History of Histology

The Discovery of the Cell The scientific knowledge about tissues was preceded by the study of the respective units that constitute them, which are cells. In 1665, Robert Hooke (1635-1703), an English microscopist and physicist, when examining a piece of cork with a rudimentary microscope, saw an abundance of empty small compartments the cell was discovered. Hooke derived the designation from the Latin, cellula ; i.e., small compartment, having in mind a comparison with a honeycomb. Indeed, we have a certain impression that he examined something empty that is why the designation is written in inverted commas. Therefore, the designation of the units that constitute the living beings had a correct etymological origin, but the concept was rather wrong. Almost two hundred years were passed before a definition of cell was achieved; according to Max Schultze (1861): Cell is a small mass of nucleated protoplasm. Nowadays, we may say that Cell is the smaller quantity of protoplasm that possesses a certain functional autonomy. In that very year Hooke discovered the cell , he and Malpighi were the first to observe the true units that form the tissues of animals, but now the properly speaking cells. In this sequence, everything was in standby for the discovery of the nucleus (from the Latin, nucleus = almond). The first description of the nucleus was carried out by Leeuwenhoek, in 1700, when examining the red blood cells of the salmon. The first description of the nuclear envelope was accomplished by Jan Evangelista Purkinje(1787-1869), a Czech biologist, in 1830; nevertheless, who verified the constancy of the organelle and who introduced the term nucleus in microscopy was Robert Brown (1773-1858), a Scottish botanist, after the examination, in 1831, of epidermal cell of some orchids and some Asclepiadacea. Purkinjealso introduced in Science the term protoplasma (1840). In fact, the cell is the fundamental unit that constitutes all the generality of animals and plants. Protozoa and bacteria present only one cell; viruses possess no cells. Wolff (1759), BrisseauMirbel (1802), Oken (1805) and Lamarck (1809) seemed to have recognized that the cellular organization is a characteristic of all living beings they studied; however, Matthias Schleiden (1804-1881), a German botanist, in 1838, had the merit of having understanding the true importance of the cells. He saw, under the microscope, thousands of plant specimens, and inferred that all the vegetables are made of cells. By extension, similar studies carried out on animals, in 1839, by Theodor Schwann(1810-1882), a German zoologist and physiologist, came to the conclusion that all the then known living beings were composed of cells. Thus, the dogma called the cell theory became established. According to it, the living beings may grow and reproduce themselves because, in fact, the cells may in turn multiply. In addition, it assumed that it is only possible to form new cells from other pre-existing ones. Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902), a great German pathologist, was not considered to be an author. Virchow gave a big contribution to the establishment of the theory, when he demonstrated that the pathological injuries also had a cellular structure; thus, he is considered to be the pioneer of the cellular pathology. In the sequence of the works of Schwann,Virchow saw (1855/56) that all the cells of the pathological tissues derived from healthy ones and that all living cells originated from pre-existing ones. This discovery was known as the Law of Virchow (orFundamental Law of Biology). Indeed, Virchow edified the bases of the modern Pathology, being the author of the famous fundamental aphorism: Omnis cellula e cellula ; that is, each cell comes from another cell (1858).

The Tissue Between the first description of the nucleus and the statement of its constancy in the cell, was introduced in Science the definition of tissue. The so-called 21 textures of Marie Franois Bichat, a French pathologist (1771-1802), are world famous. A texture was a tissue (i.e., a body component) as perceived by its macroscopic physical properties. We owe to him the notion of tissue, when he verified that certain textures presented a thin thickness and were very flat, to the extent of being compared to pieces of cloth. In ancient French, tissu was the past participle of the verb tistre or ttre that meant to weave (in modern French tisser, past participle tiss ). Owing to the importance of his works, Bichatis considered, by some authors, to be the founder of Animal Histology. Despite Bichat is, virtually, the first histologist, Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694), an Italian anatomist, is in fact considered the true Father of Histology . Firstly, because Malpighi preceded Bichat in a number of years; secondly, because Bichat never used a microscope, indeed! His textures were described based on dissections, carried out with bistoury and scissors, and in the subsequent analyses of the macroscopic physical characteristics of the different structures that form the human organism. On the contrary, by using a microscope so rudimentary that could be compared to a toy, Malpighi described a series of microscopic structures never seen until then; for instance, was the first scientist to observe the capillaries. Although the modern histologists only considered 4 fundamental kinds of tissues (i.e., epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous), we must stress that taking into account the sub-varieties of each kind, we may state that the total number of tissues actually described is not inferior to the above referred 21 textures of Bichat. Truthfully, these textures have anatomical and physiological reality; in fact, the important contribution of Bichat s works for the advance of Science forced Buckle to assume that: "... between Aristotle and Bichat I cannot find a man in between". The name Histology 17 years after the death of Bichat, that is to say, in 1819, A. Mayer created the term Histology. In the sequence of the previous word tissu, made use of two classical Greek root words (histos = tissue andlogos = study). The term histos meant originally any woven material. In 1844, it was recommended for large usage by Sir Richard Owen (1804-1892), a great English palaeontologist. First Textbook in Histology It was Rudolph von Klliker (1817-1905), a Swiss professor of Anatomy Handbuch der Gewebelehre (i.e., The book for teaching tissues), published in 1852; so, some authors considered him the true founder of Histology.

Scientists who contributed in Histology

Camillo Golgi, (July 7, 1843 January 21, 1926) He experimented with metal impregnation of nervous tissue, using mainly silver (silver staining). He discovered a method of staining nervous tissue which would stain a limited number of cells at random, in their entirety. Also with the use of his staining technique, Golgi identified the intracellular reticular apparatus in 1898 which bears his name, the Golgi apparatus.

Santiago Ramn y Cajal, (1 May 1852 17 October 1934) He was a Spanish pathologist, histologist, neuroscientist, and Nobel laureate. His pioneering investigations of the microscopic structure of the brain were original: he is considered by many to be the father of modern neuroscience. He was skilled at drawing, and hundreds of his illustrations of brain cells are still used for educational purposes today. He discovered a new type of cell, to be named after him: the interstitial cell of Cajal (ICC). This is not neural or glial, but a cell that is something in between, vitally mediating neurotransmission from nerves to bowel smooth muscle cells. Giuseppe Levi, (1872-1965) Professor of Anatomy at the University of Turin, had broad research interests and was a pioneer of in vitro studies on cultured cells. He provided a number of contributions on the nervous system, especially on the plasticity of sensory ganglion cells. Marcello Malpighi, (1628-1694) He is sometimes called the "Father of Microscopic Anatomy". Using a primitive compound microscope, he was the first to described pulmonary alveoli, capillaries, renal corpuscles, splenic corpuscles, and the Malpigian layer of the skin. Marie Franois Xavier Bichat, (1771-1802) He is the "Father of Histology" as he was the first to systematically study the tissus ("textures"), which he considered to be the elemental building blocks of the body. Eschewing the use of microscopes, Bichat used dissection to identify 21 tissues. The development of achromatic lenses, which reduced chromatic and spherical aberrations, in the 1820s permitted the production of improved compound microscopes. Rudolph Albert von Klliker, (1817-1905) He was able to produce a landmark textbook, Handbuch der Gewebelehre des Menschen (1852). Advances in histology in the late 19th century were largely driven by the development of empirical and histochemical staining procedures, embedding media, and microtomes Joseph von Gerlach, (1820-1896) He contributed Gerlach s stain (a solution of ammonia carmine and gelatin) that was the first published staining protocol (1858). The 20th century saw further progress in histochemistry, including the development of enzyme histochemistry, autoradiography,immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization. August Mayer, (1787-1865) He coined the term histologie to mean "the study of the tissues of the body", from the Greek words (histos, "web" or "warp") and (logos, "word" or "treatise"). The term came into common usage in the 1840s. The English word histology probably came from the German histologie via the French histologie. Johann Conrad Peyer, (1653-1712) He found discrete tissue areas in the ileum of the small intestine

Clopton Havers, (1657-1702) He studied the microstructure of bone specifically the Haversian system which include a central blood vessel and nerve in the Haversian canal, lamellae, lacuna and canaliculi. Johann Conrad Brunner, (1653-1727) He studied both the exocrine and endocrine pancreas. He also described the tubuloalveolar glands in duodenum. Abraham Vater, (1684-1751) He Found the ampulla of Vater , a juncture of pancreatic duct and common bile duct. In 1719, he discovered oval shaped organs in the skin with concentric layers of connective tissue with a nerve ending in the center. Johann Nathanael Lieberkuhn, (1711-1756) German anatomist and physician. He discovered the glands of the small intestine and colon - the crypts of Lieberkuhn , which is the main source of various digestive enzymes. Jean Descemet, (1732-1810) French physician and professor of anatomy in Paris, he discovered the innermost of the cornea s five layers called Descemet s membrane. Johannes Purkinje, (1787-1869) Bohemian physiologist. He is a pioneer in histological techniques being the first to use something like a microtome, like a mini meat slicer to section tissue.He also described the Purkinje effect, as light intensity decreases red objects seem to fade faster than blue objects of the same brightness. He found Purkinje cells of the cerebellar cortex, Purkinje fibers of the heart. He also introduced the term plasma and protoplasm. Friederich Gustave Jakob Henle, (1809-1885) German physician, pathologist, anatomist, he wrote the Handbook of Systemic Human Anatomy , published papers on new species, the lymphatic system, the development of hair, the formation of mucus and pus, the distribution of epithelia through the human body. He is well known for discovering the loop of Henle in the kidney that connects the proximal convoluted tubule to the distal convoluted tubule. Alfred Wilhelm Volkmann, (1801-1877) German physiologist, anatomist. He contributed to the understanding that sympathetic nerves arise from sympathetic and spinal ganglia. He also found the blood vessel channels in bone called Volkmann s canals, which run perpendicular to the Haversian canals. Friedrich Schlemm, (1795-1858) German Professor of anatomy. He discovered corneal nerves of eye and the canal of Schlemm.

William Sharpey, (1802-1880) He wrote many papers about cilia and its function. Cilia are found atop epithelial cells to help move items in the lumen along. He also found the collagenous bundles that anchor the periosteum to the bone. Theodore Schwann, (1810-1882) German physiologist, histologist and cytologist. He developed the cell theory. He also discovered Schwann cell in the peripheral nervous system. Filippo Pacini, (1812-1883) Italian anatomist. He rediscovered the mechanosensory endings in the skin that sense deep pressure called Pacinian corpuscles. Sir William Bowman, (1816-1892) English surgeon, histologist and anatomist, he studied the structure of striated muscle. At age 25, he discovered the capsule of the glomerulus in the kidney called Bowman s capsule. He also discovered Bowman s glands in the olfactory mucosa and Bowman s membrane in the cornea of the eye Arthur Hill Hassall, (1817-1894) British physician, chemist and microscopist, he is known for discovering the epithelial whorls in the medulla of the thymus (1849) Hassall s corpuscles. Karl Wilhelm Ludwig Bruch, (1819-1884) German physician, he discovered the innermost membrane of the choroid of the eye that touches the retina called Bruch s membrane. Heinrich Muller, (1820-1864) German anatomist, he found fibers of neuroglial cells in retina, Muller s fibers, which support retinal neurons. He also discovered Muller s muscle, a ciliary portion of eye.