Psychological assessment

Psychological assessment is the attempt of a skilled professional, usually a psychologist, to use the techniques and tools of psychology to learn either general or specific facts about another person, either to inform others of how they function now, or to predict their behavior and functioning in the future. Psychological assessment is a process that involves the integration of information from multiple sources, such as tests of normal and abnormal personality, tests of ability or intelligence, tests of interests or attitudes, as well as information from personal interviews. Psychological assessment is similar to psychological testing but usually involves a more comprehensive assessment of the individual. Collateral information is also collected about personal, occupational, or medical history, such as from records or from interviews with parents, spouses, teachers, or previous therapists or physicians. Assessment psychology is the field of behavioral science concerned with methods of identifying similarities and differences among people in their personal characteristics and capacities. As such, psychological assessment comprises a variety of procedures that are employed in diverse ways to achieve numerous purposes. Assessment has sometimes been equated with testing, but the assessment process goes beyond merely giving tests. Psychological assessment involves integrating information gleaned not only from test protocols, but also from interview responses, behavioral observations, collateral reports, and historical documents. The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (American Educational Research Association [AERA], American Psychological Association, and National Council on Measurement in Education, 1999) specify in this regard that the use of tests provides one method of collecting information within the larger framework of a psychological assessment of an individual. . . .A psychological assessment is a comprehensive examination undertaken to answer specific questions about a clients psychological functioning during a particular time interval or to predict a clients psychological Functioning in the future Maloney and Ward (1976) offer that assessment
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Frequently uses tests typically does not involved defined procedures or steps contributes to some decision process to some problem, often by redefining the problem, breaking the problem down into smaller pieces, or highlighting some part(s) of the problem< requires the examiner to consider, evaluate, and integrate the data produces results that can not be evaluated solely on psychometric grounds

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is less routine and inflexible, more individualized.

The point of assessment is often diagnosis or classification. These are the act of placing a person in a strictly or loosely defined category of people. This allows us to quickly understand what they are like in general, and to assess the presence of other relevant characteristics based upon people similar to them. There are several parts to assessment.

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT (Concise Dictionary)

Psychological assessment is considered one of the most important functions in applied psychology. In psychological assessment the practitioner uses observation, interviews, and psychological tests to gain information about the clients personality characteristics, symptoms, and problems in order to arrive at practical decisions about their behavior. In an assessment study the practitioner identifies the main sources of a clients problems and attempts to predict the likely course of events under various conditions. Mental health patients may present with behavioral, emotional, or physical discomforts that are often difficult for a clinical practitioner to understand initially. Usually, in mental health settings a clinical psychologist attempts to understand the nature and extent of the patients problem through a process of inquiry that is similar to the way a detective might approach a case: by collecting evidence and using inductive and deductive logic to focus on the most likely factors. Assessment of mental disorders is usually more difficult, more uncertain, and more protracted than it is for evaluation of many physical diseases. Yet early assessment of mental health problems is extremely important in clinical practice no rational, specific treatment plan can be instituted without at least some general notion of what problems need to be addressed. In order for psychological assessment to proceed effectively, the person being evaluated must feel a sense of rapport with the clinician. The assessor needs to structure the testing situation so that the person feels comfortable. Clients need to feel that the testing will help the practitioner gain a clear understanding of their problems, to understand how the tests will be used, and to understand how the psychologist will incorporate test results in the clinical evaluation. What does a clinician need to know in a psychological assessment? First, of course, the problems must be identified. Are they of a situational nature; that is, have they been precipitated by some environmental stressor, or are the problems more pervasive and long-term? Or is it perhaps some combination of the two? Is there any evidence of recent deterioration in cognitive functioning? How long has the person had the symptoms and how is he or she dealing with the problem? What, if any, prior help has been sought? Are there indications of self-defeating behavior or low self-esteem, or is the individual using available personal and environmental resources? Following are several important areas to be considered in a psychological assessment.

Psychological Assessment (Gale Encyclopedia)

The assessment of personality variables. Psychological assessment is used for a variety of purposes, ranging from screening job applicants to providing data for research projects. Most assessment methods fall into one of three categories: observational methods, personality inventories, or projective techniques. Observational assessment is performed by a trained professional either in the subjects natural setting (such as a classroom), an experimental setting, or during an interview. Interviews may be either structured with a standard agenda, or unstructured, allowing the subject to determine much of what is discussed and in what order. Impressions gained from interviews are often recorded using rating scales listing different personality traits. Expectations of the observer, conveyed directly or through body language and other subtle cues, may influence how the interviewee performs and how the observer records and interprets his or her observations. Personality inventories consist of questionnaires on which people report their feelings or reactions in certain situations. They may assess a particular trait, such as anxiety, or a group of traits. One of the oldest and best known personality inventories is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), a series of 550 questions used to assess a number of personality traits and psychological disturbances for people over age 16. The MMPI is scored by comparing the subjects answers to those of people known to have the traits or disturbances in question. While initially designed to aid in the diagnosis of serious personality disorders, the MMPI is now widely used for persons with less severe problems, as enough data has been collected from this population to allow for reliable interpretation of test results. One problem with personality inventories is that people may try to skew their answers in the direction they think will help them obtain their objective in taking the test, whether it is being hired for a job or being admitted to a therapy program. Validity scales and other methods are commonly used to help determine whether an individual has answered the test items carefully and honestly. A projective test gives the subject a greater opportunity for imaginative freedom of expression than does a personality inventory, where the questions are fixed before hand. Projective tests present individuals with ambiguous situations which they must interpret, thus projecting their own personalities onto those situations. The best known projective test is the Rorschach Psycho-diagnostic Test, or inkblot, test first devised by the Swiss psychologist Hermann Rorschach in the 1920s. The test subject describes his or her reactions to elaborate inkblots presented on a series of ten cards. Responses are interpreted with attention to three factors: what parts or parts of each inkblot the subject responds to; what aspects of the inkblot are stressed (color, shape, etc.); and content (what the inkblot represents to the subject). Another widely used projective test is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), developed at Harvard University in the 1930s. In this test, the subject is shown a series of pictures, each of which can be interpreted in a variety of ways, and asked to construct a story based on each one. Responses tend to reflect a persons problems, motives, preoccupations, and interpersonal skills. Projective tests require skilled, trained examiners, and the reliability of these tests is difficult to establish due to their subjective nature. Assessments may vary

widely among different examiners. Scoring systems for particular traits have been fairly reliable when used with the Thematic Apperception Test.

Psychological Assessment of Mentally retarded

Definitions of Mental retardation and associated classification systems vary by source. Most definitions make reference to significantly sub average general intellectual functioning existing along with deficits in adaptive behavior, all manifested during the developmental period. Traditionally, mental retardation has been diagnosed primarily on the basis of intelligence tests, and then classified in terms of one of four categories: Mild, moderate, severe and profound. These categories designate progressively lower measured IQs and are associated with characteristic deficits in adaptive behavior with regard to specific contexts throughout the lifespan. The diagnosis of mental retardation is typically made on the basis of data from an appropriate measure of intelligence, as well as a measure of adaptive behavior. Especially for very young assesses, measures of sensory, motor and sensorimotor ability will be included as part of an evaluation, designed to distinguish deficit from developmental delay. If an evaluation of the assessors understanding of the basic concepts is desired, a test such as the Boehm Test of Basic concepts or the Bracken Basic Concept Scale revised may be employed. If Autism is suspected or needs to be ruled out, specialized diagnostic instruments, such as the Childhood Autism Rating scale or the Diagnostic Assessment for the severely handicapped-II, may be administered. An invaluable contribution can be made by assessors family by in such assessments (Parrette & Brotherson, 1996). Ideally, the net result of the assessment will be an understanding of the assessee- - not only in terms of scores on Standardized tests and standing relative to peers but an understanding of the individual of the individual in terms of his/her unique behavioral deficits and excesses across environments. Many standardized measures of adaptive behavior exist, and test users must be aware of the Pros and cons of these varied instruments. For example, the AAMR Adaptive Behavior scaleschool: 2 (ABS-S:2; Lambert et al1993) is something of an anomaly; it was designed to measure typical performance in coping with various environmental demands, but the domains assessed are mismatched with AAMRs 1992 manual (Stingnett, 1997). The Adaptive Behavior Assessment System (ABAS; Harrison & Oakland, 2000) was designed to provide a comprehensive assessment of persons from age 5 through 89 in

areas of adaptive skills specified in the AAMR manual, such as communication, community, home living, work and healthy and safety. The instrument, available in English and Spanish, comes in three different forms, one each for parents and teachers (available for age 5 through 21), and an adult form which may be completed by assesses themselves or by a spouse, a relative, or other caretaker. Scores allow for both evaluation of functioning and pinpointing of strengths and weaknesses. According to the manual, it may also have application in specifying goals for persons with learning disabilities. The test was published relatively recently. A more classic approach to assessment of adaptive behavior is embodied in a test referred to simply as the the Vineland. The Vineland Social Maturity Scale was developed by Edgar A. Doll (1953), then the director of research at the Vineland Training School in Vineland, New Jersey. Three decades later, the test was revised and published as the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (VABS; Sparrow et al, 1984). The revised test, like its predecessor, is usually referred to simply as the Vineland. In the tradition of its predecessor, it emphasizes social competence, which Doll conceived of as a functional composite of human traits which sub-serves social usefulness as reflected in self sufficiency and service to others. The primary use of the Vineland is to assess the adaptive behavior of developmentally disabled individuals. As in the assessment of the members of other population, education, training and experience with members of the population of people with mental retardation is essential for understanding and dealing with the special diagnosis questions unique to this population. In pervasive developmental disorders, multi-disciplinary collaboration in the assessment is particular criteria.

Psychological Assessment of Visually Impaired

A three category taxonomy of visual impairment useful in considerations related to testing and assessment was proposed by Bauman (1974). Included in the first category are people for whom vision is of no practical use in a testing or working assignment. The totally blind fall into this classification. Also included in this category are individuals who can differentiate between light and dark or even some who can distinguish shapes but can do so only when those shapes are held between the eyes and the source of light. The next category includes people for whom vision is of some assistance in handling large objects, locating test pieces in a work space, or following the hand movements of the examiner during a demonstration, but who cannot even read enlarged ink print effectively enough to be tested using such materials. Such individuals may be tested with materials that do not rely heavily on vision but, rather require a combination of vision and

touch. The third category includes people who read ink prink effectively, although they may need large type, may hold the page very close to their eyes, or may use a magnifier or some other special visual aid. Accommodation of a test-taker who is visually impaired may take different forms, depending of course, on the nature of the impairment. In general, it may be necessary to modify the lighting of the room. Some test-takers may require more light, others may be disturbed by excessive light and glare. Some other types of modification that may be made are as follows:  For the partially seeing examinee, writing instruments and written materials should be appropriate for the task. Thus, for example, a black felt-tip pen or crayon may be more appropriate than a fine ballpoint pen. Similarly, special widelined paper may be required.  In general, persons with impaired vision require more time than do non-impaired individuals. It may take longer to dictate materials than for the examinees to read the materials themselves. When the partially sighted person is asked to use residual vision, test fatigue may set in, shown by behavior such as eye rubbing or other extraneous movements. Adequate time must be allowed when testing the visually impaired and speeded tests may be inappropriate.  Multiple choice questions, even in Braille, are frowned on by experts in this area, because this type of question places an extra burden of concentration on the visually impaired examinee.  In the introduction to the test, the examinee with severe visual impairment may need time to touch all the materials he or she will be working with. During testing, more verbal information about what is going on may be required than for a sighted individual.  The work space should be relatively compact so that all equipment is within the examinees grasp.  If the test stimulus materials require some reading and the test is being administers to a partially sighted person, then it may be advisable to retype the materials in large type. An administration in Braille may be appropriate; however, relatively few blind individuals read Braille and relatively few of these people read it well. If an objective of test is assessment of intellectual ability, many tests and subtests such as the Verbal Scale of Wechsler test, have been used for purposes of estimation. Some research has called this fairly common practice into question. In one such study, children who were blind or who had severe visual impairment tended to perform

about 1 standard deviation below the mean of sighted children on the Comprehension subtests. Many other tests have been developed which cover the assessment of personality. Tests such as Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) can be administered to a blind person, if the blind person hears a description of the card and then proceeds to tell the story about it. A specially developed TAT-like test for the blind is the Sound test, which contains pre-recorded sounds such as footsteps, running water and music combined in some instances with verbal interchanges; the examinees task is to construct story about such oral stimuli. Other specially devised personality tests include the Emotional Factors Inventory and Adolescent Emotional Factors Inventory, two tests that include scales measuring the examinees adjustment to blindness. The Maxfield-Bucholz Social Competency Scale for Blind Pre-school Children is a measure of social competence and adaptive behavior designed for use with blind children from birth to age 6. Sensitivity to the needs of a particular population can be developed by work with members of that population, either in a professional or volunteer capacity. The prospective assessment professionals in working with members of various populations. Resources in the literature having to do with the assessment of the blind and the visually impaired include:            Bauman & Kropf (1979), Bradley-johnson (1994), Bradley-johnson & Harris (1990), Chase (1908), Drinkwater (1976), Evans (1978), Levack (1991), Loftin (1997), Swallow (1981), Tillman (1973), Vander Kolk (1977).

Psychological Assessment of Physically Impaired.

Motor deficits come in many forms and from varied causes, and may involve any muscle or muscle group in the body. Paralysis, tremors, involuntary movement, gait difficulties, and problems with volitional movement and speech are some of the many types of motor problems that may exist. The causes of the motor problem may be an inherited muscular or neurological difficulty or one acquired as a result of trauma to the muscle, the brain, or the spinal cord. Other casual factors include the wide range of neuromuscular diseases. Cases of cerebral palsy, for example are believed to occur at the rate of 1.6 to 5 per 1000 in the under 21 population. The palsy may be caused by an endocrine imbalance, low blood sugar, anoxia, a high forceps delivery, or any of a variety of other factors before, during, or after birth. Most of the tests used to assess intellectual functioning rely at least in part on the respondents ability to manipulate some materials- cards, blocks, beads, or whatever; the test that doe not contain such tasks would be criticized by experts as being too loaded on verbal as opposed to performance measures of intelligence. Examiners wishing to assess the intelligence of motor-handicapped people will attempt to select an existing test that does not need to be modified in any way for administration to the particular individual being assessed. If all the available tests were to require modification, the test requiring the least modification would be selected. An example of a modification that might be employed when administering a block design task, for example, would require the examiner to physically turn the blocks until the examinee indicates that the rotation of the block is his or her response. On paper-pencil test, that require fine motor coordination, such as tests that involve blackening tiny grids with number 2 pencils, the motor handicapped individual might require a writer to enter the responses. Psychologists and special educators who assess variables such as the severity of s motor deficit have a number of tests at their disposal for use. Four test batteries in current use are: l Purdue Perceptual motor survey: The Purdue is a screening device that provides guidelines for assessing various gross and fine motor functions in children aged 6 to 10 years. l The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency: This test also tests gross and fine motor skills as well as general motor proficiency. It is a technically sound test but one that requires (1) a very well trained examiner to administer and interpret, and (2) extensive space to administer, such as, a playground or a specially equipped room.

l The Frostig Movement Skills Test batter: this test is designed to assess sensorimotor development, gross and fine motor coordination, balance, strength, and flexibility in children aged 6 to 12 years. It is popular among many examiners because it is relatively simple to administer, contains a relatively wide range of motor skills sampled, and is easy to score. l The Southern California Sensory Integration Test: This test is also a measure of sensory integrative functioning designed for use with children aged 4 to 9 years. However, this time-consuming test must be administered and interpreted by a highly trained examiner. Other motor skills tests have been developed for use with elderly individuals, including the Physical disabilities Index (PDI). Designed specifically for frail elderly populations the PDI assesses strength, balance, mobility, and range of motion.

References:

y Handbook of Psychological Assessment by Michael Hersen. y Handbook of Psychological Assessment by Gary Groth. y Psychological Assessment by N.C.Ravat. y Mentally Retarded Child and His family by Richard Roch & Jan C Dobson. y Wikipedia .org y Wileys Handbook of Psychology. Vol-10. Assessment Psychology. y Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology. y Concise Dictionary of Psychology. y