ABSTRACT

In power distribution networks, reactive power is the main cause of increasing distribution system losses and various power quality problems. Conventionally, Static Var Compensators (SVCs) have been used in conjunction with passive filters at the distribution level for reactive power compensation and mitigation of power quality problems. Though SVCs are very effective system controllers used to provide reactive power compensation at the transmission level, their limited bandwidth, higher passive element count that increases size and losses, and slower response make them inapt for the modern day distribution requirement.

Distribution Static Compensator is an important device in correcting power factor, maintaining constant distribution voltage, and mitigating harmonics in a distribution network. Prior to the type of control algorithm incorporated, the choice of converter configuration is an important criterion. The two converter configurations are voltage source converter or current source converter, in addition to passive storage elements, either a capacitor or an inductor respectively. Normally, voltage source converters are preferred due to their smaller size, less heat dissipation and less cost of the capacitor, as compared to an inductor for the same rating. This paper focuses on the comparative study of the control techniques for voltage source converter based Distribution Static Compensator, broadly classified as voltage controlled and current controlled. Under the former, phase shift control is compared with the latter, considering indirect decoupled current control and regulation of AC bus and DC link voltage with hysteresis current control. The first two schemes have been successfully implemented for Static Compensator control at the transmission level for reactive power compensation and voltage support, and are recently being incorporated to control a Distribution Static Compensator employed at the distribution end. The operating principles of a DSTATCOM are based on the exact equivalence of the conventional rotating synchronous compensator. This paper is an attempt to compare the following schemes of a DSTATCOM for power factor correction and harmonic mitigation based on: Phase shift control, Indirect decoupled current control, Regulation of AC bus and DC link voltage.
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The following indices are considered for comparisonmeasurement and signal conditioning requirement, performance with varying linear/nonlinear load, total harmonic distortion, DC link voltage variation and switching frequency. The paper briefly describes the salient features of each strategy, with their merits and demerits. A dynamic simulation model of the DSTATCOM has been developed for various control strategies, in Matlab/SimPower System environment.

1. INTRODUCTION
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In power distribution networks, reactive power is the main cause of increasing distribution system losses and various power quality problems. Conventionally, Static Var Compensators (SVCs) have been used in conjunction with passive filters at the distribution level for reactive power compensation and mitigation of power quality problems [1]. Though SVCs are very effective system controllers used to provide reactive power compensation at the transmission level, their limited bandwidth, higher passive element count that increases size and losses, and slower response make them inapt for the modern day distribution requirement. Another compensating system has been proposed by [2], employing a combination of SVC and active power filter, which can compensate three phase loads in a minimum of two cycles. Thus, a controller which continuously monitors the load voltages and currents to determine the right amount of compensation required by the system and the less response time should e a viable alternative. Distribution Static Compensator (DSTATCOM) has the capacity to overcome the above mentioned drawbacks by providing precise control and fast response during transient and steady state, with reduced foot print and weight [1,3]. A DSTATCOM is basically a converter based distribution flexible AC transmission controller, sharing many similar concepts with that of a Static Compensator (STATCOM) used at the transmission level. At the transmission level, STATCOM handles only fundamental reactive power and provides voltage support, while a DSTATCOM is employed at the distribution level or at the load end for dynamic compensation. The latter, DSTATCOM, can be one of the viable alternatives to SVC in a distribution network. Additionally, a DSTATCOM can also behave as a shunt active filter [4,5], to eliminate unbalance or distortions in the source current or the supply voltage, as per the IEEE-519 standard limits. Since a DSTATCOM is such a multifunctional device, the main objective of any control algorithm should be to make it flexible and easy to implement, in addition to exploiting its multi functionality to the maximum. Prior to the type of control algorithm incorporated, the choice of converter configuration is an important criterion. The two converter configurations are voltage source converter or current source converter, in addition to passive storage elements, either a capacitor or an inductor respectively. Normally, voltage source converters are preferred due to their smaller size, less heat dissipation and less cost of the capacitor, as compared to an inductor for the same rating [6-9]. This paper focuses on the comparative study of the control techniques for voltage source converter based DSTATCOM, broadly classified into voltage control DSTATCOM and current control DSTATCOM. Under the former, phase shift control [10] is compared with the latter, considering indirect decoupled current control [11,12] and regulation of AC bus and DC link voltage with hysteresis current control [13,14]. The first two schemes have
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been successfully implemented for STATCOM control at the transmission level, for reactive power compensation, and voltage support and are recently being incorporated to control a DSTATCOM employed at the distribution end [15]. The following indices are considered for comparison measurement and signal conditioning requirement, performance with varying linear/nonlinear load, total harmonic distortion (THD), DC link voltage variation and switching frequency. The paper briefly describes the salient features of each strategy, with their merits and demerits. The paper also emphasizes the choice of current control technique, as it significantly affects the performance of a DSTATCOM. A dynamic simulation model of the DSTATCOM has been developed for various control algorithms in Matlab/SimPower System environment.

2. FACTS DEVICES
Flexible AC Transmission Systems, called FACTS, got in the recent years a well known term for higher controllability in power systems by means of power electronic devices. Several FACTS-devices have been introduced for various applications worldwide. A number of new types of devices are in the stage of being introduced in practice.

In most of the applications the controllability is used to avoid cost intensive or landscape requiring extensions of power systems, for instance like upgrades or additions of substations and power lines. FACTS-devices provide a better adaptation to varying operational conditions and improve the usage of existing installations. The basic applications of FACTS-devices are: Power flow control, Increase of transmission capability, Voltage control, Reactive power compensation, Stability improvement, Power quality improvement, Power conditioning, Flicker mitigation, Interconnection of renewable and distributed generation and storages. Figure 1.1 shows the basic idea of FACTS for transmission systems. The usage of lines for active power transmission should be ideally up to the thermal limits. Voltage and stability limits shall be shifted with the means of the several different FACTS devices. It can be seen that with growing line length, the opportunity for FACTS devices gets more and more important. The influence of FACTS-devices is achieved through switched or controlled shunt compensation, series compensation or phase shift control. The devices work electrically as fast current, voltage or impedance controllers. The power electronic allows very short reaction times down to far below one second.

The development of FACTS-devices has started with the growing capabilities of power electronic components. Devices for high power levels have been made available in converters for high and even highest voltage levels. The overall starting points are network elements influencing the reactive power or the impedance of a part of the power system. Figure 1.2 shows a number of basic devices separated into the conventional ones and the FACTS-devices. For the FACTS side the taxonomy in terms of 'dynamic' and 'static' needs some explanation. The term 'dynamic' is used to express the fast controllability of FACTS-devices provided by the power electronics. This is one of the main differentiation factors from the conventional devices. The term 'static' means that the devices have no moving parts like mechanical switches to perform the dynamic controllability. Therefore most of the FACTSdevices can equally be static and dynamic.

The left column in Figure 1.2 contains the conventional devices build out of fixed or mechanically switch able components like resistance, inductance or capacitance together with transformers. The FACTS-devices contain these elements as well but use additional power electronic valves or converters to switch the elements in smaller steps or with switching patterns within a cycle of the alternating current. The left column of FACTS-devices uses Thyristor valves or converters. These valves or converters are well known since several years. They have low losses because of their low switching frequency of once a cycle in the converters or the usage of the Thyristors to simply bridge impedances in the valves. The right column of FACTS-devices contains more advanced technology of voltage source converters based today mainly on Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) or Insulated Gate Commutated Thyristors (IGCT). Voltage Source Converters provide a free controllable voltage in magnitude and phase due to a pulse width modulation of the IGBTs or IGCTs. High modulation frequencies allow to get low harmonics in the output signal and even to compensate disturbances coming from the network. The disadvantage is that with an increasing switching frequency, the losses are increasing as well. Therefore special designs of the converters are required to compensate this.

Configurations of FACTS-Devices:
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2.1. Shunt Devices:

The most used FACTS-device is the SVC or the version with Voltage Source Converter called STATCOM. These shunt devices are operating as reactive power compensators. The main applications in transmission, distribution and industrial networks are: Reduction of unwanted reactive power flows and therefore reduced network losses. Keeping of contractual power exchanges with balanced reactive power. Compensation of consumers and improvement of power quality especially with huge demand fluctuations like industrial machines, metal melting plants, railway or underground train systems. Compensation of Thyristor converters e.g. in conventional HVDC lines. Improvement of static or transient stability. Almost half of the SVC and more than half of the STATCOMs are used for industrial applications. Industry as well as commercial and domestic groups of users require power quality. Flickering lamps are no longer accepted, nor are interruptions of industrial processes due to insufficient power quality. Railway or underground systems with huge load variations require SVCs or STATCOMs. 2.1.1. SVC: Electrical loads both generate and absorb reactive power. Since the transmitted load varies considerably from one hour to another, the reactive power balance in a grid varies as well. The result can be unacceptable voltage amplitude variations or even a voltage depression, at the extreme a voltage collapse. A rapidly operating Static Var Compensator (SVC) can continuously provide the reactive power required to control dynamic voltage oscillations under various system conditions and thereby improve the power system transmission and distribution stability. Applications of the SVC systems in transmission systems: a. To increase active power transfer capacity and transient stability margin b. To damp power oscillations c. To achieve effective voltage control In addition, SVCs are also used 1. In Transmission Systems a. To reduce temporary over voltages
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b. To damp sub synchronous resonances c. To damp power oscillations in interconnected power systems 2. In Traction Systems a. To balance loads b. To improve power factor c. To improve voltage regulation 3. In HVDC systems a. To provide reactive power to acdc converters 4. In Arc Furnaces a. To reduce voltage variations and associated light flicker Installing an SVC at one or more suitable points in the network can increase transfer capability and reduce losses while maintaining a smooth voltage profile under different network conditions. In addition an SVC can mitigate active power oscillations through voltage amplitude modulation. SVC installations consist of a number of building blocks. The most important is the Thyristor valve, i.e. stack assemblies of series connected anti-parallel Thyristors to provide controllability. Air core reactors and high voltage AC capacitors are the reactive power elements used together with the Thyristor valves. The step up connection of this equipment to the transmission voltage is achieved through a power transformer.

Fig. 2.1. SVC building blocks and voltage / current characteristic In principle the SVC consists of Thyristor Switched Capacitors (TSC) and Thyristor Switched or Controlled Reactors (TSR / TCR). The coordinated control of a combination of these branches varies the reactive power as shown in Figure. The first commercial SVC was installed in 1972 for an electric arc furnace. On transmission level the first SVC was used in 1979. Since then it is widely used and the most accepted FACTS-device. 2.1.1.1. SVC Using TCR and FC: In this arrangement, two or more FC (fixed capacitor) banks are connected to a TCR (thyristor controlled reactor) through a step-down transformer. The rating of the reactor is chosen larger than the rating of the capacitor by an amount to provide the maximum lagging vars that have to be absorbed from the system. By changing the firing angle of the thyristor controlling the reactor from 90 to 180, the reactive power can be varied over the entire range from maximum lagging vars to leading vars that can be absorbed from the system by this compensator.

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Fig. 2.2. SVC Using TCR and FC 2.1.1.2. SVC of the FC/TCR type: The main disadvantage of this configuration is the significant harmonics that will be generated because of the partial conduction of the large reactor under normal sinusoidal steadystate operating condition when the SVC is absorbing zero MVAr. These harmonics are filtered in the following manner. Triplex harmonics are canceled by arranging the TCR and the secondary windings of the step-down transformer in delta connection. The capacitor banks with the help of series reactors are tuned to filter fifth, seventh, and other higher-order harmonics as a high-pass filter. Further losses are high due to the circulating current between the reactor and capacitor banks.

Fig. 2.3 loss characteristics of TSCTCR, TCRFC compensators and synchronous condenser

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Comparison of the loss characteristics of TSCTCR, TCRFC compensators and synchronous condenser these SVCs do not have a short-time overload capability because the reactors are usually of the air-core type. In applications requiring overload capability, TCR must be designed for short-time overloading, or separate thyristor-switched overload reactors must be employed. 2.1.1.3. SVC Using a TCR and TSC: This compensator overcomes two major shortcomings of the earlier compensators by reducing losses under operating conditions and better performance under large system disturbances. In view of the smaller rating of each capacitor bank, the rating of the reactor bank will be 1/n times the maximum output of the SVC, thus reducing the harmonics generated by the reactor. In those situations where harmonics have to be reduced further, a small amount of FCs tuned as filters may be connected in parallel with the TCR.

Fig. .2.4. SVC of combined TSC and TCR type When large disturbances occur in a power system due to load rejection, there is a possibility for large voltage transients because of oscillatory interaction between system and the SVC capacitor bank or the parallel. The LC circuit of the SVC in the FC compensator. In the
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TSCTCR scheme, due to the flexibility of rapid switching of capacitor banks without appreciable disturbance to the power system, oscillations can be avoided, and hence the transients in the system can also be avoided. The capital cost of this SVC is higher than that of the earlier one due to the increased number of capacitor switches and increased control complexity. 2.1.2. STATCOM: In 1999 the first SVC with Voltage Source Converter called STATCOM (STATic COMpensator) went into operation. The STATCOM has a characteristic similar to the synchronous condenser, but as an electronic device it has no inertia and is superior to the synchronous condenser in several ways, such as better dynamics, a lower investment cost and lower operating and maintenance costs. A STATCOM is build with Thyristors with turn-off capability like GTO or today IGCT or with more and more IGBTs. The static line between the current limitations has a certain steepness determining the control characteristic for the voltage. The advantage of a STATCOM is that the reactive power provision is independent from the actual voltage on the connection point. This can be seen in the diagram for the maximum currents being independent of the voltage in comparison to the SVC. This means, that even during most severe contingencies, the STATCOM keeps its full capability. In the distributed energy sector the usage of Voltage Source Converters for grid interconnection is common practice today. The next step in STATCOM development is the combination with energy storages on the DC-side. The performance for power quality and balanced network operation can be improved much more with the combination of active and reactive power.

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Fig. 2.5. STATCOM structure and voltage / current characteristic STATCOMs are based on Voltage Sourced Converter (VSC) topology and utilize either Gate-Turn-off Thyristors (GTO) or Isolated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) devices. The STATCOM is a very fast acting, electronic equivalent of a synchronous condenser. If the STATCOM voltage, Vs, (which is proportional to the dc bus voltage Vc) is larger than bus voltage, Es, then leading or capacitive VARS are produced. If Vs is smaller then Es then lagging or inductive VARS are produced. 2.1.2.1. 6 Pulses STATCOM: The three phases STATCOM makes use of the fact that on a three phase, fundamental frequency, steady state basis, and the instantaneous power entering a purely reactive device must be zero. The reactive power in each phase is supplied by circulating the instantaneous real power between the phases. This is achieved by firing the GTO/diode switches in a manner that maintains the phase difference between the ac bus voltage ES and the STATCOM generated voltage VS. Ideally it is possible to construct a device based on circulating instantaneous power which has no energy storage device (i.e. no dc capacitor).

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Fig. 2.6. 6 Pulses STATCOM A practical STATCOM requires some amount of energy storage to accommodate harmonic power and ac system unbalances, when the instantaneous real power is non-zero. The maximum energy storage required for the STATCOM is much less than for a TCR/TSC type of SVC compensator of comparable rating. 2.1.2.2. STATCOM Equivalent Circuit Several different control techniques can be used for the firing control of the STATCOM. Fundamental switching of the GTO/diode once per cycle can be used. This approach will minimize switching losses, but will generally utilize more complex transformer topologies. As an alternative, Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) techniques, which turn on and off the GTO or IGBT switch more than once per cycle, can be used. This approach allows for simpler transformer topologies at the expense of higher switching losses.

Fig. 2.6 equivalent circuit of STATCOM The 6 Pulse STATCOM using fundamental switching will of course produce the 6 N 1 harmonics. There are a variety of methods to decrease the harmonics. These methods include the
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basic 12 pulse configuration with parallel star / delta transformer connections, a complete elimination of 5th and 7th harmonic current using series connection of star/star and star/delta transformers and a quasi 12 pulse method with a single star-star transformer, and two secondary windings, using control of firing angle to produce a 30 hase shift between the two 6 pulse p bridges. This method can be extended to produce a 24 pulse and a 48 pulse STATCOM, thus eliminating harmonics even further. Another possible approach for harmonic cancellation is a multi-level configuration which allows for more than one switching element per level and therefore more than one switching in each bridge arm. The ac voltage derived has a staircase effect, dependent on the number of levels. This staircase voltage can be controlled to eliminate harmonics.

2.2. Series Devices:

Series devices have been further developed from fixed or mechanically switched compensations to the Thyristor Controlled Series Compensation (TCSC) or even Voltage Source Converter based devices. The main applications are: Reduction of series voltage decline in magnitude and angle over a power line, Reduction of voltage fluctuations within defined limits during changing power transmissions, Improvement of system damping resp. damping of oscillations, Limitation of short circuit currents in networks or substations, Avoidance of loop flows resp. power flow adjustments. 2.2.1. TCSC: Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC) address specific dynamical problems in transmission systems. Firstly it increases damping when large electrical systems are interconnected. Secondly it can overcome the problem of Sub Synchronous Resonance (SSR), a phenomenon that involves an interaction between large thermal generating units and series compensated transmission systems. The TCSC's high speed switching capability provides a mechanism for controlling line power flow, which permits increased loading of existing transmission lines, and allows for rapid readjustment of line power flow in response to various contingencies. The TCSC also can regulate steady-state power flow within its rating limits.
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From a principal technology point of view, the TCSC resembles the conventional series capacitor. All the power equipment is located on an isolated steel platform, including the Thyristor valve that is used to control the behavior of the main capacitor bank. Likewise the control and protection is located on ground potential together with other auxiliary systems. Figure shows the principle setup of a TCSC and its operational diagram. The firing angle and the thermal limits of the Thyristors determine the boundaries of the operational diagram.

Fig. 2.7. TCSC circuit and operation diagram 2.2.2. Advantages

Continuous control of desired compensation level Direct smooth control of power flow within the network Improved capacitor bank protection Local mitigation of sub synchronous resonance (SSR). This permits higher levels of compensation in networks where interactions with turbine-generator torsional vibrations or with other control or measuring systems are of concern.

Damping of electromechanical (0.5-2 Hz) power oscillations which often arise between areas in a large interconnected power network. These oscillations are due to the dynamics of inter area power transfer and often exhibit poor damping when the aggregate power transfer over a corridor is high relative to the transmission strength.

2.3. Shunt And Series Devices 2.3.1. Dynamic Power Flow Controller(DFC) A new device in the area of power flow control is the Dynamic Power Flow Controller (DFC). The DFC is a hybrid device between a Phase Shifting Transformer (PST) and switched series compensation.
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A functional single line diagram of the Dynamic Flow Controller is shown in Figure 1.19. The Dynamic Flow Controller consists of the following components: A standard phase shifting transformer with tap-changer (PST) Series-connected Thyristor Switched Capacitors and Reactors (TSC / TSR) A mechanically switched shunt capacitor (MSC). (This is optional depending on the system reactive power requirements)

Fig. 2.8. principle configuration of DFC Based on the system requirements, a DFC might consist of a number of series TSC or TSR. The mechanically switched shunt capacitor (MSC) will provide voltage support in case of overload and other conditions. Normally the reactance of reactors and the capacitors are selected based on a binary basis to result in a desired stepped reactance variation. If a higher power flow resolution is needed, a reactance equivalent to the half of the smallest one can be added. The switching of series reactors occurs at zero current to avoid any harmonics. However, in general, the principle of phase-angle control used in TCSC can be applied for a continuous control as well. The operation of a DFC is based on the following rules: TSC / TSR are switched when a fast response is required. The relieve of overload and work in stressed situations is handled by the TSC / TSR.

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 The switching of the PST tap-changer should be minimized particularly for the currents higher than normal loading. The total reactive power consumption of the device can be optimized by the operation of the MSC, tap changer and the switched capacities and reactors. In order to visualize the steady state operating range of the DFC, we assume an inductance in parallel representing parallel transmission paths. The overall control objective in steady state would be to control the distribution of power flow between the branch with the DFC and the parallel path. This control is accomplished by control of the injected series voltage. The PST (assuming a quadrature booster) will inject a voltage in quadrature with the node voltage. The controllable reactance will inject a voltage in quadrature with the throughput current. Assuming that the power flow has a load factor close to one, the two parts of the series voltage will be close to collinear. However, in terms of speed of control, influence on reactive power balance and effectiveness at high/low loading the two parts of the series voltage has quite different characteristics. The steady state control range for loadings up to rated current is illustrated in Figure 1.20, where the x-axis corresponds to the throughput current and the y-axis corresponds to the injected series voltage.

Fig. 2.9. Operational diagram of a DFC Operation in the first and third quadrants corresponds to reduction of power through the DFC, whereas operation in the second and fourth quadrants corresponds to increasing the power
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flow through the DFC. The slope of the line passing through the origin (at which the tap is at zero and TSC / TSR are bypassed) depends on the short circuit reactance of the PST. Starting at rated current (2 kA) the short circuit reactance by itself provides an injected voltage (approximately 20 kV in this case). If more inductance is switched in and/or the tap is increased, the series voltage increases and the current through the DFC decreases (and the flow on parallel branches increases). The operating point moves along lines parallel to the arrows in the figure. The slope of these arrows depends on the size of the parallel reactance. The maximum series voltage in the first quadrant is obtained when all inductive steps are switched in and the tap is at its maximum. Now, assuming maximum tap and inductance, if the throughput current decreases (due e.g. to changing loading of the system) the series voltage will decrease. At zero current, it will not matter whether the TSC / TSR steps are in or out, they will not contribute to the series voltage. Consequently, the series voltage at zero current corresponds to rated PST series voltage. Next, moving into the second quadrant, the operating range will be limited by the line corresponding to maximum tap and the capacitive step being switched in (and the inductive steps by-passed). In this case, the capacitive step is approximately as large as the short circuit reactance of the PST, giving an almost constant maximum voltage in the second quadrant.

2.3.2. Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC): The UPFC is a combination of a static compensator and static series compensation. It acts as a shunt compensating and a phase shifting device simultaneously.

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Fig. 2.10. Principle configuration of an UPFC The UPFC consists of a shunt and a series transformer, which are connected via two voltage source converters with a common DC-capacitor. The DC-circuit allows the active power exchange between shunt and series transformer to control the phase shift of the series voltage. This setup, as shown in Figure 1.21, provides the full controllability for voltage and power flow. The series converter needs to be protected with a Thyristor bridge. Due to the high efforts for the Voltage Source Converters and the protection, an UPFC is getting quite expensive, which limits the practical applications where the voltage and power flow control is required simultaneously.

2.3.2.1. OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF UPFC The basic components of the UPFC are two voltage source inverters (VSIs) sharing a common dc storage capacitor, and connected to the power system through coupling transformers. One VSI is connected to in shunt to the transmission system via a shunt transformer, while the other one is connected in series through a series transformer. A basic UPFC functional scheme is shown in fig.2.11.

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Fig. 2.11. UPFC The series inverter is controlled to inject a symmetrical three phase voltage system (Vse), of controllable magnitude and phase angle in series with the line to control active and reactive power flows on the transmission line. So, this inverter will exchange active and reactive power with the line. The reactive power is electronically provided by the series inverter, and the active power is transmitted to the dc terminals. The shunt inverter is operated in such a way as to demand this dc terminal power (positive or negative) from the line keeping the voltage across the storage capacitor Vdc constant. So, the net real power absorbed from the line by the UPFC is equal only to the losses of the inverters and their transformers. The remaining capacity of the shunt inverter can be used to exchange reactive power with the line so to provide a voltage regulation at the connection point. The two VSIs can work independently of each other by separating the dc side. So in that case, the shunt inverter is operating as a STATCOM that generates or absorbs reactive power to regulate the voltage magnitude at the connection point. Instead, the series inverter is operating as SSSC that generates or absorbs reactive power to regulate the current flow, and hence the power low on the transmission line. The UPFC has many possible operating modes. In particular, the shunt inverter is operating in such a way to inject a controllable current, Ish into the transmission line. The shunt inverter can be controlled in two different modes: VAR Control Mode: The reference input is an inductive or capacitive VAR request. The shunt inverter control translates the var reference into a corresponding shunt current request and adjusts gating of the inverter to establish the desired current. For this mode of control a feedback signal representing the dc bus voltage, Vdc, is also required.
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Automatic Voltage Control Mode: The shunt inverter reactive current is automatically regulated to maintain the transmission line voltage at the point of connection to a reference value. For this mode of control, voltage feedback signals are obtained from the sending end bus feeding the shunt coupling transformer. The series inverter controls the magnitude and angle of the voltage injected in series with the line to influence the power flow on the line. The actual value of the injected voltage can be obtained in several ways. Direct Voltage Injection Mode: The reference inputs are directly the magnitude and phase angle of the series voltage. Phase Angle Shifter Emulation mode: The reference input is phase displacement between the sending end voltage and the receiving end voltage. Line Impedance Emulation mode: The reference input is an impedance value to insert in series with the line impedance Automatic Power Flow Control Mode: The reference inputs are values of P and Q to maintain on the transmission line despite system changes.

3. D-STATCOM
3.1. INTRODUCTION
In power distribution networks, reactive power is the main cause of increasing distribution system losses and various power quality problems. Conventionally, Static Var Compensators (SVCs) have been used in conjunction with passive filters at the distribution level for reactive power compensation and mitigation of power quality problems. Though SVCs are very effective system controllers used to provide reactive power compensation at the transmission level, their limited bandwidth, higher passive element count that increases size and losses, and slower response make them inapt for the modern day distribution requirement. Another compensating system has been proposed by , employing a combination of SVC and active power filter, which can compensate three phase loads in a minimum of two cycles. Thus, a controller which continuously monitors the load voltages and currents to determine the right amount of compensation required by the system and the less response time should be a viable
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alternative. Distribution Static Compensator (DSTATCOM) has the capacity to overcome the above mentioned drawbacks by providing precise control and fast response during transient and steady state, with reduced foot print and weight. A DSTATCOM is basically a converter based distribution flexible AC transmission controller, sharing many similar concepts with that of a Static Compensator (STATCOM) used at the transmission level. At the transmission level, STATCOM handles only fundamental reactive power and provides voltage support, while a DSTATCOM is employed at the distribution level or at the load end for dynamic compensation. The latter, DSTATCOM, can be one of the viable alternatives to SVC in a distribution network. Additionally, a DSTATCOM can also behave as a shunt active filter, to eliminate unbalance or distortions in the source current or the supply voltage, as per the IEEE-519 standard limits. Since a DSTATCOM is such a multifunctional device, the main objective of any control algorithm should be to make it flexible and easy to implement, in addition to exploiting its multi functionality to the maximum. Prior to the type of control algorithm incorporated, the choice of converter configuration is an important criterion. The two converter configurations are voltage source converter or current source converter, in addition to passive storage elements, either a capacitor or an inductor respectively. Normally, voltage source converters are preferred due to their smaller size, less heat dissipation and less cost of the capacitor, as compared to an inductor for the same rating . This paper focuses on the comparative study of the control techniques for voltage source converter based DSTATCOM, broadly classified into voltage control DSTATCOM and current control DSTATCOM. Under the former, phase shift control is compared with the latter, considering indirect decoupled current control and regulation of AC bus and DC link voltage with hysteresis current control. The first two schemes have been successfully implemented for STATCOM control at the transmission level, for reactive power compensation, and voltage support and are recently being incorporated to control a DSTATCOM employed at the distribution end. The following indices are considered for comparison - measurement and signal conditioning requirement, performance with varying linear/nonlinear load, total harmonic distortion (THD), DC link voltage variation and switching frequency. The paper briefly describes the salient features of each strategy, with their merits and demerits. The paper also emphasizes the choice of current control technique, as it significantly affects the performance of a DSTATCOM. A dynamic simulation model of the DSTATCOM has been developed for various control algorithms in Matlab/SimPower System environment.
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3.2. Basic Principle of DSTATCOM

A DSTATCOM is a controlled reactive source, which includes a Voltage Source Converter (VSC) and a DC link capacitor connected in shunt, capable of generating and/or absorbing reactive power. The operating principles of a DSTATCOM are based on the exact equivalence of the conventional rotating synchronous compensator. The AC terminals of the VSC are connected to the Point of Common Coupling (PCC) through an inductance, which could be a filter inductance or the leakage inductance of the coupling transformer, as shown in Fig. 3.1

Fig.3.1. Block diagram of D-STATCOM

The DC side of the converter is connected to a DC capacitor, which carries the input ripple current of the converter and is the main reactive energy storage element. This capacitor could be charged by a battery source, or could be precharged by the converter itself. If the output voltage of the VSC is equal to the AC terminal voltage, no reactive power is delivered to the system. If the output voltage is greater than the AC terminal voltage, the DSTATCOM is in the capacitive mode of operation and vice versa. The quantity of reactive power flow is proportional to the difference in the two voltages.

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It is to be noted that voltage regulation at PCC and power factor correction cannot be achieved simultaneously. For a DSTATCOM used for voltage regulation at the PCC, the compensation should be such that the supply currents should lead the supply voltages; whereas, for power factor correction, the supply current should be in phase with the supply voltages. The control strategies studied in this paper are applied with a view to studying the performance of a DSTATCOM for power factor correction and harmonic mitigation.

3.3. Control Strategies

Satisfactory performance, fast response, flexible and easy implementation are the main objectives of any compensation strategy. The control strategies of a DSTATCOM are mainly implemented in the following steps:

Measurements of system variables and signal conditioning Extraction of reference compensating signals Generation of firing angles for switching devices

Fig. 3.2 Schematic diagram of DSTATCOM control Fig. 3.2 shows the schematic diagram of DSTATCOM control, taking into consideration the above steps. The generation of proper pulse width modulation (PWM) firing is the most important part of DSTATCOM control and it has a great impact on its compensation objectives, transient as well as steady state performance. Since a DSTATCOM shares many concepts with
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that of a STATCOM at the transmission level, a few control techniques have been directly implemented to a DSTATCOM, incorporating PWM switching, rather than fundamental frequency switching (FFS) methods. A PWM based distribution static compensator offers faster response and capability for harmonic elimination. This paper is an attempt to compare the following schemes of a DSTATCOM for power factor correction and harmonic mitigation based on: 1. Phase shift control 2. Indirect decoupled current control 3. Regulation of AC bus and DC link voltage The performance of DSTATCOM with different control schemes have been studied through digital simulations for common system parameters, as given in the Appendix.

3.3.1. Phase Shift Control

Fig. 3.3 phase shift control

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The schematic diagram of phase shift control is shown in Fig. 3.3. In this method, the compensation is achieved by the measuring of the rms voltage at the load point, whereas no reactive power measurements are required . Sinusoidal PWM technique is used with constant switching frequency. The error signal obtained by comparing the measured system rms voltage and the reference voltage is fed to a proportional integral (PI) controller, which generates the angle for deciding the necessary phase shift between the output voltage of the VSC and the AC terminal voltage. This angle is summed with the phase angle of the balanced supply voltages, assumed to be equally spaced at 120 degrees, to produce the desired synchronizing signal required to operate the PWM generator. In this scheme, the DC voltage is maintained constant, using a separate battery source.

28

Fig 3.4a and Fig 3.4b show the simulation results obtained using phase shift control for reactive power compensation and harmonic mitigation for a balanced varying linear load and for a non linear load respectively. It is observed that the source current and the source voltage are in phase, correcting the power factor of the system in case of a linearly varying load; whereas, complete compensation is not achieved in case of nonlinear load (source current THD 24.34%). The frequency spectrum of the source current for a nonlinear load, before and after compensation, is shown in Fig 3.5a and Fig 3.5b. Though this strategy is easy to implement, is robust and can provide partial reactive power compensation without harmonic suppression, it has the following major disadvantages:

The controller does not use a self supporting DC bus and thus requires a very large DC source to pre charge the capacitor. Balanced source supply as rms voltage is assumed and the supply phase angle are calculated over the fundamental only. No harmonic suppression and partial compensation is achieved in case of nonlinear loads.

29

30

3.3.2. Indirect Decoupled Current Control This scheme is based on the governing equations of advanced static var compensator. It requires the measurement of instantaneous values of three phase line voltages and current. Fig 3.6 shows the block diagram representation of the control scheme. The control scheme is based on the transformation of the three phase system to a synchronously rotating frame, using Park's transformation

31

Fig 3.6. Indirect Decoupled Current Control Subsequently, when the d axis is made to lie on the space vector of the system voltage, its quadrature component (v q) becomes zero. The compensation is achieved by the control of id and iq. This is an indirect current control method, where current error compensation is achieved indirectly through voltage modulation, in order to incorporate simple open loop sine PWM modulators, so that fixed switching frequency is achieved. Using the definition of the instantaneous reactive power theory for a balanced three phase three wire system, the real (p) and the reactive power (q) injected into the system by the DSTATCOM can be expressed under the dqO reference frame as:

Since v q = 0, id and iq completely describe the instantaneous value of real and reactive powers produced by the DSTATCOM, when the system voltage remains constant. The instantaneous three phase line currents measured are transformed by abc to dqO transformation. The instantaneous id reference and the instantaneous i q reference are obtained by the regulation
32

of the DC voltage and the measured AC terminal voltage measured, using PI controllers. The inner loop of the DSTATCOM controller consists of a rotating frame current controller, as shown in Fig 3.6. This controller operates in conjunction with the open loop sine PWM generator. The three line currents are transformed to dqO reference frame and then compared with the references obtained from the outer loop. The modulating signals for the rotating frame controller are given by:

Where K p i, Kn, K P 2, KQ are the gains of the two current PI controllers respectively. During unity power factor operation for linear nonlinear loads, the quadrature reference current i q is zero. The modulating signals Ud and Uq are transformed back to the abc frame. The modulating signal output of each phase is compared with a triangular carrier, which is common for all the three phases. The switching logic for the phase 4 a' is formulated as:

Where v c t is the instantaneous value of triangular carrier waveform and vc a is the transformed modulating signal. S a is the switching logic for the inverter leg corresponding to phase 'a'. Similarly, the switching logic of the other two phases 'b' and 'c' are formulated as S b and S c .Thus, instantaneous current tracking control is achieved using four PI regulators. A Phase Locked Loop (PLL) is used to synchronize the control loop to the AC supply, so as to operate in the abc_to_dqO reference frame. Fig 3.7a and Fig 7b show the DSTATCOM response for a linearly varying and nonlinear load. It is observed from the figure that the transient current reaches a very high value before reaching steady state. Though complete reactive power compensation and power factor correction is achieved and the THD in case of nonlinear load is reduced to 13.21%, as shown in the Fig 3.8a and Fig 8b, the main advantage of this scheme is that it incorporates a self supporting DC bus and the value of the reference DC link voltage is less, as compared to phase shift control, due to which the converter switches are less stressed. Also, another advantage of
33

this scheme is that it operates with fixed switching frequency, which provides a definite harmonic spectrum, independent of the load.

34

Fig. 3.7

35

Fig. 3.8 The disadvantages of this scheme are:

Phase Locked Loop gives erroneous results in case of distorted mains and is applicable for only three phase systems. It requires intensive computation, including complex transformations, making the operation complex. Harmonic suppression is significantly achieved, but not below the IEEE-519 standards. Bandwidth is restricted due to the use of sine PWM generator.

During transient condition, the supply current shoots to a very high value 3.3.3.Regulation of AC Bus and DC Link Voltage Three phase AC supply voltages and DC link voltage are sensed and fed to two PI controllers, the outputs of which decide the amplitude of reactive and active current to be generated by the DSTATCOM [22]. Figure 9 shows the block diagram of the implemented scheme. Multiplication of these amplitudes with the in phase and

Fig. 3.9. Block diagram using regulation of AC/DC link voltage scheme. Quadrature voltage unit vectors yields the respective component of the reference currents. When applying the algorithm for power factor correction an harmonic elimination, the quadrature Component of the reference current is made zero. These reference currents and the sensed line currents are fed to a hysteresis controller, which is used for tracking control. This
36

hysteresis controller adds a hysteresis band +/h around the calculated reference current. The switching is obtained as given below: If isa>(isa_ref+h), the upper switch of inverter leg corresponding to phase a is ON and the lower switch is OFF. If isa<isa-ref+h), the upper switch of inverter leg corresponding to phase a is OFF and the lower switch is ON. The tracking becomes better if the hysteresis band is narrower, but the switching frequency is increased, which results in increased switching losses. Therefore, the choice of hysteresis band should be a compromise between tracking error and inverter losses [23]. This method of tracking current control is simple and robust and it exhibits an automatic current limiting characteristic. This compensation scheme is multifunctional and can also be effectively used for load unbalancing and harmonic suppression, in addition to power factor correction and dynamic voltage regulation. The simulated results of the above control scheme are shown in Figure 10a and b. The transient period is very short and complete reactive power compensation and power factor correction is achieved in case of both linear/nonlinear loads. In case of nonlinear load, the THD of the source current is 2.01%, well below the IEEE-519 standard for harmonic suppression. The frequency spectrum of the load current, before and after compensation, is shown in Figure 11 a and b. The advantages of this scheme are: The derivation of switching signals uses a hysteresis controller, which is robust and simple, with fast dynamic response and automatic current limiting capability. The algorithm is flexible and can be easily modified for improved voltage regulation, harmonic suppression and load balancing. The inherent property to provide self supporting dc bus does not require complex abc_dqO transformations. The THD in case of nonlinear loads is well below the IEEE-519 standard limits.

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4. POWER QUALITY
4.1. INTRODUCTION
The contemporary container crane industry, like many other industry segments, is often enamored by the bells and whistles, colorful diagnostic displays, high speed performance, and levels of automation that can be achieved. Although these features and their indirectly related computer based enhancements are key issues to an efficient terminal operation, we must not forget the foundation upon which we are building. Power quality is the mortar which bonds the Foundation blocks. Power quality also affects terminal operating economics, crane reliability, our environment, and initial investment in power distribution systems to support new crane installations. To quote the utility company newsletter which accompanied the last monthly issue of my home utility billing: Using electricity wisely is a good environmental and business practice which saves you money, reduces emissions from generating plants, and conserves our natural resources. As we are all aware, container crane performance requirements continue to increase at an astounding rate. Next generation container cranes, already in the bidding process, will require average power demands of 1500 to 2000 kW almost double the total average demand three years ago. The rapid increase in power demand levels, an increase in container crane population, SCR converter crane drive retrofits and the large AC and DC drives needed to power and control these cranes will increase awareness of the power quality issue in the very near future. 4.2POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS For the purpose of this article, we shall define power quality problems as: Any power problem that results in failure or misoperation of customer equipment, Manifests itself as an economic burden to the user, or produces negative impacts on the environment. When applied to the container crane industry, the power issues which degrade power quality include: Power Factor Harmonic Distortion Voltage Transients Voltage Sags or Dips Voltage Swells
38

The AC and DC variable speed drives utilized on board container cranes are significant contributors to total harmonic current and voltage distortion. Whereas SCR phase control creates the desirable average power factor, DC SCR drives operate at less than this. In addition, line notching occurs when SCRs commutate, creating transient peak recovery voltages that can be 3 to 4 times the nominal line voltage depending upon the system impedance and the size of the drives. The frequency and severity of these power system disturbances varies with the speed of the drive. Harmonic current injection by AC and DC drives will be highest when the drives are operating at slow speeds. Power factor will be lowest when DC drives are operating at slow speeds or during initial acceleration and deceleration periods, increasing to its maximum value when the SCRs are phased on to produce rated or base speed. Above base speed, the power factor essentially remains constant. Unfortunately, container cranes can spend considerable time at low speeds as the operator attempts to spot and land containers. Poor power factor places a greater kVA demand burden on the utility or engine-alternator power source. Low power factor loads can also affect the voltage stability which can ultimately result in detrimental effects on the Life of sensitive electronic equipment or even intermittent malfunction. Voltage transients created by DC drive SCR line notching, AC drive voltage chopping, and high frequency harmonic voltages and currents are all significant sources of noise and disturbance to sensitive electronic equipment It has been our experience that end users often do not associate power quality problems with Container cranes, either because they are totally unaware of such issues or there was no economic Consequence if power quality was not addressed. Before the advent of solid-state power supplies, Power factor was reasonable, and harmonic current injection was minimal. Not until the crane Population multiplied, power demands per crane increased, and static power conversion became the way of life, did power quality issues begin to emerge. Even as harmonic distortion and power Factor issues surfaced, no one was really prepared. Even today, crane builders and electrical drive System vendors avoid the issue during competitive bidding for new cranes. Rather than focus on Awareness and understanding of the potential issues, the power quality issue is intentionally or unintentionally ignored. Power quality problem solutions are available. Although the solutions are not free, in most cases, they do represent a good return on investment. However, if power quality is not specified, it most likely will not be delivered. 4.3.Power Quality Improvement:
39

Power quality can be improved through: Power factor correction, Harmonic filtering, Special line notch filtering, Transient voltage surge suppression, Proper earthing systems. In most cases, the person specifying and/or buying a container crane may not be fully aware of the potential power quality issues. If this article accomplishes nothing else, we would hope to provide that awareness. In many cases, those involved with specification and procurement of container cranes may not be cognizant of such issues, do not pay the utility billings, or consider it someone elses concern. As a result, container crane specifications may not include definitive power quality criteria such as power factor correction and/or harmonic filtering. Also, many of those specifications which do require power quality equipment do not properly define the criteria. Early in the process of preparing the crane specification: Consult with the utility company to determine regulatory or contract requirements that must be satisfied, if any. Consult with the electrical drive suppliers and determine the power quality profiles that can be expected based on the drive sizes and technologies proposed for the specific project. Evaluate the economics of power quality correction not only on the present situation, but consider the impact of future utility deregulation and the future development plans for the terminal 4.4THE BENEFITS OF POWER QUALITY Power quality in the container terminal environment impacts the economics of the terminal operation, affects reliability of the terminal equipment, and affects other consumers served by the same utility service. Each of these concerns is explored in the following paragraphs.

4.4.1. Economic Impact

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The economic impact of power quality is the foremost incentive to container terminal operators. Economic impact can be significant and manifest itself in several ways: a. Power Factor Penalties Many utility companies invoke penalties for low power factor on monthly billings. There is no industry standard followed by utility companies. Methods of metering and calculating power factor penalties vary from one utility company to the next. Some utility companies actually meter kVAR usage and establish a fixed rate times the number of kVAR-hours consumed. Other utility companies monitor kVAR demands and calculate power factor. If the power factor falls below a fixed limit value over a demand period, a penalty is billed in the form of an adjustment to the peak demand charges. A number of utility companies servicing container terminal equipment do not yet invoke power factor penalties. However, their service contract with the Port may still require that a minimum power factor over a defined demand period be met. The utility company may not continuously monitor power factor or kVAR usage and reflect them in the monthly utility billings; however, they do reserve the right to monitor the Port service at any time. If The power factor criteria set forth in the service contract are not met, the user may be penalized, or required to take corrective actions at the users expense. One utility company, which supplies power service to several east coast container terminals in the USA, does not reflect power factor penalties in their monthly billings, however, their service contract with the terminal reads as follows: The average power factor under operating conditions of customers load at the point where service is metered shall be not less than 85%. If below 85%, the customer may be required to furnish, install and maintain at its expense corrective apparatus which will increase the Power factor of the entire installation to not less than 85%. The customer shall ensure that no excessive harmonics or transients are introduced on to the [utility] system. This may require special power conditioning equipment or filters. The IEEE Std. 519-1992 is used as a guide in Determining appropriate design requirements. The Port or terminal operations personnel, who are responsible for maintaining container cranes, or specifying new container crane equipment, should be aware of these requirements. Utility deregulation will most likely force utilities to enforce requirements such as the example above.

41

Terminal operators who do not deal with penalty issues today may be faced with some rather severe penalties in the future. A sound, future terminal growth plan should include contingencies for addressing the possible economic impact of utility deregulation. b. System Losses Harmonic currents and low power factor created by nonlinear loads, not only result in possible power factor penalties, but also increase the power losses in the distribution system. These losses are not visible as a separate item on your monthly utility billing, but you pay for them each month. Container cranes are significant contributors to harmonic currents and low power factor. Based on the typical demands of todays high speed container cranes, correction of power factor alone on a typical state of the art quay crane can result in a reduction of system losses that converts to a 6 to 10% reduction in the monthly utility billing. For most of the larger terminals, this is a significant annual saving in the cost of operation. c. Power Service Initial Capital Investments The power distribution system design and installation for new terminals, as well as modification of systems for terminal capacity upgrades, involves high cost, specialized, high and medium voltage equipment. Transformers, switchgear, feeder cables, cable reel trailing cables, collector bars, etc. must be sized based on the kVA demand. Thus cost of the equipment is directly related to the total kVA demand. As the relationship above indicates, kVA demand is inversely proportional to the overall power factor, i.e. a lower power factor demands higher kVA for the same kW load. Container cranes are one of the most significant users of power in the terminal. Since container cranes with DC, 6 pulse, SCR drives operate at relatively low power factor, the total kVA demand is significantly larger than would be the case if power factor correction equipment were supplied on board each crane or at some common bus location in the terminal. In the absence of power quality corrective equipment, transformers are larger, switchgear current ratings must be higher, feeder cable copper sizes are larger, collector system and cable reel cables must be larger, etc. Consequently, the cost of the initial power distribution system equipment for a system which does not address power quality will most likely be higher than the same system which includes power quality equipment.

42

4.4.2. Equipment Reliability Poor power quality can affect machine or equipment reliability and reduce the life of components. Harmonics, voltage transients, and voltage system sags and swells are all power quality problems and are all interdependent. Harmonics affect power factor, voltage transients can induce harmonics, the same phenomena which create harmonic current injection in DC SCR Variable speed drives are responsible for poor power factor, and dynamically varying power factor of the same drives can create voltage sags and swells. The effects of harmonic distortion, harmonic currents, and line notch ringing can be mitigated using specially designed filters. 4.4.3. Power System Adequacy When considering the installation of additional cranes to an existing power distribution system, a power system analysis should be completed to determine the adequacy of the system to support additional crane loads. Power quality corrective actions may be dictated due to inadequacy of existing power distribution systems to which new or relocated cranes are to be connected. In other words, addition of power quality equipment may render a workable scenario on an existing power distribution system, which would otherwise be inadequate to support additional cranes without high risk of problems. 4.4.4. Environment No issue might be as important as the effect of power quality on our environment. Reduction in system losses and lower demands equate to a reduction in the consumption of our natural nm resources and reduction in power plant emissions. It is our responsibility as occupants of this planet to encourage conservation of our natural resources and support measures which improve our air quality

5. Harmonics
43

5.1Introduction: The typical definition for a harmonic is a sinusoidal component of a periodic wave or\ quantity having a frequency that is an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency. [1]. Some references refer to clean or pure power as those without any harmonics. But such clean waveforms typically only exist in a laboratory. Harmonics have been around for a long time and will continue to do so. In fact, musicians have been aware of such since the invention of the first string or woodwind instrument. Harmonics (called overtones in music) are responsible for what makes a trumpet sound like a trumpet, and a clarinet like a clarinet. Electrical generators try to produce electric power where the voltage waveform has only one frequency associated with it, the fundamental frequency. In the North America, this frequency is 60 Hz, or cycles per second. In European countries and other parts of the world, this frequency is usually 50 Hz. Aircraft often uses 400 Hz as the fundamental frequency. At 60 Hz, this means that sixty times a second, the voltage waveform increases to a maximum positive value, then decreases to zero, further decreasing to a maximum negative value, and then back to zero. The rate at which these changes occur is the trigometric function called a sine wave, as shown in figure 1. This function occurs in many natural phenomena, such as the speed of a pendulum as it swings back and forth, or the way a string on a voilin vibrates when plucked.

Fig 5.1. Sine wave The frequency of the harmonics is different, depending on the fundamental frequency. For example, the 2nd harmonic on a 60 Hz system is 2*60 or 120 Hz. At 50Hz, the second harmonic is 2* 50 or 100Hz. 300Hz is the 5th harmonic in a 60 Hz system, or the 6th harmonic in a 50 Hz system. Figure 2 shows how a signal with two harmonics would appear on an oscilloscope-type display, which some power quality analyzers provide.
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Fig 5.2. Fundamental with two harmonics In order to be able to analyze complex signals that have many different frequencies present, a number of mathematical methods were developed. One of the more popular is called the Fourier Transform. However, duplicating the mathematical steps required in a microprocessor or computer-based instrument is quite difficult. So more compatible processes, called the FFT for Fast Fourier transform, or DFT for Discrete Fourier Transform, are used. These methods only work properly if the signal is composed of only the fundamental and harmonic frequencies in a certain frequency range (called the Nyquist frequency, which is onehalf of the sampling frequency). The frequency values must not change during the measurement period. Failure of these rules to be maintained can result in mis-information. For example, if a voltage waveform is comprised of 60 Hz and 200 Hz signals, the FFT cannot directly see the 200 Hz. It only knows 60, 120, 180, 240,..., which are often called bins. The result would be that the energy of the 200 Hz signal would appear partially in the 180Hz bin, and partially in the 240 Hz bin. An FFT-based processer could show a voltage value of 115V at 60 Hz, 18 V at the 3rd harmonic, and 12 V at the 4th harmonic, when it really should have been 30 V at 200 Hz. These in-between frequencies are called inter harmonics. There is also a special category of inter harmonics, which are frequency values less than the fundamental frequency value, called sub-harmonics. For example, the process of melting metal in an electric arc furnace can result large currents that are comprised of the fundamental , inter harmonic, and sub harmonic frequencies being drawn from the electric power grid. These levels can be quite high during the melt-down phase, and usually effect the voltage waveform. 5.2.Effects of harmonics:

45

The presence of harmonics does not mean that the factory or office cannot run properly. Like other power quality phenomena, it depends on the stiffness of the power distribution system and the susceptibility of the equipment. As shown below, there are a number of different types of equipment that can have mis operations or failures due to high harmonic voltage and/or current levels. In addition, one factory may be the source of high harmonics but able to run properly. This harmonic pollution is often carried back onto the electric utility distribution system, and may effect facilities on the same system which are more susceptible. Some typical types of equipment susceptible to harmonic pollution include: - Excessive neutral current, resulting in overheated neutrals. The odd triplen harmonics in three phase wye circuits are actually additive in the neutral. This is because the harmonic number multiplied by the 120 degree phase shift between phases is a integer multiple of 360 degrees. This puts the harmonics from each of the three phase legs in-phase with each other in the neutral, as shown in Figure 3.

Fig 5.3. Additive Third Harmonics - Incorrect reading meters, including induction disc W-hr meters and averaging type current meters.
46

- Reduced true PF, where PF= Watts/VA. - Overheated transformers, especially delta windings where triplen harmonics generated on the load side of a delta-wye transformer will circulate in the primary side. Some type of losses goes up as the square of harmonic value (such as skin effect and eddy current losses). This is also true for solenoid coils and lighting ballasts. - Zero, negative sequence voltages on motors and generators. In a balanced system, voltage harmonics can either be positive (fundamental, 4th, 7th,...), negative (2nd, 5th, 8th...) or zero (3rd, 6th, 9th,...) sequencing values. This means that the voltage at that particular frequency tries to rotate the motor forward, backward, or neither (just heats up the motor), respectively. There is also heating from increased losses as in a transformer.

Table 1. Harmonic Sequencing Values in Balanced Systems - Nuisance operation of protective devices, including false tripping of relays and failure of a UPS to transfer properly, especially if controls incorporate zero-crossing sensing circuits. - Bearing failure from shaft currents through un insulated bearings of electric motors. - Blown-fuses on PF correction caps, due to high voltage and currents from resonance with line impedance. - Mis-operation or failure of electronic equipment - If there are voltage sub harmonics in the range of 1-30Hz, the effect on lighting is called flicker. This is especially true at 8.8Hz, where the human eye is most sensitive, and just 0.5% variation in the voltage is noticeable with some types of lighting. [2]

5.3.Causes

47

How this electricity is used by the different type of loads can have an effect on purity of the voltage waveform. Some loads cause the voltage and current waveforms to lose this pure sine wave appearance and become distorted. This distortion may consist of predominately harmonics, depending on the type of load and system impedances. Since this article is about harmonics, we will concentrate on those types of sources. The main sources of harmonic current are at present the phase angle controlled rectifiers and inverters. [3] These are often called static power converters. These devices take AC power and convert it to another form, sometimes back to AC power at the same or different frequency, based on the firing scheme. The firing scheme refers to the controlling mechanism that determines how and when current is conducted. One major variation is the phase angle at which conduction begins and ends. A typical such converter is the switching-type power supplies found in most personal computers and peripheral equipment, such as printers. While they offer many benefits in size, weight and cost, the large increase of this type of equipment over the past fifteen years is largely responsible for the increased attention to harmonics. Figure shows below how a switching-type power supply works. The AC voltage is converted into a DC voltage, which is further converted into other voltages that the equipment needs to run. The rectifier consists of semi-conductor devices (such as diodes) that only conduct current in one direction. In order to do so, the voltage on the one end must be greater than the other end. These devices feed current into a capacitor, where the voltage value on the cap at any time depends on how much energy is being taken out by the rest of the power supply. When the input voltage value is higher than voltage on the capacitor, the diode will conduct current through it. This results in a current waveform as shown in Figure 5, and harmonic spectrum in Figure 6. Obviously, this is not a pure sinusoidal waveform with only a 60 Hz frequency component.

48

Fig 5.4. Current Waveform

Fig 5.5. Harmonic Spectrum of Current Waveform Shown in Fig 5.4 If the rectifier had only been a half wave rectifier, the waveform would only have every other current pulse, and the harmonic spectrum would be different, as shown in Fig 5.5.
49

Fluorescent lights can be the source of harmonics, as the ballasts are non-linear inductors. The third harmonic is the predominate harmonic in this case. (See Table 3) As previously mentioned, the third harmonic current from each phase in a four-wire wye or star system will be additive in the neutral, instead of cancelling out Some of the newer electronic ballasts have very significant harmonic problems, as they operate somewhat like a switching power supply, but can result in current harmonic distortion levels over 30%.

Table 2. Sample of Harmonic Values for Fluorescent lighting [4] Low power, AC voltage regulators for light dimmers and small induction motors adjust the phase angle or point on the wave where conduction occurs. Medium power converters are used for motor control in manufacturing and railroad applications, and include such equipment as ASDs (adjustable speed drives) and VFDs (variable frequency drives). Metal reduction operations, like electric arc furnaces, and high voltage DC transmission employ large power converters, in the 2-20MVA rating. This type of 3-phase equipment may also cause other types of power quality problems. When the semiconductor device is suppose to turn-off, it does not do so abruptly. This happens under naturally commutated conditions, where the voltage that was larger on the anode side compared to the cathode is now the opposite. This occurs each cycle as the voltage waveform goes through the sine waveform. It also happens under forced commutation conditions, where the semi-conductor device has a gate-type control mechanism built in to it. This commutation period is a time when two semiconductor devices are both conducting current at the same time, effectively shorting one phase to the other and resulting in large current transients. When transformers are first energized, the current drawn is different from the steady state condition. This is caused by the inrush of the magnetizing current. The harmonics during this period varies over time. Some harmonics have zero value for part of the time, and then increase
50

for a while before returning to zero. An unbalanced transformer (where either the output current, winding impedance or input voltage on each leg are not equal) will cause harmonics, as will overvoltage saturation of a transformer. Where to look for them Wherever the aforementioned equipment is used, one can suspect that harmonics are present. The amount of voltage harmonics will often depend on the amount of harmonic currents being drawn by the load, and the source impedance, which includes all of the wiring and transformers back to the source of the electricity. Ohms Law says that Voltage equals Current multiplied by Impedance. This is true for harmonic values as well. If the source harmonic impedance is very low (often referred to as a stiff system) then the harmonic currents will result in lower harmonic voltages than if the source impedance were high (such as found with some types of isolation transformers). Like any power quality investigation, the search can begin at the equipment effected by the problem or at the point-of-common-coupling (PCC), where the utility service meets the building distribution system. If only one piece of equipment is effected (or suspected), it is often easier to start the monitoring process there. If the source is suspected to be from the utility service side (such is the case when there is a neighboring factory that is known to generate high harmonics), then monitoring usually begins at the PCC. The phase voltages and currents, as well as the neutral-to-ground voltage and neutral current should be monitored, where possible. This will aid in pinpointing problems, or detecting marginal systems. Monitoring the neutral will often show a high 3rd harmonic value, indicating the presence of non-linear loads in the facility. 5.4.How do you find harmonics Hand-held harmonic meters can be useful tools for making spot checks for known harmonic problems. However, harmonic values will often change during the day, as different loads are turned on and off within the facility or in other facilities on the same electric utility distribution system. This requires the use of a harmonic monitor or power quality monitor with harmonic capabilities (such as shown in Figure 8), which can record the harmonic values over a period of time.

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Fig 5.6. Power Quality Monitor with Harmonic Analysis Typically, monitoring will last for one business cycle. A business cycle is how long it takes for the normal operation of the plant to repeat itself. For example, if a plant runs three identical shifts, seven days a week, then a business cycle would be eight hours. More typically, a business cycle is one week, as different operations take place on a Monday, when the plant equipment is restarted after being off over the weekend, then on a Wednesday, or a Saturday, when only a Skelton crew may be working. Certain types of loads also generate typical harmonic spectrum signatures that can point the investigator towards the source. This is related to the number of pulses, or paths of conduction. The general equation is h = ( n * p ) +/- 1, where h is the harmonic number, n is any integer (1,2,3,..) and p is the number of pulses in the circuit, and the magnitude decreases as the ration of 1/h (1/3, 1/5, 1/7, 1/9,...). Table 4 shows examples of such.

Table 3. Typical Harmonics Found for Different Converters.

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5.5. Effects of harmonics Most electrical loads (except half-wave rectifiers) produce symmetrical current waveforms, which mean that the positive half of the waveform looks like a mirror image of the negative half. This results in only odd harmonic values being present. Even harmonics will disrupt this half-wave symmetry. The presence of these even harmonics should cause the investigator to suspect there is a half-wave rectifier on the circuit. This also results from a full wave rectifier when one side of the rectifier has blown or damaged components. Early detection of this condition in a UPS system can prevent a complete failure when the load is switched onto back-up power. To determine what is normal or acceptable levels, a number of standards have been developed by various organizations. ANSI/IEEE C57.110 Recommended Practice for Establishing Transformer Compatibility When Supplying No sinusoidal Load Currents is a useful document for determining how much a transformer should be derated from its nameplate rating when operating in the presence of harmonics. There are two parameters typically used, called K-factor and TDF (transformer dereading factor). Some power quality harmonic monitors will automatically calculate these values. IEEE 519-1992 Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems provides guidelines from determining what acceptable limits are. The harmonic limits for current depend on the ratio of Short Circuit Current (SCC) at PCC (or how stiff it is) to average Load Current of maximum demand over 1 year, as illustrated in Table 5. Note how the limit decreases at the higher harmonic values, and increases with larger ratios.

Table 4. Current Harmonic Limits as per IEEE 519-1992

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For voltage harmonics, the voltage level of the system is used to determine the limits, as shown in Table 6. At the higher voltages, more customers will be effective, hence, the lower limits.

Table 5. Voltage Harmonic Limits as per IEEE 519-1992 The European Community has also developed susceptibility and emission limits for\ harmonics. Formerly known as the 555-2 standard for appliances of less than 16 A, a more encompassing set of standards under IEC 1000-4-7 are now in effect. 5.6. MINIMIZATION OF HARMONICS Care should be undertaken to make sure that the corrective action taken to minimize the harmonic problems dont actually make the system worse. This can be the result of resonance between harmonic filters, PF correcting capacitors and the system impedance. Isolating harmonic pollution devices on separate circuits with or without the use of harmonic filters are typical ways of mitigating the effects of such. Loads can be relocated to try to balance the system better. Neutral conductors should be properly sized according to the latest NEC-1996 requirements covering such. Whereas the neutral may have been undersized in the past, it may now be necessary to run a second neutral wire that is the same size as the phase conductors. This is particularly important with some modular office partition-type walls, which can exhibit high impedance values. The operating limits of transformers and motors should be derated, in accordance with industry standards from IEEE, ANSI and NEMA on such. Use of higher pulse converters, such as 24-pulse rectifiers, can eliminate lower harmonic values, but at the expense of creating higher harmonic values.

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6. ADVANTAGES
The derivation of switching signals uses a hysteresis controller, which is robust and simple, with fast dynamic response and automatic current limiting capability. The algorithm is flexible and can be easily modified for improved voltage regulation, harmonic suppression and load balancing. The inherent property to provide self supporting dc bus does not require complex abc_dqO transformations. The THD in case of nonlinear loads is well below the IEEE-519 standard limits.

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7. CONCLUSION
The paper presents the comparative study of three control strategies used for the control of DSTATCOM, with their relative merits and demerits. The control schemes are described with the help of simulation results, under linear and nonlinear loads. Simulation results show the suitability of AC/DC bus voltage regulation for harmonic suppression and reactive power compensation. A comparison of the three control strategies is shown in Table 1. It can also be concluded that though conceptually similar to a STATCOM at the transmission level, a DSTATCOMs control scheme should be such that in addition to complete reactive power compensation, power factor correction and voltage regulation of the harmonics are also checked, in order to achieve improved power quality levels at the distribution end.

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