

It might be useful to compare the modern meeting to a funeral, in the sense that you
have a gathering of people who are wearing uncomfortable clothing and would rather be
somewhere else. The major differences: (1) usually only one or two people get to talk at
a funeral; and (2) most funerals have a definite purpose (to say nice things about a dead
person) and reach a definite conclusion (the person is put into the ground). Meetings,
however, generally drone on until the legs of the highest-ranking person fall asleep.
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 Dave Barry Cosmopolitan 1987

* DETAILS

You will certainly not be able to complain that life is dull or uneventful this month.
You will find yourself attending parties, and a champagne breakfast. There is also disco
dancing till dawn. The series of planets moving through the most sensitive area of your
horoscope predict outdoor games, and healthy exercise. Keep your suitcase packed for
last-minute trips.

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* SUPPORTING FACTS

Anita Brookner is the great specialist of isolated, lovelorn women, excluded from the
scrimmage of family life yet somehow unable to enjoy their freedom. Her new novel,
A Friend from England, is narrated by Rachel, a single woman who is absorbed into the
life of a couple. We learn little about Rachel herself since the point of the book is her
fascinated observation of the Livingstones. The life of this genteel and deeply devoted
pair centres on each other, and on their comfortable home.
Victoria Glendinning from Cosmopolitan 1987

UNUSUAL BATTLE

The hot incandescent blob glides across the heavens and, as it nears its end. it creates the most
remarkable colours. Streaks of orange, yellow, red, purple, and pink intermingle to form a kaleidoscope
of colours dominated by a fiery orange. The sun is dragged behind some mountains which seem to be
welded to the sky. In desperation, the sun gives off its final rays which filter through the web of palm and
oak trees onto the darkening land. Darkness slowly eats away at the light as it hungrily moves along.
Once the last beams have melted away, a new source of light appears. It is a shimmering crescent in
the darkening sky. The beautiful moon has won. But not for long.
- Sanjay Naran - Grade 10

In the early dawn, I hear the shuffling of legs as people walk by, leaving for work. Not very far from home
there is a railway station. where iron wheels grate on iron rails as the train grinds along.

The traffic leaving the location heading for the city can be amazing. The mini-buses honk their hooters at
pedestrians passing by. They screech their tyres as they stop to pick up a passenger and screech their
tyres once more as they accelerate to catch up with the next passenger. The streets turn smoky as the
rubber burns on the tarmac and, watching from afar, I would notice that the vehicles make a snake-like
motion as they zoom their way to the city. However, the blurring sound made by this convoy takes some
time getting used to.
- Glen Mthimkulu -Grade 12

WHITE NIGHTS

It is winter time. One of the most exciting seasons of the year. Christmas is coming. To stay at this time
in. Bavaria is the best decision one could make. Our house is on top of a little hill and overlooks the
valley. The atmosphere is so pleasant that one can hardly put it into words.

I am sitting in my favourite big French window. The family is relaxed and everybody is resting. The
house is full of the smell of Christmas cookies. The cinnamon and fresh apple smell floats through the
rooms. I've got a hot cup of tea in my hand and am looking through the window.

There is a full moon. Everything is so bright, and I can see the whole valley very clearly. The" enormous
moon, surrounded by his companion stars, dominates the sky, as the mountain is the dictator of the
valley. The immense stone power observes the valley. He is also surrounded by his companions: the
houses. The whole valley is protected by nature. Everything seems to be so peaceful.

The snowflakes are snowing down. Millions are coming down with a lightness like feathers. The rhythm
in their speed is calm and monotonous. Nothing changes their duty to fall down
on earth. The snowflakes give a dappled illusion like in an Impressionist painting. When they lie down on
the earth they look like little mirrors which reflect the light of the moon, glittering like diamonds. The earth
looks so rich. All the uglinesses which are caused by human beings are hidden away because of the
snow. Even the disgusting factory which is new in this valley looks like a creamy cake with a candle - the
chimney - on top of it.

In the valley everything is peaceful. I can see the lights in the windows and the smoke coming out of
chimneys. Surely all the people are also making their Christmas preparations? I hope because it is
Christmas time that people are more friendly to each other, and that the atmosphere inside the houses
is no longer harmful.

The footsteps in the snow are reflected peculiarly. The shadows are much darker and it looks as if an
army troop has walked over the garden. You can't see it when it is daylight.

The street which comes up the hill looks like a black enormous snake creeping up to the houses.

The very old oak tree cuts the picture of the valley into half. On the one side everything is so clear and
on the other side the naked branches split the houses and the mountain's foot. The oak tree looks like a
forgotten broom somebody stuck into the snow.

It is a pity that I cannot put this picture onto the paper. It is too beautiful and too impressive to describe.

- Veronica von Pfetten-Arnbach -

The Roman philosopher, Epictetus, said: If you want to be a good writer, write.

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