World-systems theory

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Jump to: navigation, search The world-systems theory (also known as the world-systems analysis[1]) is a multidisciplinary, macro-scale approach to world history and social change.[1][2] The world-systems theory stresses that world-systems (and not nation states) should be the basic unit of social analysis.[1][3] World-system refers to the international division of labor, which divides the world into core countries, semi-periphery countries and the periphery countries.[2][3] Core countries focus on higher skill, capital-intensive production, and the rest of the world focuses on low-skill, labor-intensive production and extraction of raw materials.[4] This constantly reinforces the dominance of the core countries.[4] Nonetheless, the system is dynamic, and individual states can gain or lose the core (semi-periphery, periphery) status over time.[4] For a time, some countries become the world hegemon; throughout last few centuries, this status has passed from the Netherlands, to the United Kingdom and most recently, the United States.[4] The most well-known version of the world-system approach has been developed by Immanuel Wallerstein in 1970s and 1980s.[2][5] Wallerstein traces the rise of the world system from the 15th century, when European feudal economy suffered a crisis and was transformed into a capitalist one.[5] Europe (the West) utilized its advantages and gained control over most of the world economy, presiding over the development and spread of industrialization and capitalism economy, indirectly resulting in unequal development.[3][4][5] Wallerstein's project is frequently mis-understood as world-systems "theory," a term that he consistently rejects.[6] For Wallerstein, world-systems analysis is above all a mode of analysis that aims to transcend the structures of knowledge inherited from the 19th century. This includes, especially, the divisions within the social sciences, and between the social sciences and history. For Wallerstein, then, world-systems analysis is a knowledge movement[7] that seeks to discern the totality of what has been paraded under the labels of the human sciences and indeed well beyond."[8] We must invent new language, Wallerstein insists, to transcend the illusions of the three supposedly distinctive arenas of society/economy/politics.[9] This trinitarian structure of knowledge is grounded in another, even grander, modernist architecture the alienation of biophysical worlds (including those within bodies) from social ones. One question, therefore, is whether we will be able to justify something called social science in the twenty-first century as a separate sphere of knowledge.[10][11] Significant work by many other scholars has been done since then.[3] World-system theory has attracted various criticisms; notably for being too focused on economy and not enough on culture, and for being too core-centric and state-centric.[3]

Dependency theory or dependencia theory is a body of social science theories predicated on the notion that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the former. It is a central contention of dependency theory that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the way poor states are integrated into the "world system."

The theory arose around 1970 as a reaction to modernisation theory, an earlier theory of development which held that all societies progress through similar stages of development, that today's underdeveloped areas are thus in a similar situation to that of today's developed areas at some time in the past, and that therefore the task in helping the underdeveloped areas out of poverty is to accelerate them along this supposed common path of development, by various means such as investment, technology transfers, and closer integration into the world market. Dependency theory rejected this view, arguing that underdeveloped countries are not merely primitive versions of developed countries, but have unique features and structures of their own; and, importantly, are in the situation of being the weaker members in a world market economy, whereas the developed nations were never in an analogous position; they never had to exist in relation to a bloc of more powerful and economically advanced countries than themselves. Dependency theorists argued, in opposition to free market economists and modernization theorists, that underdeveloped countries needed to reduce their connectedness with the world market so that they can pursue a path more in keeping with their own needs, less dictated by external pressures.[1]
Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical, or philosophical discourse, it aims to understand the nature of gender inequality. It examines women's social roles and lived experience, and feminist politics in a variety of fields, such as anthropology and sociology, communication, psychoanalysis, economics, literary criticism, education, and philosophy.[1] While generally providing a critique of social relations, much of feminist theory also focuses on analyzing gender inequality and the promotion of women's rights, interests, and issues. Themes explored in feminism include art history[2] and contemporary art,[3][4] aesthetics,[5][6] discrimination, stereotyping, objectification (especially sexual objectification), oppression, and patriarchy.[7][8][9]

Postmodernism is a movement away from the viewpoint of modernism. More specifically it is a tendency in contemporary culture characterized by the problem of objective truth and inherent suspicion towards global cultural narrative or metanarrative. It involves the belief that many, if not all, apparent realities are only social constructs, as they are subject to change inherent to time and place. It emphasizes the role of language, power relations, and motivations; in particular it attacks the use of sharp classifications such as male versus female, straight versus gay, white versus black, and imperial versus colonial. Rather, it holds realities to be plural and relative, and dependent on who the interested parties are and what their interests consist in. It attempts to problematise modernist overconfidence, by drawing into sharp contrast the difference between how confident speakers are of their positions versus how confident they need to be to serve their supposed purposes. Postmodernism has influenced many cultural fields, including literary criticism, sociology, linguistics, architecture, anthropology, visual arts, and music.

Dramaturgy is a sociological perspective stemming from symbolic interactionism, and commonly used in microsociological accounts of social interaction in everyday life. The term was first adapted into sociology from the theatre by Erving Goffman, who developed most of the related terminology and ideas in his 1959 book, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Kenneth Burke, whom Goffman would later acknowledge as an influence,[1] had earlier presented his notions of dramatism in 1945 which, in turn, derives from Shakespeare. In dramaturgical sociology it is argued that human actions are dependent upon time, place, and audience. In other words, to Goffman, the self is a sense of who one is, a dramatic effect emerging from the immediate scene being presented.[2] Goffman forms a theatrical metaphor in defining the method in which one human being presents itself to another based on cultural values, norms, and expectations. Performances can have disruptions (actors are aware of such) but most are successful. The goal of this presentation of self is acceptance from the audience through carefully conducted performance. If the actor succeeds, the audience will view the actor as he or she wants to be viewed.[3] Sociobiology is a field of scientific study which is based on the assumption that social behavior has resulted from evolution and attempts to explain and examine social behavior within that context. Often considered a branch of biology and sociology, it also draws from ethology, anthropology, evolution, zoology, archaeology, population genetics, and other disciplines. Within the study of human societies, sociobiology is very closely allied to the fields of human behavioral ecology and evolutionary psychology. Sociobiology investigates social behaviors, such as mating patterns, territorial fights, pack hunting, and the hive society of social insects. It argues that just as selection pressure led to animals evolving useful ways of interacting with the natural environment, it led to the genetic evolution of advantageous social behavior
Ethnomethodology is an alternative approach to sociological inquiry introduced by the American sociologist Harold Garfinkel [1917-2011]. Ethnomethodology's research domain is the study of the everyday methods people employ for the production of social order.[1] Ethnomethodology's research focus is to document the methodic practices through which societys members produce their world as sensible.[