10 Radioactivity

SEK MEN SAINS MUZAFFAR SYAH
214
- Matter is made up of very small particles called _________
- Each atom has a very small and very dense core called ________. Most
of the mass of atom is contained in the __________.
- The __________ move in orbits around the nucleus.
- There are a lot of empty __________ within atom
- A nucleus consists of a number of __________ and ____________.
- Protons and neutrons also known as __________.
- A proton has a ___________ charge.
- A neutron is a ___________ particle of about the same mass as the
proton.
- An atom is _________ because it contains an equal number of
negatively charged electrons. So the net charge is zero.
Proton number, Z, is defined as the number of protons in a nucleus.
The number of protons = the number of electrons
An element is identified by its proton number
Nucleon number, A is defined as the total number of protons and neutrons
in a nucleus. It is also known as mass number.
Nucleon number, A = number of proton Z + number of neutrons
A nuclide is an atom of a particular structure. Each element has nucleus
with a specific number of protons.
Proton p
1
1
Neutron n
1
0
Electron e
0
1
A
X A = nucleon number
Z Z = proton number
X = chemical symbol of the element
Example
C
12
6
Proton number of carbon = ___,
Number of proton = _____ Number of electron = ___
Number of neutron = ______
Isotopes are atoms with the same proton number but different nucleon
number.
- Isotopes of an element contain the same number of protons and the
same number of electrons. So isotopes have the same chemical
properties chemical reactions involve the electrons in an atom.
- However they have different physical properties because their mass is
different.
Some isotopes exist naturally. Isotopes can also be made artificially.
Example: H
1
1
hydrogen H
2
1
deuterium H
3
1
tritium
10.1
Describe the
composition
of the
nucleus of
an atom in
terms of
protons and
neutrons
Define
proton
number (Z)
Define
nucleon
number (A)
What is
nuclide
Define
Isotopes
Nuclide
notation X
A
Z
214
Daltons model
Matter was made up of very small particles called
atoms.
Atoms can neither created or destroyed.
All atoms of the same element are identical;
different elements have different types of atom.
Thomsons model plum-pudding model
Atom is a solid sphere of positive charge with
electrons distributed uniformly over it.
Rutherford model
An atom has a positively charged core or nucleus,
which contains most of the mass the atom and
which surrounded by orbiting electrons.
Geiger and Marsden planned and carried out an
experiment proposed by Sir Ernest Rutherford
and found evidence for Rutherford Model.
They fired a stream of alpha particles at a very
thin gold foil and counted how many alpha
particles were scattered at a number of different
angles. The results agreed well with the theory.
The result and the conclusion of the experiment
is simplified in the table below:
Result Conclusion
Most of the alpha
particles passed straight
through the foil in their
original direction.
Most of the space taken
up by an atom must be
completely empty. A
very small nucleus is
placed at the centre of
the atom.
A few alphas particles
were deflected through
very small angles
The nucleus are
positively charged. The
alpha particles also
positively charged are
repelled by the nucleus
because repulsion force
is produced between the
like electric charges.
A very small number of
alpha particles were
bounced back by the
gold foil.
When the alpha particles
approach very close to
the nucleus , they were
exerted by a very large
repulsion force because
the repulsion obeys the
inverse square law of
the force between two
charged objects
( F o 1 )
r
2
Bohrs model
Bohrs model state that an atom has electrons in
stable orbits around the nucleus , like planets
round the sun.
Chadwicks model
The neutron as a neutral particle found in the
nucleus of atoms , along with the protons.
ATOMIC MODEL
215
Todays model of the atom
The atom with its very small and very dense
nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negative
electrons. The electrons may be represented as
waves or clouds around the nucleus. The
nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons or
called nucleons.
Protons, neutrons and electrons are the
fundamental particles of an atom.
TUTORIAL 10.1
1. A nucleus consists of
A. protons and electrons
B. protons and neutrons
C. neutrons and electrons
D. neutrons only
2. A negatively charged particle moves
towards a nucleus of an atom. Which of
the following diagrams shows the correct
path of the particles? (2007)
3. The nuclide of a lithium atom is written
as Li
7
3
. What is the number of protons,
nucleons and electrons in a neutral
lithium atom?
Number
of
protons
Number
of
nucleons
Number
of
electron
A 4 7 3
B 3 4 7
C 4 3 4
D 3 7 3
4. Which nuclide notation represents a
nuclide which has 30 protons and 35
neutrons?
A. X
35
30
C. X
65
30
B. X
65
35
D. X
30
35
5. The proton numbers and nucleon
numbers of three nuclei P, Q and R are
as shown in Table 1.
Nucleus Proton
number
Nucleon
number
P 52 86
Q 53 87
R 52 87
Which nuclei are isotopes of the same
element?
A. P and Q only
B. P and R only
C. Q and R only
D. P, Q and R
216
6. The diagram shows the plum pudding
model of an atom.
(a) Scientists thought that the
pudding was positively charged.
(i) Name the particles labelled A in
the diagram.
____________________________
(ii) Complete this sentence by
choosing the correct words
from the box.
The particles labelled A are
___________________________
(b) A new model of an atom was
suggested by Rutherford and
Marsden. They fired alpha particles
at thin metal foil. Alpha particles are
positively charged. In their model
each atom has a nucleus.
The diagram below shows the path
of an alpha particle as it passes the
nucleus of an atom.
(i) Explain why the alpha particle
changes direction.
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
(ii) The diagram shows different
paths taken by alpha particles
when they were fired by
Rutherford and Marsden at the
thin metal foil.
The boxes on the left show some
observations from the experiment.
The boxes on the right give their
explanations.
Draw a straight line from each
observation to its explanation.
One has been done for you.
Observation Explanation
negatively charged
positively charged
uncharged
because the
nucleus has a
very large
positive charge
and a large
mass
some alpha
particles travel
along path Y
most of the
alpha particles
follow path X
because the
nucleus is very
small
some alpha
particles
rebound
backwards
along path Z
because most
of each atom is
empty
space
very few alpha
particles follow
path
because the
nucleus is
positively
charged
217
Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration (decay) of an unstable
nucleus into a more stable nucleus accompanied by the emission of energetic
particles (radioactive rays) or photons .
- The nuclei of some atoms are unstable. The nucleus of an unstable atom
will decay to become more stable by emitting radiation in the form of a
particle or electromagnetic radiation.
- Random process means there is no way to tell which nucleus will decay,
and cannot predict when it is going to decay.
- A spontaneous process means the process is not triggered by any
external factors such as temperature of pressure.
- 3 kinds of Radioactive emmsion :
Alpha particle, Beta particle and Gamma radiation
Characteristic Alpha Beta Gamma
Nature Helium nuclei or
He
4
2
2 p and 2 n
Electrons, e
0
1
Electromagnetic
radiation.
Mass 4 1/2000 0
Charge +2e -e Neutral
Speed Slow Fast Speed of light
Ionizing ability High Medium Low
Penetrating power Low Medium High
Stopped by A few cm of air a piece
of paper
A few mm of
aluminium foil
A few cm of lead
Deflected by electric
and magnetic fields Yes Yes No
10.2
State what
radioactivity
is
Compare the 3 kinds of radioactive emissions in terms of their nature
218
Ionizing effect
Visible tracks in a
cloud chamber
for alpha particle,
beta particle and
gamma rays
- Radioactive emission has an ionizing effect
- The 3 types of radiation are highly energetic and use their energy to
remove electrons from the air molecules when they pass through air.
- The ionization of an atom produces positive ion and negative ion
(electron)
- Due to their different charges and masses, they have different ionizing
abilities.
Alpha Beta Gamma
Dense strong
ionization power
straight tracks - the
alpha particle has a
large mass and
momentum so it is not
easily deflected
Very fast beta particles
- thin, straight tracks.
The slower beta
particles - short, thick
tracks which curve in
random direction.
The gamma rays do
not produce clear or
continuous tracks due
to their low ionizing
power
Penetrating
power
- The penetrating effect of alpha, beta and gamma radiation depends on
their ionizing power.
- Radiation which has a stronger ionizing power will have a lower
penetrating effect.
- The radiation emission loses some of its energy each time an ion pair is
produced.
- Alpha particles lose energy very quick as they move through a medium.
After a short distance in the medium, the alpha particles would have lost
almost all energy. So alpha particles have the lowest penetrating power.
- Alpha particles can be stopped by paper, beta particles go through paper
but can be stopped by thin metal. Gamma rays can go through paper and
metal sheet and can only be stopped by thick lead or concrete.
219
Interaction with
electrical field
- Alpha and beta particles are deflected in an electric field because they are
charged. The deflections are in opposite direction because they carry
opposite charges. The deflection of beta is larger than alpha because
mass of beta < mass of alpha
- Gamma rays are not deflected because they do not carry any charge.
Interaction with
magnetic field
- Alpha particles and beta particles
are also deflected when they pass
through a magnetic field while
gamma rays are unaffected.
- The direction of the deflection of
alpha particles in the magnetic field
can be found using Flemings left-
hand rule.
Gold leaf electroscope
- When an electroscope is charged, the gold leaf sticks out,
because the charges on the gold repel the charges on the
metal stalk.
- When a radioactive source comes near, the air is ionized and
starts to conduct electricity.
- This means the charge can leak away, the electroscope
discharges and the gold leaf falls.
Photographic Badge
- Is worn by worker in nuclear power stations and
in radiation laboratories.
- The badge contains a photographic film in a light-
proof packet
- The parts of the film which had
received radiation will be darkened.
The degree of darkening indicates the
amount of radiation the person had
been exposed to.
Name common detectors for radioactive emissions
220
Geiger-Muller tube (GM tube)
- The radioactive emission enters the tube through
the mica window and ionizes the neon gas.
- The electrons and positive ions are attracted
towards the anode and cathode respectively.
- When electrons are collected by the anode, a
pulse of current is produces.
- The pulses of current are counted by a scaler or
ratemeter.
- The scaler gives the number of counts over a
certain period of time ie counts per minute /
counts per second.
- Initially the GM tube is switched on without the
presence of any radioactive substance. The
reading displayed by the ratemeter is known as
the background count rates.
- When the GM tube is used to detect radioactive
emission, the background count rate is
subtracted from the count rate obtained.
Actual reading = Reading recorded
Background Reading.
Notes:
Background radiation gives reading to the
GM tube even though there is no
radioactive source.
Background radiation is always present
due to natural radioactivity in the ground,
bricks or buildings and cosmic radiation.
Cloud Chamber
- It shows the path traveled by the ionizing
radiation in air.
- The radioactive produces ions in the air that is
saturated with alcohol vapour.
- The alcohol vapour condenses on the ions to
make the tracks of the radiation visible. Alpha
particles are best for this because it ionization
power is high.
Spark counter
- The spark counter consists of a wire gauze and a
thin wire below it.
- A high voltage is applied between the gauze and
the wire. The voltage is adjusted until it is just
below the value required to produce sparks.
- When a radioactive source is brought near the
wire gauze, the radiation ionizes the air below it.
The motion of the ions to the gauze and the wire
causes sparks to be produced.
The spark can be seen and heard.
- Spark counters are suitable for alpha
particles. Beta particles and gamma
rays produce too few ions to produce
sparks.
221
Radioactive decay is the process by which unstable atomic nuclei emit
subatomic particles or radiation.
- When a radioactive nucleus decays, its nucleus breaks up, emits an alpha
particle or beta particle and energy, and forms a new atom of a different
element.
- The nucleus before the decay is called the parent nuclide and the product
of the decay is the daughter nuclide.
- A parent nuclide X changes into a daughter nuclide Y.
Alpha decay Beta decay Gamma decay
The daughter nuclide has 2
protons less and 2 neutrons less
than the parent nuclide.
The proton number Z decreases
by 2 and its nucleon number A
decreases by 4
A neutron changes to proton
and electron during beta decay.
Proton stays within the nucleus
and electron is emitted as beta
particle.
The nucleus loses a neutron
but gains a proton.
Proton number increase by 1 ,
nucleon number remains
unchanged
Gamma emission does not
change the structure of the
nucleus, it just makes the
nucleus more stable.
Gamma rays are emitted at
the same time together
with either an alpha or beta
particle. When a nucleus
ejects an alpha or beta
particle, there is often
some excess energy
produced which will be
released as gamma rays
He Th
4
2
226
88
230
90
+
+ energy
He Th U
4
2
234
90
238
92
+ + energy
e N C
0
1
14
7
14
6
+ + energy
e Bi Pb
0
1
209
83
209
82
+ + energy
+ + He Pb Po
4
2
206
82
210
84
+ Co Co
60
27
60
27
- Sometimes the daughter nuclide of a radioactive does is still
unstable. It will eventually decay into another nuclide which is also
unstable.
- This process continues as a radioactive decay series until a stable
nuclide is reached.
- Each decay will emit either an alpha particle or a beta particle and
may be gamma rays.
Explain
what is
radio-
active
decay?
What is
radioactive
decay
series
Use equations to represent changes in the composition of the nucleus when
particle are emitted
222
Example 1
Uranium-238 (
U
238
92
) emits an alpha particle and
decays into a thorium atom. State the nucleon
number and proton number of the thorium, The
isotope formed. Write an equation for this decay.
Example 2
Complete:
210 0
Pb Bi + e
82 -1
Example 3
Strontium-90 (
Sr
90
38
) decays to yttrium-90 (
Y
90
39
)
by emitting a radioactive particle.
(a) write an equation for this decay.
(b) What particle is emitted during the decay?
Example 4
232
Th decays to
208
Pb ,
90 82
by emitting alpha particles and beta
particles. Determine the number of alpha
particles and beta particles being emitte?
Example 5
The uranium isotope
U
238
92
decays into a stable
lead isotope through successive emissions of 8
alpha particles and 6 electrons. What is the proton
number and the nucleon number of the lead
isotope?
Example 6
Both alpha and beta particles are produced
when M
234
90
decays to N
218
92
. How many
alpha and beta particles are produced.
Example 7
A nuclide
232
V decays to nuclide
220
W
92 90
and emits alpha- particles and beta-
particles. How many alpha and beta
particles are produced?
Example 8
The diagram shows part of a radioactive decay
series. Name the particles or radiations are emitted
at part I, II and III.
Example 9 (SPM 2004 paper 1)
The diagram shows a series of radioactive
decays for the nucleus of uranium-238
to that of radium-226.
What is the number of the alpha
particles and beta particles emitted
during this process?
223
The decay curve for the radioactive gas radon-222
which has a half-life of 55 seconds.
A radioactive nuclide with a
shorter half-life will decay at a
faster rate than another
radioactive nuclide that has a
longer half-life.
Example 1
The radioactive atoms in a substance decay to
become stable atoms. It was found that after 288
s, 6.25% of the atoms have not decayed. What is
the half-life of the substance?
Example 2
The half-life of iodine-131 is 8 days. A
radioactive sample contains 64 g of iodine-
131. Determine the mass of iodine that has
decayed and has not decayed after 24 days.
Example 3
A sample of lead-211 of mass 96 g has a half-life of
36.1 minutes.
(a) What fraction of the sample has not decayed
after 108.3 minutes?
(b) What is the mass of the decayed products after
this period of time?
The half-life T
1/2
of a radioactive substance is the time taken for the number
of undecayed nuclei to be reduced to half of its original number.
- The activity of a radioactive substance is the number of decays per
second of the unstable nuclei. It is also known as the decay rate.
- Each decay corresponds to the emission of one particle or one photon
- As the number of undecayed nuclei decreases with time, the activity of
the radioactive substance also decreases with time.
- The activity can be measured by using a GM tube connected to a
ratemeter
- The SI unit for activity is the Becquerel (Bq). 1 Bq = 1 decay per second
Explain
half-life
Determine
the half-
life from a
decay
curve
224
Example 4
The figure shows the decay curve for a radioactive
sample.
(a) What is the half-life of the sample?
(b) State the value of T.
Example 5
The diagram shows a graph activity against
time for a radioactive element. What is its
activity after 12 hours?
Example 6
The activity of a radioactive sample is reduced to
16
1
of its initial value after 156 minutes. What is
the half life of the sample?
Example 7
The table shows the count rate recorded
from a radioactive substance at two different
times on the same day. What is the half-life
of the substance?
Time Count rate
2.00 pm 340 per second
5.40 pm 85 per second
TUTORIAL 10.2
1. The diagram shows the path of
radioactive rays, S and T.
Which of the following shows the type of
ray S and ray T? (2003)
2. The table shows the half-lives of
radioisotopes J, K, L and M.
Radioisotopes Half-life
J
K
L
M
8 days
56 days
5.27 years
6 hours
Which of the radioisotope is most
suitable as a tracer in the human body?
(2003)
A. J
B. K
C. L
D. M
225
3. Which of the following has a similar
characteristic to particles? (2004)
A. Proton
B. Electron
C. Helium nucleus
D. Electromagnetic wave
4. Which of the following statements is a
characteristic of gamma radiation? (2005)
A. It has a positive charge
B. It is an electromagnetic wave
C. It has a higher ionizing power than
alpha radiation
D. It has a lower penetrating power than
beta radiation
5. The following equation represents the
decay of a uranium nucleus.
He y e x Th U
4
2
0
1
230
90
238
92
+ +

What are the values of x and y? (2005)
X Y
A 0 1
B 1 1
C 1 2
D 2 2
6. The initial mass of radioactive element is
10 g and its half-life is 6 days. Which of
the following statements about the mass
of the radioactive element is true? (2006)
A. 6 days earlier, the mass is 20 g
B. 12 days earlier, the mass is 80 g
C. 6 days later, the mass is 2.5 g
D. 12 days later, the mass is 5.0 g
7. The graph shows the decay curve of a
radioactive material.
If the initial of the radioactive material is
800 counts per minute, what is the
activity after 1 hour? (2004)
A. 400 D. 200
B. 100 E. 50
C. 25
8. Three different rays P,Q and R are
emitted from a radioactive substance.
The following table shows the
characteristics of the rays.
Type of
rays
P Q R
Deflection
of the
gold leaf
of an
electro-
scope.
unchanged unchanged decreases
Effect on
Spark
Counter
no spark no sparks produce
sparks
Tracks in
cloud
chamber
Penetrati
ng power
A few cm
of lead can
absorb a
significant
amount of
it
Stopped
by a few
mm of
aluminium
Stopped
by a sheet
of paper
Based on the graph above,
(a) State the nature characteristic of rays
(i) P
_____________________________
(ii) Q
___________________________
(b) Which of the rays has the strongest
penetrating power?
______________________________
Explain why
(i) rays P can produce sparks in a
spark counter?
___________________________
___________________________
(ii) rays P and Q cannot be
detected by a gold leaf
electroscope?
__________________________
__________________________
226
(d) Explain why rays R produce
thick and straight tracks in
cloud chamber?
___________________________
9. A radioactive source contains an isotope
of thorium.Thorium ( Th
228
90
) decays by o-
particle emission to radium (Ra).
Write an equation to show this decay.
(b) The radium produced is also
radioactive. Diagram 1 shows a
laboratory experiment to test for the
presence of the radioactive
emissions from the thorium source,
using a radiation detector. In the
laboratory there is a background
count of 20 counts/minute.
The readings are given in the table.
Position Reading in count /
per minute
P 2372
Q 361
State and explain
(i) which radiation could be
causing the count at Q,
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
(ii) which radiations could be
causing the count at P.
___________________________
___________________________
(c) All three types of radioactive
emission cause some ionisation of
gases.
(i) Explain what is meant by the
term ionisation of gases.
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
(ii) Suggest a reason why -
radiation produces very little
ionisation.
___________________________
___________________________
10. The diagram shows part of
238
U decay
series.
Based on the diagram above;
(a) Name the rays or particles emitted
when
234
Th decays to
234
Pa
90 91
_______________________________
(b) State a pair of an isotope.
________________________________
(c) The half life of Pa
234
91
is 6.7 hours and
Initially has a mass 32 g. What is
the mass of Pa-234 after 33.5
hours?
227
11. Diagram 1 and Diagram 2 show the rate
of decay of radioactive substances,
flourine-22 and sodium-24.
(a) Based on the decay curves of flourine-
22 and sodium-24,
(i) state a common characteristic for
the change in activity in relation to
time for the decay of flourine-22
and sodium-24.
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
(ii) complete the table below
Activity/
Count
per
minute
2000 1000 500 250
Decay
time of
fluorine-
22/ s
0 4 8
Decay
time of
sodium-
24/ s
0 1 2
(b) What happens to the activity of
(i) flourine-22 after every 4 s?
____________________________
____________________________
(ii) sodium-24 after every 1 s?
____________________________
____________________________
(c) Based on the answers in (b)(i) and
(b)(ii), draw a conclusion from the
activity change with time for these two
sources to form a physics concept.
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
(d) When flourine-22 decays, it produces a
beta particle and neon-22 (Ne).
(i) What is a beta particle?
______________________________
(ii) Complete the following equation for
the decay of fluorine-22.
........ Ne Fl
.......
.......
22
9
+
217
In industries
(c) Smoke detectors
- Contain a weak radioactive source such as americium-
241.
- Alpha particles emitted from the source ionize air
molecules. The ionized air molecules conduct electricity
and a small current flows in the smoke detector.
- When smoke enters the detector, the soot particles in the
smoke absorb some of the alpha particles.
- This causes a decrease in the current that flows in the
smoke detector and trigger the alarm.
- Americium-241 has a long half-life, 460 years so that the
substance will last longer.
(b)Thickness control
- A radioactive sends radiation through the sheet
material as it comes off the production line.
Beta radiation are used for thin sheets. A
radiation detector on the other side of the sheet
measures the intensity of the radiation passing
through the sheet.
- The amount of radiation received by the detector
depends on the thickness of the rubber sheet.
- If the sheet is too thin, the reading of the
detector increases.
- A signal is sent from the roller control to the rollers so that the pressure on the sheets can be
reduced.
(c) detecting leaks in underground water pipes.
- A radioactive substance which emits beta
particles is added to a fluid in a pipeline to
measure the flow rate in the pipeline and to find
leaks.
- The radiation produced by the radioactive
substance can be detected with a GM tube
counter placed above ground.
- A larger increase in the count rate will indicate
that there is leak in that area.
10.3
- Radioisotopes are unstable isotopes which decay and give out
radioactive emissions.
- Radioisotopes are isotopes of an element that are radioactive.
- Radioisotopes are naturally occurring or artificially produced.
-
Define
radioisotopes
.
Describe applications of radioisotopes
218
Medicine
(a) Radioactive tracers
- Nuclear medicine is a branch of
medicine that uses radiation to
provide information about the
function of the specific organs of a
patient or to treat disease.
- Characteristics of radioisotope:
(a) half-life is medium, long enough
to examine metabolic processes
in the body and short enough to
minimize the radiation dose to
the patient.
- A radioisotope is taken in by a patient through the
digestive system, by inhalation or through the
blood vessels by injection.
- The radiation emitted enables organs such as
thyroid, bones, heart, liver to be easily imaged by
imaging equipment. Disorders can then be
detected.
(b) emits low energy gamma rays which can
pass through the body without much
ionization of the molecules.
(b)Sterilizing
- medical instruments are sterilized
after packing by a brief exposure to
gamma rays.
- Gamma rays can be used to kill
bacteria, mould and insects in food.
(c)cancer treatment
- Gamma rays can kill living cells. They are used to
kill cancer cells without having to resort to
surgery.
- This is called radiotherapy.
- It is important to administer the correct dosage.
Excessive radiation will damage too many healthy
cells. Insufficient radiation will not stop the
cancer from spreading.
Application of radioisotope in the
field of agriculture
- By measuring the radioactivity of the
stem and leaves, scientists can find
out how much fertilizer has been
absorbed by the plant.
- Radioisotopes are used to kill pests
and parasites and to control the
ripening of fruits.
Application of radioisotope in archaeology
- Carbon-14 is a radioisotope with a half-life of 5730
years and decays by emitting beta particles.
- Living animals and plants have a known
proportion of carbon-14 in their tissues which
remains constant.
- When living things die, the amount of carbon-14
in their body decreases at a known rate.
- The amount of carbon-14 left in a decayed plant or
animal can be used to tell its age.
TUTORIAL 10.3
1. Which statement is true about the use of
radioactive substance? (2006)
A To determine the sex of a foetus
B To identify counterfeit bank notes
C To detect leakage in underground
pipes
D To determine the contents in
baggage of air plane passengers
2. Cobalt-60 destroys cancer cells because
it.. (2003)
A. has a long half-life
B. has no side effect
C. radiates gamma rays
D. decays spontaneously
3. What is the radioisotope that can be used
to determine the age of a fossil? (2005)
A. Radon-222
B. Uranium-238
C. Carbon-14
D. Iodine-131
4. Xenon-133 is used in studying lung
function because it
A has a long half-life
B has no side effect
C emits alpha or beta particles
D emits radiation with low ionization
power
231
5. Radioisotope that can be added into the
water is
A Carbon-14
B Iodine-131
C Sodium-24
D Phosphorus-32
6. The diagram shows a logic gate system
is used in a factory to ensure the volume
of paint in containers is within the
predetermined range.
Which type of ray is emitted from the
radioactive source?
A Alpha particle
B Beta particle
C Gamma ray
7. The diagram shows the structure of a
smoke alarm.
Which of the following is true?
A Cobalt -60 is used as a radioactive
source.
B The device works based on the
penetrating power of the
radioactive radiation
C When a fire breaks out, the particles
of smoke will absorbs the alpha
particles
D The particles of smoke increase the
ionisation of the air and the alarm
will be activated
8. The diagram shows a graph of activity of
Iodin -131 present in the thyroid against
time of three patients P, Q and R when
the Iodin-131 are injected into the body of
the patients.
Who is has a normal thyroid gland?
A Patient P
B Patient Q
C Patient R
9. What is the radioisotope that can be used
to determine the age of a fossil?
A Carbon-14
B Iodine-131
C Radon-222
D Uranium -238
10. Which of the following is the Hazard
symbol of a radioactive substance?
11. Which of the following factor is not
affecting the severity of radiation ?
A Types of radiation
B Dosage and exposure time
C Methods of insertion into the body
D The temperature of the radioactive
source
232
12. When some fresh foods are exposed to
-rays, the foods keeping qualities are
improved and the foods are safe to eat.
Why can people eat these foods without
suffering from the effect of radiation?
A -rays have very low energy
B -rays carry no electric charge
C -rays have a very short half-life
D -rays do not make the food
radioactive
13. Table below shows the half-lives of four
types of liquid isotopes which radiate
particles.
Isotope Half-life
P 10 seconds
Q 20 hours
R 5 months
S 10 years
Which of the following isotopes is
suitable to detect blood clotting? (2007)
A. P
B. Q
C. R
D. S
14. Why are radioactive sources stored in
boxes lined with lead?
A Lead absorbs radiation and stops it
from escaping into the room
B Lead absorbs the radioactive source
and make it safe to handle
C Lead slow down the rate at which the
radioactive source decays
D Lead completely stops the source
from decaying and so it lasts longer
15. The diagram shows a radioactive source
and a detector are used to check the
level of fruit juice in a carton. Cartons of
fruit juice pass between the detector and
the radioactive source. The radioactive
source emits - particles.
(a) State the name of a suitable
detector of the - particles.
______________________________
(b) What is a - particle?
______________________________
(c) Explain why the level of detected
radiation falls when a full carton of
juice goes past the detector?
______________________________
(d) Explain
(i) why a source emitting -
particles is not used.
__________________________
___________________________
___________________________
(ii) why a source emitting - rays
is not used.
___________________________
___________________________
16. The diagram shows the process of
controlling the thickness of metal plates.
The reading obtained are shown in the
table below:
Position
of metal
plate
A B C D E F
Reading
of
counter /
count per
minute
200 250 180 202 197 201
233
(a) Name the detector P.
__________________________________
(b) Why the gamma source is used?
__________________________________
(c) Why the gamma source is placed in a
plumbum box?
__________________________________
__________________________________.
(d)(i) At what position of the metal is very
thin ?
________________________________
(ii) Give one reason for your answer in
d(ii).
________________________________
________________________________
(e) Explain why the thickness of the metal
plate at position A,D,E and F are same
but give the different readings?
_________________________________
(f) What happen to reading of the counter
if a part of the metal plate attached with
magnet?
_________________________________.
(g)(i) If the gamma source is removed,
what happen to the reading of the
counter?
________________________________
(ii) Give the reason for your answer in
g(i).
________________________________
________________________________
17. Diagram(a) shows a box containing a
dangerous material.
Diagram (a)
(i) What is material is kept in the box?
________________________________
(ii) State one negative effect of the
material to the people?
________________________________
(iii) Give two safety precautions which
should be taken when handling the
material?
_______________________________
_______________________________
(b) A doctor uses radioactive rays to
detect the flow of blood in a patient.
The device is shown in Diagram (a)
and its results recorded are shown
in Diagram(b).
Diagram(a)
Diagram (b)
234
(i) Name a radioisotope is used.
________________________________
(ii) State the type of radioactive ray
emitted.
________________________________
(iii) The radioisotope used has a short
half-life. Explain why?
________________________________
________________________________
(iv) Why is there a peak in the graph?
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
(c) A detector shows the activity of a
radioisotope decreases from 160
counts per second to 20 counts per
second in 15 minutes. Calculate the
half-life of the radioisotope.
SPM 2007
18. Diagram 8 shows a system used in a
factory to ensure the thickness of a
cardboard sheet is uniform.
The radioactive source, radiation
detector and counter are used to detect
the thickness of cardboard sheet. The
radioactive source contains a
radioisotope. The roller is used to
compress the cardboard sheet.
Table 8 shows four radioisotopes with
their respective properties.
Radioisotpes Half-
life
Type of
radiation
Physical
state
Sodium-24 15
hours
Gamma Liquid
Phosphorus
32
14.3
days
Beta Liquid
Cobalt -60 5.27
years
Gamma Solid
Strontium 90 28.5
years
Beta Solid
(a) What is meant by a radioisotope?
________________________________
(b) Based on Table 8, state the suitable
properties of the radioisotope to
detect the thickness of the cardboard
sheet.
(i) Half-life
_____________________________
Reason
_____________________________
(ii) Type of radiation
_____________________________
Reason
_____________________________
(iii) Physical state
_____________________________
Reason
_____________________________
(c) Based on the answers in 8(b),
determine the most suitable
radioisotope in Table 8 to detect the
thickness of the cardboard sheet.
________________________________
(d) The radioisotope in 8(c) is used to
detect the thickness of the cardboard
sheet.
235
(i) State the change in the reading of
the counter when a thicker
cardboard is used.
_____________________________
(ii) How is the thickness of the
cardboard sheet reduced?
_____________________________
(e) The half-life of Cobalt-60 is 5.27
years. Calculate the time taken for
the activity of Cobalt 60 to reduce to
6.25 % of its initial value.
SPM 2003
19. As a researcher , you are assigned to
investigate the characteristics of a
certain radioactive isotope that could
be used to detect the thickness of paper
in a paper factory.
(a) What does the term isotope mean?
(b) The table below shows the
characteristics of five isotopes.
Characteristics of isotope Isotope
State
of
matter
Emitte
d
radiati
on
Half-
life
Penetrati
ng power
Strontium
-90
Solid Beta 28
year
s
Medium
Cobalt-60 Solid Gamm
a
5
year
s
High
Xenon-
133
Gas Beta 5
day
s
High
Water
containin
g H-3
Liquid Beta 12
year
s
Medium
Polonium
-210
Solid Alpha 140
day
s
Low
Based on the table above;
(i) Explain the suitable
characteristics of the isotopes
so that it can be used to
measure the thickness of paper
in a paper industry.
(ii) Select the most suitable
isotope to be used in detecting
the thickness of paper in the
factory and give your reason.
(c) Suggest briefly the arrangement of
the paper thickness detector
apparatus and state how
radioactivity is used to detect the
thickness of the paper.
(d) Sketch a graph activity against time
to illustrate how radioactive
materials decay. Use your graph to
explain how the half-life is
determined.
(e) The half-life of cobalt-60 is 5 years.
Calculate the time taken for the
activity of this isotope to decay to
12.5% of its initial value.
SPM 2004
20. A paint-producing factory wants to
develop a volume control system which
can ensure the quantity of paint in every
thin is within in a specific range. The tins
of paint are transported on a conveyor
belt as shown in diagram below. If the
volume of the paint is less or more than
the specific range of volume, the tin will
be separated automatically.
Using your knowledge on the
radioactivity and the Diagram above,
explain;
(a) the radioactive material and
equipment required to develop the
volume control system,
(b) how the equipment is assembled
(c) how the system works
236
SPM 2006
21. Radioisotope material has some uses in
the medical field such as in the
investigation of internal organs and in
the sterilisation of equipments.
(a) A doctor conducts an investigation
on patients kidney by injecting
iodine-131 radioisotope, that has a
half-life of 8 days, into the blood
circulation.
A normal kidney can expel the
radioisotope in 20 minutes.
The presence of radioisotope in the
left and right kidneys is shown in
the graphs as in Diagram (a).
Diagram (a)
(i) What is meant by half-life?
(ii) Based on the graphs in
Diagram(a), which kidney is not
functioning properly?
Give one reason.
(iii) The initial iodine-131 activity is
1 600 counts per second.
Calculate the time taken for the
Iodine- 131 activity to decrease
to 100 counts per second.
(b) Medical equipment is strelised by
radiation from a radioactive source.
You are assigned to study the
characteristics of some
radioisotopes that are suitable for
use in the strelisation of medical
equipments.
Table below shows the
characteristics of five
radioisotopes.
Radioisotope Characteristics of isotope
State
of
matter
Types of
ray
Half-life
Strontium-90 Solid Beta 28 years
Cobalt-60 Solid Gamma 5 years
Xenon-133 Gas Beta 5 days
Iodine- 131 Liquid Gamma 8 days
Polonium-
210
Solid Alpha 140 days
(i) Explain the suitability of the
characteristics to be used in
the strelisation of medical
equipment.
(ii) Determine the most suitable
radioisotope to be used and
give one reason for your
choice.
(c) Gamma rays can produce an effect
on photographic film.
Explain whether gamma rays is
suitable to be used in taking
photographs of an organ in humans.
(d) Beryllium- 11 isotope emits two rays.
The isotope is placed in front of an
electric field and the radioactive
radiation path is shown in
Diagram(b).
Diagram(b)
(i) Name both rays that are
emitted by the isotope.
(ii) Explain why the rays follow the
path shown
237
The atomic mass unit it the unit of mass for atoms and subatomic particles
such as the proton, neutron an electron
- 1 atomic mass unit or 1 u is
12
1
of the mass of the carbon-12 atom.
- The mass of one carbon-12 atom is 1.99265 x 10
-26
kg
1 u =
26
10 99265 . 1
12
1

kg
1 u = 1.66 x 10
-27
kg
Nuclear fission is the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei
- Fission occurs when the nucleus of an atom is bombarded with a neutron.
- The energy of the neutron causes the target nucleus to split into two (or
more) nuclei that are lighter than the parent nucleus, releasing a large
amount of energy during the process.
- A slow neutron hitting a uranium-235 nucleus, causing it to split producing
strontium-90 , xenon-143 and three neutrons + energy.
-
energy n Sr Xe n U + + + +
1
0
90
38
143
54
1
0
235
92
3
- another reaction:
energy n Kr Ba n U + + + +
1
0
92
36
141
56
1
0
235
92
3
- The nucleus is divided into two large fragments of roughly equal mass
- There is a significant mass defect
- Other neutrons are emitted in the process
10.4
Define
atomic
mass unit
a.m.u
Describe
nuclear
fission
Give
example
of
nuclear
fission
Difference
between
nuclear
fission and
radioactive
decay
238
Example of a
chain reaction
Critical mass
Graphite as a
moderator
- In the fission reactions, one neutron starts the fission process, but three
neutrons are produced.
- If one of these neutrons bombards another uranium-235 nucleus then more
fissions will occur, releasing more neutrons. A chain reaction is produced.
- A chain reaction is a self-sustaining reaction in which the products of a
reaction can initiate another similar reaction.
- As uranium atoms continue to split, a significant amount of energy is
released during each reaction. The heat released is harnessed and used to
generate electrical energy
- A controlled chain reaction is used in nuclear power stations
- An uncontrolled chain reaction is used in nuclear bombs.
- In order for a chain reaction to occur, the sample of uranium must have a
certain minimum mass known as critical mass
- The neutrons produced in a fission reaction are very fast neutrons. Slower
neutrons are more easily captured by the uranium nuclei. Graphite can act
as moderators to slow down the chain reaction to occur at a smaller critical
mass
Nuclear fusion is the combining of two lighter nuclei to form a heavier nucleus,
releasing a vast amount of energy during the process.
Give examples
of nuclear
fusion
- Nuclear fusion is believed to be the process by which energy is released by
the Sun. When two hydrogen-2 nuclei moving at high speeds collide, they
can join together to produce heavier nucleus. A large amount of energy is
released.
Describe
chain
reactions
Describe
nuclear
fusion
239
Another example:
2 3 4 1
H + H : He + n + energy
1 1 2 0
energy H He He H + + +
1
1
4
2
3
2
2
1
A hydrogen bomb uses the principle of nuclear fusion for its design.
- Both nuclear fission and fusion release a large amount of energy. The
source of this energy is from the loss of mass in nuclear reactions.
- The sum of the masses of the particles before the reaction is more than the
sum of the masses of the particles after the reaction.
- Mass defect is
sum of the masses sum of the masses
before reaction after reaction
- Mass and energy can be exchanged one for the other.
- A loss of mass in a nuclear reaction means that the mass had changed to
energy.
- The relationship between the mass and the energy:
E = mc
2
Where E = energy released, in joules, J
m = loss of mass or mass defect, in kg
c = speed of light = 3.0 x 10
8
m/s
Example 1
Below is an equation for the decay of radium-226.
energy He Rn Ra
4
2
222
86
226
88
+ +
The masses of each atom:
Ra-226 = 226.02536 a.m.u
Rn-222 = 222.01753 a.m.u
He-4 = 4.00260 a.m.u
1 a.m.u = 1.66 x 10
-27
kg
1 eV = 1.66 x 10
-19
J
(a) Find the mass defect in
(i) a.m.u (ii) kg
(b) Calculate the amount of energy released in
(i) J (ii) eV
Relate the
release of
energy in
a nuclear
reaction
with a
change of
mass
according
to the
equation
E = mc
2
240
Example 2
Below is an equation involving the fission of
Uranium-235 by a fast moving neutron.
energy 3
1
0
92
36
141
56
1
0
235
92
+ + + + n Kr Ba n U
Calculate the amount of energy released by an atom
of Uranium 235.
U-235 = 235.04 a.m.u
Kr-92 = 91.93 a.m.u
Ba-141 = 140.91 a.m.u
Neutron = 1.01 a.m.u
1 a.m.u = 1.66 x 10
-27
kg
c = 3.0 x 10
8
m s
-1
Example 3
A possible fusion reaction is represented by the
following equation:
H H H H
1
1
3
1
2
1
2
1
+ +
Calculate the energy released in joules.
H-2 = 2.014102 u
H-3 = 3.016049 u
H-1 = 1.007825 u
1 a.m.u = 1.66 x 10
-27
kg
c = 3.0 x 10
8
ms
-1
A nuclear
reactor
- Electricity can be generated from the energy released by fission reactions.
A nuclear power station consists of a nuclear reactor and a generator.
Describe the generation of electricity from nuclear fission
241
Uranium fuel
rods :
Graphite
moderator:
Boron or
cadmium
control rod
Concrete
shield:
Coolant:
Heat
exchanger:
Turbines:
Coil and
magnet:
Process:
It produces tremendous amount of energy through nuclear fission.
The nuclei are split by neutrons in a controlled chain reaction, releasing a large
amount of energy. The energy released heats up the cold gas that passes
through the reactor core.
Acts as a moderator to slow down the fast neutrons produced by the fission.
Slower neutrons are more readily captured by the uranium nuclei.
The boron control rods absorb neutrons. It can control the rate of fission
reaction. When rods are lowered into the reactor core to absorb some of the
neutrons, the rate of the fission reaction reduced.
Prevents leakage of radiation from the reactor core.
Take away the heat from the nuclear reactor. Substances with high specific
heat capacity such as water and carbon dioxide are used.
Heat energy from the very hot gas is used to boil the water into steam
The turbines are rotated by the flow of steam under high pressure
The coils are rotated by the turbines. Electricity is generated by
electromagnetic induction.
Justify the use
of nuclear
fission in the
generation of
electricity
Advantages of using nuclear fission:
- Nuclear power costs about the same as coal, so it is not expensive
- It does not produce smoke or carbon dioxide. It does not contribute to the
greenhouse effect. It produces less waste than fossil fuels.
- It produces huge amounts of energy from small amounts of fuel.
- Nuclear power stations need less fuel than stations which use fossil fuels
- Vast reserves of nuclear fuel in the world.
- Safety procedures in the administration of nuclear reactors are very
advanced and safe
- Produces useful radioisotopes as by-products that can be used in industry,
medicine, agriculture and research.
242
Disadvantages of using nuclear fission
- The initial cost to design and build a nuclear power station is very high.
- There is always a risk of accidents. If a chain reaction goes out of control,
explosion or leakage or large amounts of radioactive substance may
happen.
- Used fuel rods are very hot and highly radioactive with very long half-lives.
- Expensive procedures are required to cool down the rods and store them.
- The hot water discharged from the nuclear power stations can cause
thermal pollution
- People who work in the nuclear power station and those living nearby may
be exposed to excessive radiation.
10.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF PROPER MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
Sources of
background
radiation
- Our bodies are always exposed to the natural background radiation.
- The level of background radiation is very low and is not harmful to
humans.
Describe the
negative effects
of radioactive
substances
Somatic effect
Genetic effect
- When radioactive emissions strikes living cells, it can cause ionization to
the molecules of the cells. This may cause the cells to be killed, resulting
in tissue damage.
- At low doses of radiation, the damaged tissues can repair itself rapidly.
- High doses of radiation can cause burn effects known as radiation burns.
- The ionization effect of radiation can also cause genetic damage to the
molecules of the cells. This may lead to the formation of cancerous cells
and tumour development.
- If the radioactive substances gets inside the body, the most harmful
effects come from the alpha particles because they have the highest
ionization power.
- If the radioactive source is outside the body, the greatest danger is from
gamma sources because gamma rays have the highest penetrating power.
The alpha particles would not penetrate clothing and is highly unlikely to
reach living cells in the body.
- Somatic effect appears in the person exposed to radiation. The
seriousness of the damage depends on the dose of radiation received.
Fatigue, nausea, hair loss, radiation burns, cataracts
Blood disorder (leukemia), organ failure, death
- Genetic effect affects the reproductive cells and can lead to defective
offspring in the future generations of the exposed person.
Birth defects, congenital defects, premature death, chromosome
abnormalities, cancer in later life.
243
Describe safety
precautions
needed in the
handling of
radioactive
substances
Radioactive substances must always be handled with the correct procedures
to prevent harmful effects to people and the environment.
- Read and follow the advice and instructions marked on radioactive
sources, equipment and work manuals.
- Gloves must be worn any time an unsealed source is being used or
whenever contamination is likely to occur.
- Laboratory coats, long pants, and closed-toe footwear should be worn.
- Eating, drinking, applying cosmetic or storing food is prohibited.
- All work surfaces and storage areas should be covered with absorbent
material to contain radioactive material contamination.
- When using radioactive liquids, plastic or metal trays (stainless steel
washes easily) should be utilized to contain potential spills.
- Radioactive material, especially liquids, should be kept in unbreakable
containers whenever possible. If glass is used, a secondary container is
necessary
- Before eating or drinking, wash hands and forearms thoroughly.
- Stronger radioactive sources should be handled with robotic control
systems behind steel, concrete, lead or thick glass panels.
- Radiation badges containing photographic film should be worn to monitor
exposure to radiation. The film is regularly developed. The darkness of
the film shows the level of exposure to radiation.
Describe the
management of
radioactive waste
Low level waste:
Intermediate level
waste:
In a nuclear reactor, a very large amount of energy is produced from a very
small amount of fuel. However, much of the waste is radioactive and
therefore must be carefully managed as hazardous waste.
Radioactive waste consists of a variety materials requiring different methods
of management to protect people and the environment.
- Comprises 90% of the volume but only 1% of the radioactivity of all
radioactive waste.
- Generated from hospitals, laboratories and industry, as well as the
nuclear fuel cycle.
- Comprises paper, rags, tools, clothing, filters
- Contains small amounts of mostly short-lived radioactivity
- Buried in shallow landfill sites.
- Often compacted or incinerated (in a closed container) before disposal to
reduce its volume.
- Makes up 7% of the volume and has 4% of the radioactivity of all
radioactive waste.
- Contains higher amounts of radioactivity and may require special
shielding
- Comprises resins, chemical sludge, reactor components and
contaminated material from reactor decommissioning
- Solidified in concrete or bitumen for disposal
- Short-lived waste (mainly from reactors) is buried.
- Long-lived waste (from reprocessing nuclear fuel) is disposed deep
underground
- Consists of only 3% of the volume of all radioactive waste but it holds 95%
of the radioactivity.
- Mainly used fueled rods or liquid waste from fuel processing
- Contains highly-radioactive fission products and some heavy elements
with long-lived radioactivity.
244
- Generates large amount of heat and requires cooling, as well as special
shielding during handling and transport.
- Vitrified by incorporating it into borosilicate glass which is sealed inside
stainless steel containers for eventual disposal deep underground.
TUTORIAL10.4
1 A Uranium-235 nucleus will split when it
captures
A an alpha particle
B a gamma ray
C a neutron
D a proton
2 Which of the following nuclear reactions
is an example of fusion?
A C
14
6
N
14
7
+ e
0
1 -
+ energy
B H
2
1
+ H
2
1
He
3
2
+ e
0
1 -
+ energy
C Na
21
11
Mg
21
12
+ + energy
D Ra
226
88
Rn
222
86
+ + energy
3 The diagram shows the start of a chain
reaction.
Which nuclear reaction is taking place?
A Fission of hydrogen
B Fusion of hydrogen
C Fission of uranium
D Fusion of uranium
4 It is possible for a chain reaction to
occur in nuclear fission because
A new neutrons are produced
B two fission fragments are produced
C a large amount of energy is released
D fission does not require a very high
temperature
5 In a nuclear reactor , the neutrons
produced are slowed down by
A Uranium rod
B Graphite core
C Boron control rod
6 What energy changes take place in a
nuclear power station?
A Heat energy Mechanical energy
Nuclear energy
B Nuclear energy Heat energy
Electrical energy
C Heat energy Nuclear energy
Electrical energy
D Mechanical energy Heat energy
Electrical energy
7 Which of the following is not true about
a nuclear reactor?
Compone
nt
Function
A Control
rod
To control the rate of
fission reaction.
B Coolant To take away heat from
the nuclear reactor
C Graphite
core
To slow down the fast
neutrons produced by
the fission.
D Concrete
shield
To prevent the
radioactive radiations
from atmosphere
entering into the
nuclear reactor
8 Which of the following nuclear reactions
is an example of fission?
A H
2
1
+ H
2
1
He
4
2
+ energy
B N
14
7
+ neutron N
15
7
+ energy
C Pu
214
94
U
237
92
+ + energy
D U
239
92
Sr
95
38
+ Xe
141
54
+
3 neutrons + energy
246
9 In the sun, energy is released when
hydrogen nuclei collide and form
heavier nuclei. This process is called
A Ionisation
B Diffusion
C Fission
D Fusion
11 What happen when two nuclei of
deuterium ( H
2
1
) fuse together to form a
nucleus helium ( He
4
2
) ?
A Mass and energy are both created
B Energy and mass are both lost
C Mass is converted into energy
D Energy is converted into mass
12 Which of the following is made by using
the principle of nuclear fusion.
A Atom bomb
B Hydrogen bomb
C Nuclear reactor
13 Which of the following is not the
similarity between nuclear fission and
nuclear fusion?
A Both of the nuclear reactions
experience mass defect
B Both of the nuclear reactions
produced a large amount of energy
C Both of the nuclear reactions
produced new nuclei
D Both of the nuclear reactions
require very high temperature
14 A nuclear reaction is given by the
equation
X Y + Z
Which of the following is correct?
A The nucleon number of X > The
nucleon number of Y + nucleon
number of Z
B The proton number of X > The
proton number of Y + proton
number of Z
C The atomic mass of X > The atomic
mass of Y + the atomic mass of Z
15. The mass defect in a nuclear reaction is
0.05 u. What is the released?
[ Speed of light = 3.0 x 10
8
ms
-1
,
A 2.55 x 10
-21
J B 5.10 x 10
-19
J
C 3.83 x 10
-13
J D 7.65 x 10
-13
J
E 8.97 x 10
-13
J
16. In the fission reaction for an atom of
uranium-235, the energy produced is 2.9 x
10
-11
J. What is the total loss of mass in
the reaction? (2007)
A. 3.22 x 10
-28
kg
B. 9.67 x 10
-20
kg
C. 2.61 x 10
6
kg
D. 1.03 x 10
19
kg
17. A nuclear reaction is represented by the
following equation:
U
235
92
+ n
1
0
Cs
141
55
+ Rb
93
37
+ X n
1
0
+
energy
The information about the equation is
shown as follow:
Mass of U
235
92
= 235.04392 u
Mass of n
1
0
= 1.00867 u
Mass of Cs
141
55
= 140.91963 u
Mass of Rb
93
37
= 92.92157 u
1 u = 11.7 x 10
-27
kg
Speed of light = 3.0 x 10
8
ms
-1
(a) What is the value of X?
________________________________
(b) Name the nuclear reaction involved.
________________________________
(c) What is the meaning of the nuclear
reaction in (b)?
_______________________________
_______________________________
(d) State one application of the nuclear
reaction in (b)
______________________________
247
(e) Calculate
(i) the energy released .
(ii) the power generated in 5 s.
18.Diagram below shows the structure of the
nuclear reactor which is used to generate
electrical energy.
(a) Name the parts labeled X, Y and Z.
(i) X : _____________________________
(ii) Y : _____________________________
(iii) Z : _____________________________
(b) Name the reaction that takes place in the
nuclear reactor.
___________________________________
(c) Neutrons with low kinetic energy are
needed for producing effective nuclear
reactions. How are neutrons with low
kinetic energy produced?
___________________________________
___________________________________
(d) The neutrons which produced nuclear
reaction will explode if the reaction is not
controlled. How is the chain reaction
controlled?
(e) Why does the nuclear reactor commonly
build nearer to a river or a huge water
source?
___________________________________
19.Figure 1 and 2 represent the radioactive
decay of radium-226 and carbon-14
respectively.
(f) (i) Why does theparent nuclide decay?
________________________________
(ii) Compare the total masses in a.m.u
before and after the decay process.
________________________________
(iii) Explain the reason for the
observation in (a)(ii).
(iv) Write an equation to show the
relationship between mass defect, m,
speed of light, c and energy, E.
248
(v) State the relationship between the
mass defect and the energy
released.
______________________________
(g) The half-lives of radium-226 and
carbon-14 are 1 600 years and 5 600
years respectively.
(i) What is meant by half-life?
_____________________________
_____________________________
(ii) Which radioactive material will
decay a faster rate? Explain your
answer.
______________________________
______________________________
SPM 2004 (essay)
20. Table (a) shows an equation of a reaction
and total atomic mass before and after a
nuclear fission.
Nuclear fission
Before
reaction
After reaction
Equation
239
Pu +
1
n
94 0
145
Ba +
93
Sr +
56 38
2
1
n +
Energy
0
Total
atomic
mass
240.06082 u 239.85830 u
Table (a)
Table (b) shows an equation of a reaction
and total atomic mass before and after a
nuclear fusion.
Nuclear fusion
Before
reaction
After reaction
Equation
2
H +
3
H
1 1
4
He +
1
n +
2 0
Energy
Total
atomic
mass
5.03013 u 5.01043 u
Table (b)
(a)(i) What is meant by a nuclear fission ?
(ii) Using only the information given in
Table(a) and (b), compare nuclear
fission and nuclear fusion. Hence
state the relationship between mass
and energy involved.
(b) Nuclear fission produces a chain
reaction. Describe how the chain
reaction happens in a nuclear fission of
an atom of uranium.

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