JAIL HOSTAGE RESPONSE

A Training Guide For Jail Officers

Wisconsin Department of Justice Law Enforcement Standards Board December 2010

The Law Enforcement Standards Board approved this textbook on December 16, 2010. Training Academy effective date is May 1, 2011. All preparatory jail training courses that begin on or after May 1st, 2011, must incorporate this updated textbook and any related updates to the curriculum. Courses beginning before that date may elect to use these updated materials.

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JAIL HOSTAGE RESPONSE

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION: SURVIVING A JAIL HOSTAGE INCIDENT ...... 1 COMMON REASONS FOR HOSTAGE SITUATIONS IN CORRECTIONAL FACILITIES .................................................. 2 FACTORS REGARDING JAIL HOSTAGE SITUATIONS .............. 3
Early Warning Signs of Possible Impending Hostage Situations . .3 Profiles of Victim Officers ............................................................. .4 Predictable Inmate Behavior and Occurrences During Hostage Situations .................................................................... .6 Psychological Stages Experienced by Hostages and Hostage Takers During Hostage Situations ............................... .9

POSC C0NCEPTS AND GUIDELINES RELEVANT TO POSSIBLE HOSTAGE SITUATIONS........................................... 12

The Control Theory: A Review .................................................... 12 Guidelines for Achieving Control ..................................... 13 Key Hostage Prevention / Response Guidelines, Based on the Control Theory............................................................... 15 Remain Alert .................................................................... 15 Be Decisive and Act Quickly............................................ 16 Have a Preplanned, Practiced Response........................ 16

HOSTAGE SURVIVAL TECHNIQUES ......................................... 17

Survival Techniques and Guidelines ........................................... 17 Proper Action During Tactical Operations to End Hostage Situations ................................................................... 22

AFTERMATH OF HOSTAGE SITUATIONS................................. 23

Critical Incident Debriefing........................................................... 23 Critical Incident Stress Debriefing ............................................... 24 Emotional Reactions Following a Hostage Situation ................... 24 Short-Range Emotional Reactions .................................. 25 Longer-Term Emotional Reactions .................................. 25

SUMMARY.................................................................................... 27 APPENDIX: The Stockholm Syndrome: What Is It? ................... 28

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Grateful appreciation for hard work on preparation of the curriculum for Wisconsins basic jail officer training program is extended to the members of the Department of Justices Jail Officer Training Advisory Committee. Members (as of spring, 2006), include:
Todd Ashworth, Assistant Superintendent Barbara Barrington-Tillman, Jail Administrator Randy Bellisle, Deputy Steve Borroughs, Jail Administrator Steve Coronado, Jail Administrator Doris Daggett, Jail Administrator Karen Humphrey, Jail Administrator Barb Jascor, Corrections Instructor Peter Jaskulski, Training Academy Director Jim Kroncke Charlie Law, Chief Deputy Bob Lee Scott Morris, Detention Facilities Specialist Elizabeth Paape, Associate Dean Eric Runaas, Sheriff Mike Schmitz, Jail Administrator Dennis Smith, Sheriff Phil Steffen, Lieutenant Kenneth Wilcox Milwaukee County House of Correction, retired Rock County Sheriffs Department Dane County Sheriffs Department Shawano County Sheriffs Department Juneau County Sheriffs Department LaCrosse County Sheriffs Department St. Croix County Sheriffs Department Mid-State technical College Milwaukee County Sheriffs Department Outagamie County Sheriffs Department, retired Douglas County Sheriffs Department Wisconsin Sheriffs & Deputy Sheriffs Assn. WI Department of Corrections Northeast WI Technical College Rock County Sheriffs Department Walworth County Sheriffs Department Dunn County Sheriffs Department Brown County Sheriffs Department Milwaukee County Sheriffs Department, retired

Grateful acknowledgement is also extended to the members of the POSC Training Advisory Committee and the Jail Officer Training Advisory Committee, who worked together to revise the curriculum in 2010. Members include: POSC TRAINING ADVISORY COMMITTEE:
Les Beckman, Jail Administrator Pat Bricco, Lieutenant Michael Delvaux, Captain Leona Dobbs, Detention Officer Matt Dryden, retired Peter Jaskulski, Captain (emeritus) Rory Jirovec, Corrections Officer Gary Klugiewicz Charlie Law, Chief Deputy (emeritus) Ray Merlin, Deputy (emeritus) Jeff Noe, instructor Mary Reel, Sergeant Howard Sawyers, Training Sergeant Rory Thelen, Captain Doug Verheyen, Lieutenant Derrick S. Washington, Sergeant Adams County Sheriffs Department Sheboygan County Sheriffs Department Wisconsin Department of Corrections Kenosha County Sheriffs Department Dunn County Sheriffs Department Milwaukee County Sheriffs Office Marathon County Sheriffs Department PoliceOne / CorrectionsOne Douglas County Sheriffs Department Kenosha County Sheriffs Department Western Technical College Manitowoc County Sheriffs Department Walworth County Sheriffs Office Wisconsin Department of Corrections Outagamie County Sheriffs Department Milwaukee County Sheriffs Office

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JAIL OFFICER TRAINING ADVISORY COMMITTEE:

Dawn Barger, Deputy Steve Benusa, Jail Officer Steve Borroughs, Jail Administrator Doris Daggett, Jail Administrator Denise Ellis, Jail Inspector Tom Gehl, retired Tiffani Gruber, Programs Officer Jerry Hafermann, Jail Administrator Kari Hazel, Corrections Officer Peter Jaskulski, Captain Charlie Law, Chief Deputy Scott Nargis, Jail Administrator Elizabeth Paape, Dean of Public Safety Ken Pabelick, retired Michael Schmitz, Jail Administrator Nancy Sippl, Corrections Officer Dennis Smith, Sheriff Phil Steffen, Lieutenant Dane County Sheriffs Office LaCrosse County Sheriffs Department Shawano County Sheriffs Department LaCrosse County Sheriffs Department Wisconsin Department of Corrections Rock County Sheriffs Office Sauk County Sheriffs Department Jefferson County Sheriffs Department Wood County Sheriffs Department Milwaukee County Sheriffs Office Douglas County Sheriffs Department Polk County Sheriffs Department Northeast Wisconsin Technical College Milwaukee County Sheriffs Office Walworth County Sheriffs Office Vilas County Sheriffs Department Dunn County Sheriffs Department Brown County Sheriffs Office

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INTRODUCTION: SURVIVING A JAIL HOSTAGE INCIDENT

Hostage situations in jails are rare, but are always possible. As a correctional officer, it is important to be prepared for this specific type of correctional emergency. You need to know the following: Some of the basic reasons for hostage situations in correctional facilities; Early warning signs of possible hostage situations; Profiles of victim officers in hostage situations; Predictable inmate behavior during a hostage situation; Psychological stages experienced both by hostages and hostage takers during a hostage situation; Suggested guidelines for what to do if you become a hostage; Hostage survival techniques; Proper action during tactical operations to end hostage situations; and Aftermath of a hostage situation: what to expect.

It is useful to know what might happen during a hostage incident, based on analysis of previous such incidents in jails and prisons. By following suggested strategies of this training and by assisting authorities to resolve the situation successfully, you will increase your chances of survival. You will need to know what emotional reactions you are likely to experience following a hostage situation. Then you will be better prepared to deal with possibly-difficult or troubling emotions in a positive way.

Following is a discussion of each of the issues listed above.

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COMMON REASONS FOR HOSTAGE SITUATIONS IN CORRECTIONAL FACILITIES

There are several common reasons that hostage situations develop and occur in jails and prisons. Some include: Institutional conditions, such as changes in food service, living conditions, or privileges afforded to inmates. When inmates perceive that conditions have changed for the worse, they may become upset and plan a disturbance. Similarly, when inmates perceive that there have been incidents of abuse of inmates by staff members--real or alleged--they sometimes react by planning hostage incidents. Actions by allegedly mentally impaired inmates. Such inmates may do inappropriate things, including taking hostages, because of their mental impairmentmeaning possible mental disorder or developmental disability. In some cases, their actions may be quite impulsive and/or based on a severe misperception of reality. In other cases, it may be because they are sociopaths, people who care little for other people and who do things to enhance their own sense of personal power. Political causes. Inmates may engage in hostage-taking as a means of advancing or promoting political causes. Such inmates may include gang members, members of subversive groups, and members of miscellaneous self-styled groups with specific goals and objectives. Such inmates may perceive that a hostage situation will draw attention to their cause. Or, they may take hostages because of frustration with failure of meeting their goals. As a means of escape. Inmates have been known to take hostages as a means of escape, by demanding their freedom in exchange for freeing their hostage(s). As an outcome of disturbances of various sorts. As a result of a riot or other significant correctional emergency, inmates sometimes take hostages. Their doing so may be a spontaneous reaction to the event, or it may be planned. For example, inmates have been known to stage a fight or riot so that officers will enter the living area to intervene, and then they attempt to overpower the officers in order to take them hostage.

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FACTORS REGARDING JAIL HOSTAGE SITUATIONS

EARLY WARNING SIGNS OF POSSIBLE IMPENDING HOSTAGE SITUATIONS
Sometimes it is possible to detect indications of an impending jail incident involving hostage-taking. This is because inmates often plan these events in advance. However, they do not always do so; sometimes hostage-taking is a spontaneous reaction to a disturbance situation or other correctional emergency. There are a number of common warning signs that inmates may have planned or are planning an event which will involve the taking of hostages. It is important for corrections officers to be aware of these and to pay attention. Some of the early warning signs are as follows: Inmates hoarding commissary items. When inmates know that a disturbance has been planned, they sometimes hoard commissary items, such as food, because they know that they may need it. Thus, if inmates place orders for more commissary items than usualparticularly for food or snack itemsthat can be a sign of a pending disturbance. Inmates saving large amounts of food. Similarly, inmates may prepare for a planned disturbance by saving portions of their meals, so that they will have things to eat during a prolonged incident during which they will not get their usual meals. Increased requests from inmates for transfer from assigned housing units. When inmates know that a disturbance is being planned, they may request to be transferred to a different housing unit because they do not wish to become involved in the disturbance. Thus, more inmate requests than usual for such transfers may be an indicator of a pending disturbance emergency. Avoidance of officers by inmates. Any change in normal inmate behavior can be an indicator of a pending or current problem situation. One such change is when inmates seem to be avoiding officerssuch as by not making eye contact, not talking to officers, or responding to questions or remarks with short, curt answers. Such behavior may mean little, or it could be an indicator of pending trouble. Increased attendance by inmates at particular programs. This is another change in normal inmate behavior that could be indicative of a planned
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disturbance. Inmates may, increase their attendance at religious services, educational programming, or a recreation program. This may facilitate congregating to plan a disturbance, or gathering equipment or supplies to use during a disturbance, or as a way to get away from their living units when a disturbance is to occur. Unusual quietness among inmates. Again, any change in normal inmate behavior can be an indicator of a pending problem. One such change is that inmates simply act more quiet and subdued than usual. Often, this is when they tend to make either more or less eye contact with officers than they usually do. On the other hand, it is possible that some inmates may be louder and more boisterous than usual when a disturbance has been planned, because they are "psyching up" for the event. Information from other inmates. Information is valuable in a correctional institution. Inmates will often tell jail staff about unusual or problematic things that they become aware of. Inmates may warn staff about pending disturbances (riots, fights, hostage episodes) for any number of reasons. Never disregard information given to you by an inmate. These are just a few of the possible warning signs of impending disturbance situations, which could include hostage-taking. There are certainly others. The bottom line is that correctional officers must always pay close attention to the behavior of inmates, and should be especially aware of changes in "normal" or routine behavior. Such changes could mean little, but they can always be indicators of a pending possibly-serious correctional emergency.

PROFILES OF VICTIM OFFICERS

When inmates plan to take officers hostage, they sometimes do so randomly. That is, they sometimes simply grab whoever is around; the victims were simply in the wrong place at the wrong time. That may happen during an unplanned riot or other disturbance in which inmates want to take retribution against officers in general. In many other cases, however, inmates plan in advance who they will take hostage. They target specific officers. When they do so, there are several factors that often enter into the decision as to who to take hostage. Some of these factors include the following:

The "lenient" officer. The "lenient" officer is one who, in comparison with other officers, tends to exhibit one or more of the following characteristics:

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Does not always follow rules, especially in regard to jail policies and procedures. For example, he or she may enter the site of a correctional emergency without waiting for backup officers; May be the kind of person who is easily "conned"that is, persuaded by inmates to do something inappropriate or not allowed; Tends to use less physical force than a reasonable officer would use in a similar situation; Has a history of making tactically poor decisions, based on the Disturbance Resolution document; Tends to be friendly to all inmates, and has difficulty saying "No" even when saying "No" is clearly appropriate. Such an officer may wish to be liked and therefore is uncomfortable with exerting proper authority and control.

Inmates may feel that such an officer is an easy target for hostage-taking.

The Jerkhead Officer. The "jerkhead" officer is one who, in comparison with other officers, is overly tough or macho or otherwise difficult in his or her dealings with inmates. Such an officer may exhibit one or more of the following characteristics: Tends to be the subject of a lot of excessive force complaints; Uses poor Professional Communication skills with inmates, such as not listening well, giving orders or directions in an overly-authoritative manner, being sarcastic or demeaning or otherwise disrespectful, etc:, Tends to too-often provoke or anger inmates, through poor interpersonal communication. The officer may say things that are insulting, demeaning, belittling, or challenging; Applies discipline harshly and/or inconsistently. The officer may discipline one inmate very differently from another inmate for the same or similar rule violation; or, enforces some rules much more stringently than other rules; or applies different discipline standards from one day to the next, so that inmates cannot predict how the officer will react to a given situation. Never uses any discretion or common sense when enforcing jail rules. The word lenient is not part of their vocabulary.

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Inmates may feel angry or upset with the behavior of such an officer, and may take him or her hostage as a form of grievance resolution.

PREDICTABLE INMATE BEHAVIOR AND OCCURRENCES DURING HOSTAGE SITUATIONS

Based on hostage situations that have occurred in jails and prisons over the years, it is possible to list several patterns of predictable inmate behavior. This is not to say that these behavior patterns will occur in any given situation, only that these are things that have happened in a number of situations and therefore could happen in similar situations. The following are some of the more common inmate behavior patterns during hostage situations: A group of inmates, rather than a single inmate, are frequently the hostage takers. This is not always true, but often is. Sometimes just one inmate is the hostage-taker. But sometimes, a group of inmates has planned the incident in advance, and generally has planned for some contingencies. For example, they may have hoarded food, knowing that the situation may drag out and they will not be fed during it. Or, they may have planned to use wet towels to put over their faces in the event that OC or other chemical substances are used by staff responding to the incident. Often, one inmate assumes the role of leader of the group. The leader has convinced other to help do what he or she could not do alone. It is not always true that hostage situations are planned in advance. Some incidents are not planned but are instead spontaneous reactions by an inmate or inmates to something that happens.

Initially, the safety of the hostages will probably be of major importance to hostage takers. There are several reasons for this: The inmates fear reprisals in the event that a hostage is harmed or killed; The inmates know the hostages, and the inmates know that they will have to deal with those hostages after the crisis is over; The inmates know that their bargaining position depends on keeping the hostages in a relatively safe and unharmed condition.

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If a hostage situation is prolonged, the safety of hostages may be more at risk. There are several reasons for this: The original inmate leader(s) and spokesperson(s) can only be expected to maintain control over other inmates for so long. Other inmates may seek an opportunity to gain control of the situation; A new group of inmates taking control of the situation may be more volatile and radical and even less emotionally stable; In any correctional institution, there are usually inmates who feel that they have been treated unfairly by staff members. Such inmates may see a hostage situation as an opportunity to seek revenge on staff members. This may include not only inmates who are the hostage takers, but also inmates who are not the actual hostage takers but who are in nearby living units and verbally urge the hostage takers to harm or kill the hostage(s); As a situation goes on and is not resolved, the requests or demands of the inmate(s) may become more unreasonable and unable to be satisfied. When that happens, inmates may be more inclined to harm hostages because their (inmates) demands are not being met.

Inmates may switch clothes with officers in an effort to eliminate immediate identification. In some cases, inmates may do so if they think a forceful resolution to the crisis is imminent. They are trying to enhance their own survival chances.

Inmates will secure all keys and communication devices from hostages. Even though keys and radios may not get them out of the institution, it gives them a feeling of power.

Inmates may threaten violence, or even use violence. There is the possibility for hostages to be physically or sexually assaulted. This may happen because inmates feel that they need to make a strong statement to demonstrate their seriousness, out of frustration, or just because they are violent people and/or emotionally-disturbed persons (EDPs).

Hostage takers may use hostages as communication tools. They may ask or order hostages to transmit information between them (hostage takers) and the authorities, including hostage negotiator(s). This may happen either verbally, by telephone or radio, or via writing notes.

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Inmates will likely set up barricades to prevent or slow down the rescue team from responding quickly in the location. Material for such barricades will include whatever is available, such as movable furniture, blankets or other bedding, mattresses, soapy mop bucket water or other hazardous liquids, etc .

Hostages will be secured, usually in a cell or other inaccessible area. This, of course, depends on the circumstances of any individual incident. For example, if inmates take over an entire living area, such as a pod or cellblock or dorm, they will likely secure the hostages in one cell or room, or perhaps in several cells or rooms. But in some cases, a hostage situation takes place in a smaller, more contained area such as an individual cell or room. In such case, the hostages and hostage takers may be together in that cell or room during the duration of the event.

Inmates will likely fabricate weapons to be used. Such weapons may include stabbing and/or cutting instruments (shivs, shanks, etc.), blunt instruments, broom handles made into spears, cleaning instruments, aerosol devices, and so on. Remember that many inmates are extremely ingenious at creating such weapons out of basic materials. At the extreme, inmates may have access to firearms; that could happen, if a transport officer has been taken hostage. Access by inmates to materials that can be fabricated into weapons often depends on how much physical area they temporarily control in a hostage situation. For example, if inmates control just a room or cell, they have access to fewer items that can be turned into weapons than if they control an entire pod or dorm or even an entire facility.

Hostages may be used as shieldsthat is, as protection during a physical confrontation or a tactical response.

It is possible for there to be transference of feelings, known as the Stockholm Syndrome, in a prolonged situation. This refers to the development of a positive emotional bond between the hostages and hostage takers, in which the hostages come to identify with the hostage takers and to share their us versus them feelings. Sometimes, hostage takers are successful at convincing hostages that they are political prisoners and somehow share a bond with the hostages, such as being

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repressed by authority figures. The Stockholm Syndrome is more likely to occur in a hostage situation that lasts a long time. NOTE: See APPENDIX, The Stockholm Syndrome: What Is It?, for a more detailed explanation of this issue.

These are some of the more common things that have happened in hostage situations in jails and prisons. It is important to be aware that these things are likely to happen in hostage situations, so you will be better prepared for these eventualities.

PSYCHOLOGICAL STAGES EXPERIENCED BY HOSTAGES AND HOSTAGE TAKERS DURING HOSTAGE SITUATIONS
Based on what has happened in a number of hostage situations (not just in correctional settings), researchers have identified several common psychological stages that are generally experienced by hostages and hostage takers during such incidents. These include the following: 1. Frustration In general, people experience feelings of frustration when they cannot reach a goal of some kind. In a hostage situation, a common goal is to be free. The hostages want to be free from the hostage takers, and the hostage-takers wish to be free from incarceration. When these goals are not realized, it is natural for people to feel frustrated.

2.

Anxiety Feelings of anxiety are a result of frustration. We often feel anxious when we perceive that we cannot achieve goals, particularly when our inability to do so is out of our control. Symptoms of anxiety typically include restlessness, accelerated heartbeat, inability to breathe properly, flushing, sweating, headaches and/or stomachaches, and sometimes a feeling of being out of control. The degree of these symptoms can range from mild to severe. When people feel anxious, they generally do things which will relieve their feelings of anxiety. These may be positive actions, such as exercise, deep breathing, meditation, etc.; or negative actions, such as using alcohol or drugs, behaving violently, or otherwise acting out. In a hostage situation, the inmate hostage takers are more likely to take negative actions to

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relieve their feelings of anxiety. Such actions, unfortunately, may result in harm to hostages. For example, a hostage taker may lash out and physically harm a hostage. Or, an inmate may destroy property or may do something impulsively that is counterproductive to his or her best interests. Similarly, hostages may do negative things to try to relieve their feelings of anxiety. That could include engaging in verbal confrontations with hostage takers, challenging them, or initiating a physical confrontation. These actions are almost always counterproductive to the best interests of such hostages. On the other hand, hostages always have the option of using positive methods of trying to relieve stress. These methods include such techniques as autogenic breathing, envisioning pleasant images, and doing positive self-talk. (These techniques are discussed in the section which follows.)

3.

Fear Whereas anxiety is an emotional response that may arise from a general situation, fear is an emotional response that is related to something specific. A hostage might, for example, be afraid of something specific, such as being killed, being crippled, or being raped. This can apply both to hostages and hostage takers. Fear is the primary cause of conflict in most hostage situations. From the perspective of a hostage, for example, the specific fear of being killed by hostage takers may cause a hostage to take an inappropriate action such as provoking a physical confrontation.

4.

Fantasy Fantasizing about nice, pleasant things is a useful psychological tool for people in general, and is a very useful psychological tool during difficult situations or incidents. Fantasy is a way to release tension, and can be used as a means of temporarily escaping mentally from a difficult situation. In a hostage situation (or other difficult situation), a person may find himself simply drifting into fantasy, or a person may deliberately choose to engage in a fantasy. A hostage may, for example, fantasize about being in a pleasant place or situation, ranging from his or her home to a desirable recreational location to an imagined exotic locale. Or, a hostage might fantasize about a real or imagined romantic, sexual, or other encounter. Engaging in such fantasies is natural, and is certainly a useful psychological method for coping with a

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bad situation in which control of ones fate is, at least to some degree, out of ones hands. In this sense, engaging in fantasy is a recommended technique if you have been taken hostage. On the other hand, fantasy is something that can go too far. It is a fine and useful temporary way to escape from harsh reality, but a person who has been taken hostage has to balance fantasy with reality. That is, it would be counterproductive for a hostage to spend so much time fantasizing about pleasant things that he or she is oblivious to what is actually happening and therefore is not able to make appropriate decisions and take appropriate actions.

5.

Repression The term repression refers to the psychological mechanism of suppressing harmful or painful memories associated with specific events, or with a series of related events. Repression is an involuntary survival mechanism as it allows a person who has suffered from traumatic experiences to keep on functioning rather than being psychologically crippled and unable to function in everyday life. For example, a person who has been the victim of sexual abuse as a child may repress the memories of such sexual abuse. Doing so allows him or her to keep on living a normal life instead of being consumed by painful, perhaps horrible memories. On the other hand, such repression may prevent a person from facing their difficult feelings and taking steps to deal with them appropriately, such as seeking and participating in professional therapy. Repression may occur during an ongoing hostage situation, and after a situation has ended. Repression of difficult memories is most common following a situation. It is important for those who have been taken hostage to be aware of the psychological after-effects and to be willing to seek professional assistance when necessary.

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POSC CONCEPTS AND GUIDELINES RELEVANT TO POSSIBLE HOSTAGE SITUATIONS

Principles of Subject Control (POSC) is the trained system for use of force in jails and secure juvenile detention facilities in Wisconsin. There are a number of key POSC concepts, principles and guidelines that you should keep in mind in regard to preparation for possible hostage emergencies in a facility. Knowing and applying these concepts and guidelines may go far in preventing hostage situationsthat is, preventing you or other staff members from being taken hostage in the first place. Prevention of emergencies is, of course, always a major goal in correctional operations. However, sometimes bad things happen despite the best efforts of staff members. Nevertheless, as an officer working in a corrections or detention facility, you should do what you reasonably can to prevent being taken hostage, to prevent other staff members from being taken hostage, and to prevent or at least try to control and contain such emergencies.

THE CONTROL THEORY: A REVIEW

The Control Theory is a concept that explains the purpose of control and that distinguishes proper police action from behavior that might otherwise be criminal. Remember that the correctional objective justifying the use of force is control of inmatesthat is, management of the subjects in a correctional or detention setting. Control Theory can be described as the rules of the game for use of force. Two principles underlie the Control Theory. They are: 1. The POSC system is a system of verbalization skills coupled with physical alternatives. 2. The purpose of defensive tactics training is control. The first of these principles means that you should talk first before escalating to physical force, unless talking is not possible or clearly not appropriateas in the case of a life-threatening assault. In addition, you should continue to talk throughout your contact with a subjectfrom initial contact, during the contact, and in closing the contact.

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One way to describe this principle in action is, Youve got to be niceuntil its time not to be niceand then youve got to be nice again. In other words, you must act professionally and treat the person with whom youre talking with courtesy and respect. If physical force becomes necessary to gain or regain control that is a reality you must accept. But after the application of force, you must again be nice in how you talk to and treat the subject. The second principle is that the purpose of defensive tactics is control. Control is not a 50-50 proposition. That is, control requires that you be in chargephysical encounters between officers and inmates need not be a fair equal contest. It is not a game or a sporting event. As a matter of safety, you must try to control the situation as quickly as possible to ensure your safety and the safety of others, including the subject you are trying to control. The longer a confrontation lasts, the greater the likelihood of injury to all parties involved. Guidelines for Achieving Control To achieve control quickly and effectively, keep in mind the following guidelines: An officer must maintain a position of advantage. Proper police action balances safety and efficiency. An officer may always disengage and/or escalate to take proper police action. Control is a perception based on an officers training and experience and a particular fact situation. Once control has been established, an officer must reduce the level of force to a level sufficient to maintain control.

As an officer, you must always maintain a position of advantage with respect to the inmate. Remembercontrol is not a 50-50 proposition. This means that you may escalate to a higher level of force than the inmate is using. By doing so, you help ensure that you will be able to achieve control as quickly as possible, reducing the likelihood of injury to officers and others. The term proper police action is a generic term that refers to action by all law enforcement and corrections officers, regardless of duty assignment. Proper police action balances safety and efficiency. Your goal is to achieve control as quickly and efficiently as possible, while at the same time doing everything reasonably possible to keep everyone safe. Efficiency and safety must always go hand in hand, but the appropriate action depends on the situation. Regardless, proper police action also involves taking care of the inmates medical needs once he or she has been stabilized. If your efforts to control a situation are not effective, you may disengage and/or escalate as appropriate. Disengaging means backing away from or leaving a scene of an incident (either temporarily or permanently) depending on the

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circumstances. Proper action does not always require engaging a subject or subjects immediatelysometimes disengaging will in itself help to resolve a situation. Escalating means going to a higher force intervention option. Escalating is justified if warranted by tactical evaluation. At times, it may be appropriate to disengage for a time in order to be able to escalate properly at a later time. It is also appropriate to escalate in order to disengage from a dangerous situation. Not being able to disengageas in the case of a subject choking an officer in a cell, or an officer responding to an incident in which a subject is assaulting another officeris a justifiable reason for escalating force. The concept of taking proper police action also explains why officers are required to place themselves at risk in responding to a disturbance while a private citizen could simply leave. An officer is required to take reasonable risks based on his or her perception of control. This is referred to as the ultimate justification. Control is a perception based on an officers training and experience and a particular fact situation. In use of force situations, there is never a definitive answer as to what action should be taken to achieve control. Instead, the action taken depends on the reasonable perception of an officer or officers as to what needs to be done to achieve control, based on the totality of circumstances in a given incidentone that usually is evolving quickly. An officers perception depends on his or her training (POSC), experience, and the context of a particular situation. Later investigation may show that the officers perception was not totally correct based on the introduction of new information, but what is important is what the officer perceived at the time and whether this perception was reasonable based on the information known to the officer. Remember that this is the legal basis for determining whether or not force in a given situation was objectively reasonable. Once control has been established, an officer must reduce the level of force to a level sufficient to maintain control. Remember, force must not be used to punish or retaliate against an inmateits purpose is always to achieve and maintain control. Generally, more force is needed to achieve control than to maintain it once it has been achieved. How much force an officer uses and how rapidly the escalation of force takes place is determined by whether the officer is operating from a position of advantage with the goal of achieving control of a subject, or whether the officer is in personal danger. If the officer is focused on achieving control of a subject, the officer is moving toward establishing control from a position of advantage. This doesnt mean that the situation is without danger, but rather that danger is known and that the

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officer is making progress toward establishing control. For example, two or more correctional officers responding to an upset inmate of normal stature and strength would ordinarily be a response focused on achieving control. On the other hand, if an officers personal safety is at risk, the officer is not operating from a position of advantage and may well be in great danger. For example, an officer experiencing a close-quarters assault by an inmate with an edged weapon would be a response focused on personal safety. In the first example, the officers are relatively safe and the situation would most likely be resolved with lower intervention options. The officers could, of course, escalate to higher intervention options as needed. In the second example, the officer is fighting for his life and the focus of this response is not subject control but personal safetythat is, surviving a life-threatening assault. The second example could justify immediate use of higher intervention options, up to and including deadly force. In short, you must clearly understand what type of situation you are facing in order to make appropriate force decisions to protect yourself physically and legally. You must be able to defend your actions afterward to supervisors or managers and potentially in litigation, criminal and/or civil.

KEY HOSTAGE PREVENTION / RESPONSE GUIDELINES, BASED ON THE CONTROL THEORY

Based upon the Control Theory concepts discussed above, here are some basic guidelines as to proper action to try to prevent a hostage situation from occurring, to the extent that you can do so. Remain Alert As in all aspects of working in a jail, it is critically important that you always remain alert and vigilant for indications of possible threat, danger or security hazards. Often the overriding factor in determining whether or not a hostage situation takes place is the vigilance of staff members. Know and follow your security policies and procedures, and do not take shortcuts. Always conduct frequent security inspections, but not at predictable time intervals. Do not allow inmates to know or predict when checks, inspections or shakedowns will happen. During security checks, look carefully for contraband items, particularly actual or manufactured weapons. If there has been a security breach or violation of any kind, take it seriously. Notify your supervisors and other staff members. Pay close attention to inmate

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behavior and change in behavior. Be alert to any warning signs of pending hostage situations, such as those listed earlier. Remember that inmates will pay close attention to the behavior of the jail staff and how the staff does their job. Some inmates will take advantage of staff member who are careless and not vigilant. If they are planning a hostage situation often the will look for an easy target.

Be decisive and act quickly In order to prevent being taken hostage you must be mentally, emotionally and physically prepared to act. You have the option of disengaging and/or escalating to prevent being taken hostage, containing the situation or ending the situation. You may need to escalate so you can disengage. When trying to prevent being taken hostage or contain the situation, get a locked, impenetrable barrier between you and the disturbance. A general goal in dealing with disturbances, such as a hostage situation, is to try to contain the disturbance to as small area as possible (ex. cell or pod). This will aid the facility from losing total control and make it easier to regain control of the unit. Give alarms quickly, lock doors, prevent inmates from obtaining keys and leaving their assigned areas. Understand that you may have to decide whether or not to leave you partner and disengage to a place of safety. This is not an easy choice. The question you must ask yourself is, Can I better serve my partner by being taken hostage or being a source of information to the tactical team? Another point to remember is that the fewer hostages there are, the more options the tactical team has.

Have a preplanned, practiced response This involves thinking about what bad things can happen in your facility and developing effective responses to such situations. To help you accomplish this do when/ then thinking to come up with scenarios that could happen and your response to them. Keep your tactics and techniques sharp through consistent repetition. This will help you respond quickly and effective should you have to. If an emergency occurs you will not have time to refer to your facilities policy manual for guidance. Know your polices in advance of an emergency.

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HOSTAGE SURVIVAL TECHNIQUES

This section contains a number of basic (general) guidelines to keep in mind if you are ever taken hostage. Remember that the key goal of all of those basic guidelines is survivalyour survival and that of any fellow hostages. If you emerge from the hostage situation alive, then you have won. If you emerge unhurt as well, you have won even more. When working in a correctional facility, being taken hostage isas has been discussedalways possible. This is true whether or not one is an officer who falls into one of the above profiles of "victim" officers. Even officers who are fair and consistent may be taken hostage. The possibility of being taken hostage is simply part of the job.

SURVIVAL TECHNIQUES AND GUIDELINES

The basic techniques include the following: 1. Set goals. Your main goal is to survive. In order to realize that goal, you need to do positive self-talkto tell yourself over and over that you will survive. This may be in the form of a mantraa phrase that you say to yourself over and oversuch as, I will survive, no matter what. By doing this, you essentially program your brain to a particular point of view, and that has a major effect on both your attitude and your bodys physical reaction to what happens. It works! You might also set lesser goals as well. For example, your goal might be to eat, sleep or exercise. Setting such goals allows you to focus on something positive, and doing that can help you get through a difficult short-term situation.

2.

Accept your situation, be patient, and be prepared to wait. Try not to become discouraged. This is a key guideline. If you have been taken hostage, you are in a situation in which you have lost much control over your fate. You simply have to try to accept that fact, and also understand that it may take a lot of time for authorities to safely resolve the situation. It may be very frustrating for you to accept these things, but it's important to try to do so. Your safety and the safety of others are at stake. The first 15 to 45 minutes of a hostage situation is the most volatile and dangerous time for all concerned. During that time frame, it is particularly important to try your best to be calm and controlled.

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Accepting your situation means realizing that the hostage-takers are temporarily in control. They now "call the shots" rather than jail staff doing so, at least within a limited sphere. This means that you, as their hostage, may have to follow their instructionsat least as much as possible. Doing so minimizes the likelihood of friction or anger, which could result in their harming you and/or other hostages. It is natural for you to want the situation to end as quickly as possible so that you can be freed and be safe. However, hostage situations often take a lot of time to resolve. Hostage negotiators want to end situations safely, and that cannot always be resolved simply and quickly. It may appear at times that your department or other departments are not doing anything and that the situation is dragging on. Without a doubt, that will be frustrating for you. You may not be able to see the big picture. Try to understand that the goal is to resolve the situation safely, and that will most likely take more time than you think it should. Assembling the necessary resources may take time.

3.

Take a low-key approach. Do not become confrontational with hostage takers. It is not to your advantage to become confrontational with hostage-takers. Remember: they are in control, not you. If you confront or challenge them, they may react by harming you or other hostages, or by becoming less willing to cooperate with hostage negotiators and others. Specifically, NEVER insult or demean hostage-takers. Never remind them that you are an officer and therefore have authority. And never threaten them with retaliation once the incident has been resolved. You may feel the desire to do these things, but dont! It is best to just keep your thoughts and feelings to yourself. It is best to simply take a low-key approach, and speak only when spoken to. Answer their questions the best you can, but do not lie. Your goal is to get through the situation the best you can, not to be a hero.

4.

Do not make suggestions to the hostage taker(s). You may wish to offer ideas, suggestions or promises to help get the situation resolved, but dont! If your suggestion goes bad, the hostage-taker may think that you planned it and may then retaliate against you or others.

5.

Cooperate with the hostage taker(s) and comply with their reasonable demands. If the hostage takers ask you to do something or more likelytell you to do something, comply if you can. Again, do not

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become confrontational or argumentative, because to do so is not to your advantage in a situation when they (the hostage takers) are in control. For a time, they are the ones who are in control and who are in the position of authority. Your goal is to do what is necessary to get through that time to a better time, when they are no longer in control. For example, hostage takers may tell you to move to a specific place or to be quiet or to get them something or to submit to being blindfolded. They may order you to take off your uniform and switch into inmate clothing. They may also order you to enter a particular room or cell or other area. These may not unreasonable demands, though of course you may not like them. On the other hand, they may order you to do something that would seriously compromise facility security or safety of staff or inmates. They may order you to perform a degrading or sexual act. Those demands may not be reasonable, and you might refuse. Or, a hostage taker may ask or demand that you read a political statement of some sort, sometimes in front of media representatives. Depending on the content of such statements and the circumstances in a particular situation, you may or may not feel that that is a reasonable demand. In short, cooperate and comply to ensure your safety and that of others in a difficult situation.

6.

Observe what is going on and try to keep mental notes, so as to aid investigators following the incident. Following a hostage incident, investigators will question you about what happened during the incident. This may be done as part of a critical incident debriefing. This is a common procedure that is done after any sort of significant incident in a jail to analyze the incident and to determine the appropriateness of actions taken and to see what can be done to improve future responses to similar incidents. (NOTE: Critical incident debriefings are discussed below, in the section entitled AFTERMATH OF HOSTAGE SITUATIONS.) Do the best you can to observe the situation and to try to keep mental notes on what you have observed. In particular, try to keep mental notes about the following issues: Identities of the inmates involved, including any leader(s); Whether inmates assaulted anyone. Try to remember the names of the perpetrators and victims of such assaults, and any details about the assaults;

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Whether any of the hostage takers or other inmates protected you or any other hostages. If so, who were they and how did they so protect? Whether any crimes were apparently committed by any inmates; Whether there were any weapons (real or fabricated). If so, what and how many? You are the victim of a crime, and are potentially a witness to many other crimes. Be observant of details. You will likely be called to testify in court.

7.

Remain calm. Use autogenic breathing and other positive coping techniques. If you are taken hostage, you are likely to feel anxious, fearful, and upset. After all, you are in a situation in which your fate is out of your control, in the hands of others, and in which you could be harmed. You cannot predict how long the situation will go on, and you cannot just get up and leave. Even in such an anxiety-producing and difficult situation, you always have the ability to try to control your emotional response. It is very much to your advantage to do so. You need to do all you can to calm yourself and to stay as calm and in control of your emotions as you can during the ordeal. One way to calm yourself is to use autogenic breathing. This means doing deep, even breathing, inhaling through your nostrils and exhaling through your mouth. Doing this will cause a physiological calming response in your body because it enhances oxygen delivery to your brain. Another way to calm yourself is to envision something pleasant and to concentrate on that image, over and over. This may be a particular location or a particular activity, and so on. Doing this is known as visualization. Or, you may engage in fantasy, as discussed above. Also, as noted, try to use positive self-talk, giving yourself the positive message that you will get through this and that you will survive. When you give yourself such messages, you can effectively program your mind and body in such a way that your chances for survival increase

8.

Attempt to avoid being blindfolded or hooded. As noted above, when you are taken hostage you should cooperate with hostage taker(s) and comply with their reasonable demands, to the maximum extent possible. One such demand may be for you to be blindfolded or to wear a hood. You may have no choice about whether to be blindfolded or hooded. But if

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you do have any choice about it, avoid that if you can. The chance of being harmed by hostage-takers increases when there is no longer eye contact between hostages and hostage-takers. Eye contact is personal, and when there is no longer eye contact it becomes more of a depersonalized situation and then there is greater chance of harm. Thus, if there is any way to avoid losing eye contactsuch as by being blindfolded or hoodedtry to do so.

9.

If possible, avoid locating yourself near windows and doors. These are natural avenues for rescue attempts, and it is possible that you might get hurt. However, you may have no control over where you are placed.

10.

If you or anyone else needs special medication, inform the hostage taker(s). Do so politely and, if possible, do so in the form of a request rather than a demand.

11.

Do not try to negotiate for your own release once trained hostage negotiators have made contact with the hostage taker(s). Before hostage negotiators have made contact with the hostage takers, it may be possible for you to talk to hostage takers and maybe even to convince them to let you go and stop the incident. However, be VERY careful about what you say, and be sure not to exceed the bounds of your authority. If you make promises or bargains that you do not have the authority to make or to follow through on, just for the sake of getting out of a situation, you could make the situation worse. For example, you cannot tell hostage takers that they will be given amnesty if they will agree to let you go. You do not have the authority to say that. Once the hostage negotiators arrive, let them do their job. They are the professional in this area. If you try to negotiate or make bargains separately, you will likely subvert their work. That could increase the chance of danger to you and any other hostages.

12.

Cooperate in the negotiation process as best you can. You may be ordered to be the go-between with the hostage negotiators and the hostage-takers. If so, relay messages accurately and neutrallywith as little emotion as possible. Do not add your editorial comments to messages, even though you may be tempted to do so.

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Remember: the negotiation process may take a long time, and you may feel frustrated at the amount of time that it takes. But be patient. There is no point to hurrying.

PROPER ACTION DURING TACTICAL OPERATIONS TO END HOSTAGE SITUATIONS

Hostage situations will likely end in one of three ways: (1) there will be a negotiated settlement; (2) special teams will end the situation by tactical use of force; or (3) inmates will just give up and decide on their own to end the situation. The last is the least-common way for such situations to end. If you are a hostage during a tactical operation to end a hostage incident, try to do the following: If possible, fall to the floor and stay motionless; Seek cover, if possible; If oleoresin capsicum (OC) aerosol spray or some other chemical agent is used, try to cover your mouth and nose with a towel or article of clothing, if possible; Comply immediately with any and all directions or orders issued by the rescue team. Rescue team members will probably be shouting loudly (verbal stunning). The members of the rescue team may not be able to immediately differentiate between hostages and hostage takersparticularly if hostages are wearing inmate clothing; Expect to be secured and moved out of the area, until you are identified.

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AFTERMATH OF HOSTAGE SITUATIONS

When a hostage situation has ended and you have emerged alive and hopefullyunhurt physically, then in that respect you have won. No matter what else has happened, you have won. That is the bottom line. Nevertheless, the situation will likely have emotional aftereffects that are common to people who have been taken hostage. Also, there will likely be certain follow-up activities that occur, such as critical incident debriefing and critical incident stress debriefing. It is important to be aware of some of these aftermath elements, so that you will be better prepared to deal with them if necessary.

CRITICAL INCIDENT DEBRIEFING

A critical incident debriefing will almost certainly be conducted following a hostage incident. This is a somewhat formal procedure which is done after any sort of significant incident in a correctional settingincluding inmate suicides, escapes, disturbance emergencies or other types of correctional emergencies. It is an attempt to better understand what happened, to determine the appropriateness of actions taken, and to determine what can be done to improve future response to similar incidents, in regard to policies and procedures, training, or other aspects of the corrections operation. The main purpose of such a debriefing is to focus on the facts of the incident, whatever they may be. At some point soon after a hostage incident, one or more investigators or other officials will probably question you to try to obtain specific, detailed information. This information will be useful in analyzing the incident, and determining what actions to takeperhaps including charges against involved inmates. Some of the typical questions they may ask include: Can you identify the inmates involved, including any leader(s)? Did you witness any assaults? Were you harmed by any hostage-takers? Did you see any inmates harming any other hostage(s)? Did any inmates protect you or other hostage(s)? Did you see any crimes committed by inmates? Were there any weapons? If so, what and how many? Who had them? When and how were they used.

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In order to provide good answers to these and other questions, it is important for you to observe carefully and to make mental notes during a hostage incident.

CRITICAL INCIDENT STRESS DEBRIEFING

In addition to a critical incident debriefing, you may also be offered the chance to participate in a procedure known as a critical incident stress debriefing if you were involved in a hostage situation. This is a structured opportunity for you to talk about your feelings and emotions, based on what happened in the incident, with a trained person or persons. The purpose of doing so is to help you understand and accept your feelings, so that you can move forward from the incident in a healthy way. Critical incident stress debriefing is very important. A hostage situation is inherently a traumatic incident, and it is natural for anyone to have a variety of difficult feelings and emotions after such an event. Even the strongest, most emotionally-stable person needs a chance to talk constructively about such a traumatic incident, to heal from it. If a person does not talk constructively about difficult emotions and instead keeps those feelings pent-up inside, healing will take longer and it is more likely that a person will seek more negative ways to cope with their feelings and emotionspossibly including alcohol or drug use, taking it out on loved ones and friends and co-workers. Depending upon the policies of your agency, you may be required to participate in a critical incident stress debriefing, or it may simply be offered to you as an opportunity. If it is an option, you will always do yourself, your family, friends, and co-workers a big favor by taking advantage of the opportunity. Do not think of it as a sign of weakness, vulnerability, or self-indulgence that you are talking to a trained person about your feelings and emotions. However, participating in critical incident stress debriefing does not mean that you will not experience difficult and troubling emotions for a period of time perhaps a long timefollowing a hostage incident. (This is discussed more below.)

EMOTIONAL REACTIONS FOLLOWING A HOSTAGE SITUATION

As noted, it is natural and understandable for people who have been taken hostage to experience a variety of emotions and feelings after the incident. These include both short-range and long-range emotional responses.

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Short-Range Emotional Reactions In the days, weeks and even years following the incident, your emotions may be rather fragile. You may experience alternating feelings of anger, sadness, relief, and so on. It is natural to have such emotions following a situation in which (1) your fate was out of your control for a time, and was instead under the control of others (inmate hostage-takers, hostage negotiators, etc.); (2) you were at risk of being harmed or even killed; and (3) you may have felt humiliated, embarrassed, and/or very vulnerable. This is particularly true if you actually were physically and/or sexually abused or assaulted. It is natural to experience these feelings and emotions, and in fact it would be rather unusual if you did not experience them. However, the intensity of such emotions, and the extent to which they are uncomfortable, varies from person to person. These emotions may be present most or all of the time for a while, or they may come and go. The best thing you can do for yourself is to talk constructively with someone about these feelings. Critical incident stress debriefing is one way to do that. Talking with family members, friends, or colleagues who are good, nonjudgmental listeners is another. Seeking professional help is always an option. Talking to a therapist, counselor, other mental health professional, or a spiritual advisor can be very helpful as a way of getting through a difficult time.

Longer-Term Emotional Reactions It may take a very long timelonger than you expectto recover from a hostage incident. This is true of any traumatic incident, but perhaps most true of the kind of incident in which your fate is in many ways out of your control and you are in danger of physical harm and even death. You may experience anger, depression, and/or anxiety. You may find yourself crying unexpectedly. You may have continuing irrational feelings of bitterness and anger toward jail authorities for not freeing you sooner, even though the rational part of your brain knows that such feelings are not based on an accurate assessment. These troublesome feelings may come and go, beyond your ability to control them. These long-term emotional reactions may be part of something known as posttraumatic stress syndrome (PTSD.) This is a condition which often occurs following significant and difficult actual events, in which the victim experiences long-term emotional after-effects. One such effect is having the kinds of feelings that were noted above (anger, depression, anxiety, etc.). Another possible effect

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is having flashbacks of the traumatic incident: unpleasant memories of the event and the emotions associated with the event. Or, a person may have bad nightmares or night terrors. These flashbacks, nightmares, or night terrors may be very frightening and may occur either out of the blue or when there is a specific stimulus of some kind that reminds the person of the actual event. For example, a person who was involved in a traumatic shooting incident or a war incident may experience PTSD upon hearing a car backfire, because that sound reminds the person of the sound of gunfire. In some cases, people with PTSD experience a sense of emotional blunting their emotional responses to other people and to life events are numb or distant. Sometimes a person may be unable to remember important aspects of the traumatic event, or may feel distant or estranged from other people. Other symptoms may include sleeping difficulties, difficulty concentrating, relational problems and/or anger outbursts or extreme irritability. Episodes of post-traumatic stress syndrome can be scary and very uncomfortable, but it is not an uncommon reaction to significant events, like a hostage incident. It may be necessary to seek professional help to deal with such long-term emotional reactions. Again, this may involve seeing a therapist or other mental health professional. Talk therapy, sometimes combined with anti-anxiety or antidepressant medication, is often very helpful in this regard. Or, you may seek help from an employee assistance program sponsored by your county. Again, you should not feel ashamed or embarrassed to seek such help. You are simply experiencing a normal human reaction to a very difficult, traumatic incident in your life. You will do yourself, your loved ones, and colleagues a favor by trying to deal with negative feelings in a positive way.

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SUMMARY
Hostage incidents in jails are rare, but they are always possible. As a corrections officer, you are always at-risk for being taken hostage. Therefore, you have to know what to expect if such an incident occurs, in terms of knowing what has commonly occurred in a number of jail and prison hostage situations, and you need to know and keep in mind basic guidelines for what to do if you are taken hostage and how best to cope emotionally and psychologically during the incident. Being taken hostage is a difficult and traumatic experience. It is an experience which typically results in short-term emotional after-effects, and often in longerterm emotional reactions, possibly including post-traumatic stress syndrome. If you have been taken hostage in a jail, you should expect these emotional reactions to occur and should not be ashamed to seek professional help to deal with your feelings in a positive, constructive way that will help you heal.

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APPENDIX
The Stockholm Syndrome: What Is It?

(Based on Materials by Ms. Kathleen Trigiani, published in 1999 on the Internet Site, Womens Web Ring) The term Stockholm Syndrome was coined in the early 1970s by Professor Nils Bejerot to describe the puzzling reactions of four bank employees to their captors. On August 23, 1973, three women and one man were taken hostage in one of the largest banks in Stockholm, Sweden. They were held for six days by two ex-convicts who threatened their lives but also showed them kindness. To the worlds surprise, all of the hostages strongly resisted the governments efforts to rescue them and were quite eager to defend their captors. Indeed, several months after the hostages were saved by the police, they still had warm feelings for the men who had threatened their lives. The Stockholm Syndrome compelled journalists and social scientists to research whether the emotional bonding between captors and captives was a freak incident or a common occurrence in oppressive situations. They discovered that it is such a common phenomenon that it deserves a name. Thus, the label Stockholm Syndrome was born. It has happened to concentration camp prisoners, cult members, civilians in Chinese Communist prisons, pimp-procured prostitutes, incest victims, physically and/or emotionally abused children, battered women, prisoners of war, victims of hijackings, and, of course, hostages. Virtually anyone can experience Stockholm Syndrome if the following conditions are met: There is a perceived or real threat to survival and the belief that ones captor is willing to act on the threat; The captive has a perception of small kindnesses from the captor within a context of terror; There is isolation from perspectives other than those of the captor; There is a perceived inability to escape.

Long-term psychological studies of this and similar hostage situations have defined a fairly clear and characteristic set of symptoms for the Stockholm Syndrome:

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 The captives begin to identify with their captors. At least as first this is a defensive mechanism, based on the (often unconscious) idea that the captor will not hurt the captive if he or she is cooperative and even positively supportive; The captive seeks to win the favor of the captive in an almost childlike way; The captive often realizes that action taken by his would-be rescuers is very likely to hurt him instead of obtaining his release. He or she fears that attempts at rescue may turn a presently tolerable situation into a lethal onefor example, that if the bullets of the authorities dont get him, quite possibly those of the provoked captor will; Long-term captivity builds even stronger attachment to the captor as he becomes known as a human being with his own problems and aspirations. Particularly in political or ideological situations, longer captivity also allows the captive to become familiar with the captors point of view and the history of his grievances against authority. The captive may come to believe that the captors position is just.

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