CHAPTER TWO

NERVOUS SYSTEM is a network of cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body. TWO DIVISIONS 1. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM BRAIN interprets and stores information and sends orders to muscles, glands, organs. SPINAL CORD connects the brain and the peripheral nervous system. 2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM: automatically regulates glands, internal organs, blood vessels, pupil dilation, digestion, blood pressure. PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION: maintains body functions under ordinary conditions; saves energy. SYMPATHETIC DIVISION: prepares the body to react and expend energy in times of stress. SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM: carries sensory information and controls movement of the skeletal muscles. NEUROSCIENCE deals with the structure and functioning of the brain and the neurons, nerves and nervous tissue that form the nervous system, focusing on behaviour and learning. SANTIAGO RAMON Y CAJAL: studied slides of brain tissue, theorized that the nervous system is made of individual cells. STRUCTURE OF THE NEURON: the nervous systems building block. Each type of cell has a special purpose, function, structure. a. NEURON: cell that receives and sends messages within that system.

 DENDRITES: receives messages from other cells. SOMA: attached to dendrites; contains nucleus; keeps the entire cell functioning AXON: fiber attached to soma; carries messages to other cells. b. GLIAL CELLS: hold neurons in place; where they develop and work. Deliver nutrients to the neurons, clean up dead neurons, communicate with neurons and other glial cells. Act as insulation and support. OLIGODENDROCYTES: myelin in the brain and spinal cord. SCHWANN CELLS: myelin in the body. NEURILEMMA: thin membrane in addition to myelin, which helps damaged nerves repair themselves. MYELIN: a layer of fatty substances. Wraps around the shaft of axons, forming a protective sheath. Protects. MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS: damages the myelin sheath, loss of functions. NERVES: bundles of myelin-coated axons travel together on these cables. NEURAL IMPULSE Neurons at rest are electrically charged. IONS: charged particles. Ions inside the cell are mostly negatively charged, the ions outside are mostly positively charged. Cell membrane can break, which should lead to a mixing of ions, but the negative charges are too big. Sodium ions cluster around the membrane. Difference in charges is electric potential. RESTING POTENTIAL: when not firing a neural impulse. ACTION POTENTIAL: release of the neural impulse; reversal of the electric charge within the ion; the sequence of gates opening throughout the cell.

FIRING NEURONS: all or none. No half-assery here.

NEURON SEQUENCE THING 1. Inside of neuron is negatively charged, outside is positively charged. 2. Dendrites are activated. 3. Sodium-potassium gates open. 4. Action potential travels down the axon. 5. Neurotransmitters are released in the synaptic gap. 6. Neurotransmitters bind with receptor sites of dendrites of next neuron. 7. New action potential yay. THE SYNAPSE: sending messages to other cells AXON TERMINALS: end of the axon that fans out into shorter fibers. Tips have little knobs on them. SYNAPTIC KNOBS: the terminal button; contain synaptic vesicles. SYNAPTIC VESICLES: fluidfilled sac. NEUROTRANSMITTERS: chemicals suspended in fluid. They are inside the neuron and they transmit messages. SYNAPSE / SYNAPTIC GAP: the in between of neurotransmitters; fluid-filled. RECEPTOR SITES: little locks in the surface of dendrites [or certain cells] which fit only certain neurotransmitters. PRESYNAPTIC MEMBRANE: end of the axon containing neurotransmitters. POSTSYNAPTIC MEMBRANE: surface of the receiving neuron. EXCITATORY SYNAPSE: turn cells on. vs. INHIBITORY SYNAPSE: turn cells off. OMG DRUGS. :)) AGONISTS: chemical substances that can mimic or enhance the effects of neurotransmitters on the receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell.

ANTAGONISTS: chemical substances that block or reduce a cells response to other chemicals.

NEUROTRANSMITTERS ACETYLCHOLINE: found at synapses between neurons and muscle cells. Stimulates the skeletal muscles but slows down heart contractions. Excitatory effect at the synapse. GLUTAMATE: important in learning and memory, development of nervous system. Excitatory. GABA: gamma-aminobutyric acid, or y-aminobatyric acid. Inhibitory effect or calmness. SEROTONIN: found in the lower part of the brain, either excitatory or inhibitory. Associated with sleep, mood, appetite. DOPAMINE: found in the brain, different effects depending on the exact location of activity. Excitatory or inhibitory. Too little? Parkinsons. Too much? Schizophrenia. NOREPINEPHRINE: Excitatory. Arousal and mood. ENDORPHINS: Inhibitory. Pain relief.

REUPTAKE and ENZYMES REUPTAKE: process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles. The longer it takes, the longer-lasting the effects or whatever neurotransmitter is up. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM BRAIN: true core of the nervous system. Commands the body, makes decisions, understands information. SPINAL CORD: long bundle of neurons = message pipeline. REFLEXES a. AFFERENT/SENSORY NEURONS: carry messages from senses to spinal cord. ACCESS the spinal cord.

b. EFERENT/MOTOR NEURONS: carry messages from spinal cord to the muscles, glands. EXISTS the spinal cord. c. INTERNEURONS: connect the afferent to the efferent. NEUROPLASTICITY: ability to constantly change the structure or functions of cells. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM: all the nerves and neurons not contained in the brain and spinal cord. 1. SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM: soma = cell body SENSORY PATHWAY: all the nerves carrying messages from MOTOR PATHWAY: nerves carrying messages from the central the senses to the central nervous system. Afferent neurons. nervous system to the voluntary or skeletal muscles of the body. 2. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM: more or less automatic, like organs, glands, involuntary muscles. SYMPATHETIC DIVISION: fight or flight system. Stress hormones travel all over the body but affect only certain parts. PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION: eat, drink, rest system. Restores the body after stress in the sympathetic division. THE BRAIN: HOW TO STUDY IT DEEP LESIONING: insertion of insulated wire to kill certain neurons. ELECTRICAL STIMULATION OF THE BRAIN: electrical currents to make neurons react. ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPH [EEG]: machine designed to record brain-wave patterns produced by electrical activity on brain surface. Lowest to highest: beta to alpha to theta to delta. New analysis methods: Independent Component Analysis and Event-Related Potential. Can show which parts of brain are active when.

COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY [CT]: brain X-rays, mapping out slices by computer. Can show abnormal brain structure, injuries, tumours, damage. MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING [MRI]: more detail. Machine generates a powerful magnetic field and the computer creates a 3D image of it. POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY [PET]: brain is injected with radioactive glucose, areas that use it up are monitored. FUNCTIONAL MRI [fMRI]: changes in the oxygen levels of blood.

THE BRAIN: STRUCTURES MEDULLA: important life-sustaining functions. PONS: crossover of left and right hemispheres of the brain. RETICULAR FORMATION: arousal and attention. RETICULAR ACTIVATION SYSTEM: keeps people awake and alert. CEREBELLUM: coordination, reflexes, skills. LIMBIC SYSTEM: involved in emotions, motivation, learning. a. THALAMUS: sensory center. b. HYPOTHALAMUS: motivational behaviour. PITUARY GLAND: master gland of endocrine glands. c. HIPPOCAMPUS: long-term memory. d. AMYGDALA: fear. KLUVER-BUCY SYNDROME: loss of fear due to removal of temporal lobes. CORTEX: outer covering of brain. Wrinkled = good. CORPUS CALLOSUM: neurons connecting left and right hemispheres. OCCIPITAL LOBES: sight. PRIMARY VISUAL CORTEX: processes information from the eyes. VISUAL ASSOCIATION CORTEX: identifies and makes sense of information from eyes. PARIETAL LOBES: touch, taste, temperature sensations. SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX: processes information from the skin. TEMPORAL LOBES: hearing. May include taste. PRIMARY AUDITORY CORTEX: processes what was hard. AUDITORY

ASSOCIATION CORTEX: indentifies and makes sense of information hard. FRONTAL LOBES: higher mental functions. Involves emotions as its connected to the limbic system. MOTOR CORTEX: movement of voluntary muscles. ASSOCIATION AREAS: making connections between the sensory information and stored memories. BROCAS AREA: Smooth, connected speech. Candice. =)) WERNICKES AREA: Fluently but wrong words. Iris. =)) SPATIAL NEGLECT: damage to the association areas results to inability to recognize. CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES: two divisions of cortex. SPLIT-BRAIN RESEARCH: Roger Sperry cut through the corpus callosum to relieve epileptic stress and found two divisions. LEFT: thought analysis. Language, speech, handwriting, calculation, rhythm. Breaks down information. RIGHT: perception, visualization, recognition, expression. Comprehends simple language but does not produce speech. Takes information as whole. ENDOCRINE GLANDS: no ducts, secrete directly into bloodstream. Hormones. SECRETES PITUARY GLAND Human growth hormones, other hormone-secreting glands. PINEAL GLAND THYROID GLAND PANCREAS Melatonin. Thyroxin. Insulin, glucagons. Regulates sleep-wake cycle. Regulates metabolism. Too little insulin? Diabetes. Too much? FUNCTION

Hypoglycemia. GONADS Regulates sexual behaviour and reproduction. ADRENAL GLANDS Each divided into adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex. ADRENAL CORTEX: Corticoids. CORTISOL: released when body experiences stress. ADRENAL MEDULLA: epinephrine and norepinephrine. CORTICOIDS: Regulates salt intake, controls stress reaction. CORTISOL: release of glucose, proving energy for the brain. NOREPINEPHRINE: Arousal, mood.

MIRROR NEURONS: neurons that fire when an action is seen or observed are the same neurons that fire when the action if done by self.