Mechanics Introduction

Dr. Stuart McLachlan

Mechanics
Gravity, Weight and Moments
Gravity is the force of attraction between all masses. Gravity attracts all masses, noticed when one of the masses is really big, i.e. a planet. Anything near a planet or a star is attracted to it very strongly.

Three Important Effects

1. Gravity makes all things accelerate towards the ground, all with the same acceleration, g, which is 9.81 m/s2 on Earth (or approximately 10 m/s2). Leaning tower of Pisa: Made during the time when countries were making the best out of cannons and wanted to know how to drop them precisely onto their neighbours. To know this they carried out experiments by dropping cannon balls of different masses from the tower, to show that they landed onto the ground at the same time and therefore with the same acceleration. What about the feather? The air resistance would slow it down.

If we put a cannon ball and a feather into a vacuum jar, both would fall and land at the same time.

Mechanics Introduction

Dr. Stuart McLachlan

The kitchen-weighing machine There are two types:

1kg mass reference
1kg

1kg mass Sugar

1kg mass Sugar

Balance Scales

Spring Scales

Which measures mass and which measures weight? Clue: Imagine moving these scales to the moon.

2. Gravity gives everything a weight.

3. Gravity keeps planets, moons and satellites in their orbits. Orbit is a balance between forward motion of the object and the force of gravity pulling it inwards. Resultant Orbit Forward Velocity

Force of Gravity

Thrust

Mechanics Introduction

Dr. Stuart McLachlan

Weight and Mass

1. Mass is the amount of matter in an object. i.e. Mass of an object is the bulk of ALL particle masses (atoms: electron / proton / neutron / etc). Therefore an object will have the SAME MASS anywhere in the Universe. 2. Weight is the effect of mass pulled by gravity.
1kg mass Sugar 1kg mass Sugar

1kg mass reference

1kg

pivot Force due to gravity Force due to gravity Force due to gravity pressing against a spring Force Hookes Law - springs Force ~ distance Spring displacement

Forces are in balance on the pivot

Balance Scales The Balance Scales compares Mass

Spring Scales

The Spring Scales measures weight by measuring the force on a spring exerted by the mass of the flour pulled by gravity. 3. An object has the same mass whether it is on Earth or on the Moon but its weight will be different. 1 kg mass weighs less on the moon of 1.6 Newtons compared with that on the Earth of 10 Newtons. 4. Weight is a force measured in Newtons (N) measured using a spring balance or a Newton meter. Weight = Mass x Gravitational Acceleration W=mg e.g. 5 kg on Earth w = 5 x 9.81 = 49.05 N Moon w = 5 x 1.6 = 8.00 N

Mechanics Introduction

Dr. Stuart McLachlan

Moments
1kg

1 kg reference weight

1 kg sugar Ms

AntiClockWise Turning force

150 mm

50 mm 150 mm

ClockWise Turning force

If we move the pivot 50 mm towards the 1 kg reference weight, how much sugar do I need to balance the scales? For the balance scales to be in equilibrium (balanced) then: Left Hand Side = Right Hand Side Force x Distance LHS = Force x Distance RHS 1 kg 9.81m / s 2 (0.150 0.050 )m = M s 9.81 m / s 2 0.200 m Thus Ms = 1 9.81 0.01 = 0.5kg 9.81 0.2

When a force acts on something, which has a pivot, it creates a turning force called a moment. Moments are calculated by: moment = force x perpendicular distance For a system to be in equilibrium: TOTAL CLOCKWISE MOMENT = TOTAL ANTICLOCKWISE MOMENT Try: 2 kg reference weight

1 kg sugar
2kg

2 kg Flour

x mm

100 mm 300 mm

Find x 2 9.81 x = 1 9.81 0.1 + 2 9.81 0.3 0.1 + 0.6 x= = 0.350 m = 350 mm 2 4

Mechanics Introduction

Dr. Stuart McLachlan

Force Diagrams
Force is a push or a pull. There are mainly 6 different forces: 1. Gravity or weight always acting straight down 2. Reaction force from a surface, usually acting straight up 3. Thrust or push or pull due to an engine or rocket speeding something up 4. Drag or air resistance or friction which is slowing the thing down 5. Lift due to an aeroplane wing 6. Tension in a rope or cable These result in 5 different force diagrams 1. Stationary object in balance Static weight
side 1 kg weight side reaction

2. Steady horizontal velocity all forces in balance Moving car

thrust

reaction

drag

3. Steady vertical velocity all forces in balance Sky diver

side

weight drag side weight

If there is an unbalanced force then you get an acceleration, NOT steady speed

4. Horizontal acceleration unbalanced forces Moving car throttle down

thrust

reaction

drag

acceleration
weight

5. Vertical acceleration unbalanced forces Sky diver crouched side

drag side weight

Only get acceleration with overall resultant unbalanced force The bigger the unbalanced force the greater the acceleration 5

acceleration

Mechanics Introduction

Dr. Stuart McLachlan

Friction
1. Friction is always there to slow things down a. Neutral b. Steady 30 mph force Friction always occurs: a. Between solid surfaces which are gripping. e.g. between the tyres and the road when cornering. There is a limit on how the two surfaces can grip each other. i.e. brake too hard and youll skid. b. Between solid surfaces which are sliding past each other. e.g. Between brake pads and brake discs which use sliding friction. c. Resistance or Drag from fluids (air or liquids). i.e. Cars are streamlined to reduce air resistance (drag). The opposite of this is a parachute, which requires high amounts of drag. 2. Friction always increases as speed increases The car has much more friction to work against when travelling at 60 mph compared to 30 mph. worse fuel economy worse engine life engine works harder Drag car Sports car Family car Record vehicles 300+ mph 100+ mph around 100 mph 10 20 mph 1 gal / second < 20 mpg around 50 mpg > 10,000 mpg 30 mph 60 mph drag more drag in balance friction slows car down friction

Note: Compare speed and fuel economy:

3. Need friction to move and stop e.g. walk / run, race off traffic lights, hold fixings together (nuts and bolts) . . . 4. Friction causes wear and heating a. Always acts between surfaces that are sliding over each other. b. Produces heat and wear of surfaces. c. Lubricants used to keep friction as low as possible. d. Lubricants enable machines to run more freely using less power with reduced wear. e. Heating effect of friction can be large. e.g. Brakes glowing red hot causing brake fade, engine without oil seizes.

Mechanics Introduction

Dr. Stuart McLachlan

Laws of Motion
Sir Isaac Newton published Philosophioe Naturalis Principia Mathematica 1st edition 1687

1st Law
Every body remains stationary or in uniform motion in a straight line unless it is made to change that state by external forces.

2nd Law
Change of momentum (acceleration) is proportional to the impressed force, and acts along the same straight line.

3rd Law
Action is always equal and in the opposite direction to reaction.

Mechanics Introduction

Dr. Stuart McLachlan

Velocity and Acceleration

Example If I walk such that my steps are 1 m apart and my pace is 10 steps in 9 seconds. What is my speed? speed = 10 meters = 1.11 m / s 9 sec onds 10 1 km (60 60)h = 9 1000 = 4 km / h distance = velocity time

speed =

Example An aircraft flies for 50 seconds in a straight line. Time (s) Distance (km) 0 0 10 6 20 12 30 18 40 24 50 30

Distance (km) 30 24 18 12 6 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 Time (s)

velocity =

30 = 0.6 km / s 50

Mechanics Introduction Examples a. A cars speedometer registers 72 km/h. Express this velocity in m/s 72 1000 m 1 = 20 m / s 60 60 s

Dr. Stuart McLachlan

b. A motorist is driving along a motorway, which runs due N and S from a junction known as Romans Cross. He starts 20 km N of the junction at 9:00am, drives for 3 h N at 80 km/h, waits for 3 h at a service station and then drives S at a 4 4 distance of 120 km at 60 km/h. After another 1 h wait he returns to Romans 2 Cross, arriving there at 2:00pm. Represent his journey on a graph.
S km 80 60 40 20 0 -20 -40

U
10:30 11:15 12:00 12:30 1:00 2:00 Time

9:00 9:45

P Q

PL 60 km

since 60km 3 h = 80 km / h 4 This fraction is called SLOP or GRADIENT of graph TU (displacement at U) (displacement at T)
=

0 ( 40km ) = + 40 km RM 40km ) (+ 80km ) = 120 km South

R S

2h
= (

(displacement at S) (displacement at R)

Test
Find: a. Average velocity over journey b. Represent this on graph c. Average speed over journey

Mechanics Introduction

Dr. Stuart McLachlan

Solution
Theory: finish

start total displaceme nt total time period

average velocity over the period =

average speed over the period =

total distance travelled total time period

Therefore total displacement of the car between 9:00am and 2:00pm = (displacement at U) (displacement at P)
=

0 (+ 20km ) = 20 km

The time interval is 5 h therefore the velocity is:

=

20 km = 4 km / h 5h

i.e. 4 km/h South represented by the slope of the line P U Average speed the car travels = 60 + 120 + 40 = 220 km

Average speed =

220 = 44 km / h 5

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Mechanics Introduction

Dr. Stuart McLachlan

Acceleration
Is how quickly you are speeding up Acceleration is how quickly the velocity is changing acceleration = change in velocity time taken

e.g. A skulking cat accelerates from 2 m/s to 6 m/s in 5.6 s. Find its acceleration? Acceleration = a Velocity Time
v

=v =t

a=

(6 2 )
5.6

0.71 m / s 2

When the velocity of a body is not uniform, we introduce a quantity, which measures the rate at which velocity is changing. This is called the acceleration of a body.

Example If a train is moving at 18 km/h at one instant, and at 90 km/h two minutes later, its velocity has increased by 72 km/h in 2 minutes. If we suppose that it is gaining speed at a steady rate, we say that it has an acceleration of 36 km/h per minute. We therefore need to convert the kilometres to metres, hours to seconds, and minutes to seconds: a = 36 1000 m 1 1 1000 36000 1 = 36 = = m / s2 60 60 s 60 s 60 60 60 3600 60 6

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Mechanics Introduction

Dr. Stuart McLachlan

If the velocity of a body is decreasing, the body is said to have negative acceleration, usually called retardation or deceleration. i.e. + m/s2 - m/s2 acceleration deceleration or retardation

It is frequently useful to draw a graph of the velocity of a body plotted against time. When the velocity is uniform, the graph is a straight line parallel to the time axis. Velocity Time Graphs: If the velocity increases by equal amounts in equal times, so that the graph is a straight line inclined at an angle to the time axis, the body is said to have UNIFORM ACCELERATION. The value of this acceleration is represented by the slope of the line. Whether the acceleration is uniform or not, the average acceleration over a period of time is measured by dividing the increase in velocity during that time period, by the time taken.

Velocity in m/s Steady speed 60 50 Steady speed 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Time in secs acceleration deceleration Increasing acceleration

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Mechanics Introduction Example

Dr. Stuart McLachlan

v km/h
140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 9:00 9:30

T N

10:00

10:30 Time

A train has a motion shown above in the velocity-time graph, has a velocity of 40 km/h at 10:00 am and one of 120 km/h at 10:20 am. The average acceleration between 10:00 and 10:20 is: 1 3

(120 40 )km / h h = 240 km

h2

This is represented on the graph by NU / TN i.e. The slope of the line TU Try: Find acceleration if 9:10 am velocity is 20 km/h and at 9:35 am is 120 km/h.

Summary Definitions
The VELOCITY of a body is the rate at which its displacement is increasing with respect to the time. The ACCELERATION of a body is the rate at which its velocity is increasing with respect to the time. change in distance ds = change in time dt

v=

a=

rate of change in distance d 2 s = rate of change in time dt 2

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Mechanics Introduction Example

Dr. Stuart McLachlan

In catching a train a man runs for 80 s at 2.5 m/s, then walks for 100 s at 2.0 m/s and finally runs for 20 s at 3.0 m/s. Sketch the velocity-time graph and find the total distance that he covers.

The velocity-time graph consists of 3 straight lines parallel to the time axis.

m/s 3 20 2 80 1 0 0 50 100 150 200 t s 100

Since the velocity over each leg is uniform, the total distance the man goes is: 2.5 80 + 2 100 + 3 20 m = 460 m

NOTE:

distance = velocity time = area of graph

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Mechanics Introduction Example

Dr. Stuart McLachlan

An electric train starts from a station and maintains an acceleration of 0.9 m/s2 for 20 seconds. It then travels for 80 seconds with uniform velocity, and finally has a uniform retardation which brings it to rest in a further 10 seconds. Find the retardation and the total distance gone.

m/s A B

18

0 0 20 M 80 N 10 C t s

The velocity-time graph consists of 3 lines OA, AB, and BC. The slope of the line OA represents the original acceleration (0.9 m/s2) since MA/OM = 0.9, and OM = 20, it follows that MA = 18 m/s. This means that the maximum velocity attained is 18 m/s MN = 80, the time in seconds for which the train has uniform velocity NC = 10, the time in seconds for which the train has uniform retardation The slope of the line BC is BN/NC Representing an acceleration =
18 m / s

10 s

= 1.8

m / s2

Negative indicates the train is slowing down with a retardation of 1.8 m/ss. The distance travelled is the area of the trapezium OABC which is: (110 + 80) x 18 = 1710 Therefore the distance between the two stops is 1710 m or 1.71 km.

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Mechanics Introduction

Dr. Stuart McLachlan

Equations of Motion
For uniform acceleration in a straight line u = velocity at the start of the period v = velocity at the end of the period a = uniform acceleration throughout the period s = displacement from initial to final position t = time taken change in velocity v u = m / s2 time t

a=

Thus, v = u + at .............................................................. 1 The velocity-time graph is a straight line, and the area between the graph and the time axis is: velocity

u t s=

1 (u + v ) t ........................................................ 2 2 1 (u + ut + at ) t 2 1 2 at ..................................................... 3 2 1 2 at 2

substituting v from 1 s=

s = ut +

similarly s = vt

substituting t into 2 from 1 s= 1 vu (u + v ) 2 a

2

v =

u 2 + 2as ..................................................... 4

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Mechanics Introduction Examples

Dr. Stuart McLachlan

A marble is rolled down a gentle slope. It has a constant acceleration, and its velocity increases from 10 cm/s to 32 cm/s in a distance of 77 cm. Find the acceleration. u = 10 v 2 = u 2 + 2as 32 2 = 10 2 + 2a 77 32 2 10 2 924 2 a= = = 6 cm / s 2 77 154 A train starts from rest and, moving with constant acceleration, passes through a station 9 km away after 5 minutes. Find the acceleration. u=0

v = 32

s = 77

required a

s = 9000

t = 300

required a

1 2 at 2 1 9000 = 0 + a300 2 2 2 9000 2 a= = 0.2 m / s 90000 s = ut + A car approaching a speed limit applies its brakes. It takes 4 s to cover the next 100 m, and 5 s to cover the succeeding 100 m. Find the retardation, and the speed at which it was moving when the brakes were applied. The average speeds over the two 100 m stretches are 25 m/s and 20 m/s These are average speeds and represent periods Therefore 25 m/s at a time 2 seconds after brakes applied 20 6.5 The speed decreases by 5 m/s in 4.5 seconds Thus retardation is 5 m/s 4.5 = 1.1 m/s2 In the first 2 seconds after the brakes are applied the speed decreases by 2.2 m/s and at the end of this time the speed is 25 m/s Therefore the initial speed is 27.2 m/s

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Mechanics Introduction

Dr. Stuart McLachlan

Forces and Acceleration

Newtons 3 Laws
1. Body remains stationary or in uniform motion in a straight line unless changed by external forces. 2. F a F = ma 3. Action is always equal and opposite to the reaction force. e.g. A man drags a dinghy of mass 200 kg across the beach with a force of 200 N. The motion is hindered by a friction force of 170 N. Find the acceleration of the dingy. F = 200 170 = 30 N m = 200 kg 30 = 200a a = 0.15 m / s 2 One person pushing a 1000 kg car can accelerate it at 0.1 m/s2. Two people pushing equally hard with the same force as before can accelerate it at 0.3 m/s2. How large is the resistance to motion? 0.1 x R 0.3 2x R

Let the force with each person pushes be x newtons and the resistance to motion R newtons. With one person pushing: F = x R m = 1000 a = 0.1 x R = 1000 0.1 = 100 With two persons pushing: F = 2x R
Deduced

m = 1000 that R = 100 Newtons

a = 0.3

2 x R = 1000 0.3 = 300

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Mechanics Introduction

Dr. Stuart McLachlan

Work and Energy

When a body moves under the action of a force, we measure the usefulness of the force by its work done: Work done by the force = force x distance = F s The amount of work done when a force of 1 N is applied through a distance of 1 m is 1 Nm. This is called a Joule. i.e. 1 Nm = 1 J (from James Joule (1818-1889),who first developed the modern concept of energy) e.g. If a luggage-truck is pulled along a platform by applying a force of 20 N to a handle, and if the truck is moved a distance of 150 m, the work done is 3000 J.

Kinetic Energy KE
When a body is in motion: Kinetic Energy of a body = mass x velocity2 KE = 1 2 mv 2 1 2 1 1 mv mu 2 = m(v 2 u 2 ) 2 2 2

Work Done by Force = KE at end KE at start KE = Fs =

A car of mass 1200 kg starts from rest and is observed to reach a speed of 20 m/s after it has travelled 250 m. Neglecting resistances, find the driving force if it assumed to be constant. There is no KE at the start, and the KE at the end is: 1 2 1 mv = 1200 20 2 = 240 000 joules 2 2 If the driving force is F newtons, the work done by this force is: F 250 joules

250 F = 240000 so that, F = 960 N

If there were a resistance to motion of R, the term F in the above equation would be replaced by F R, and the final equation would become: KE = Fs Rs = 1 2 1 mv mu 2 2 2

work done by accelerating force - work done against resistance = increase in KE 19

Mechanics Introduction Example

Dr. Stuart McLachlan

The driver of a car of mass 800 kg travelling at 36 km/h sees an obstruction in the road. He applies his brakes immediately, but does not use the clutch to disengage the engine until he has travelled a further 10m. He finally comes to rest at a distance of 30m after the brakes were applied. If the engine was exerting a forward thrust of 140 N, find the retarding force due to the brakes. One advantage of using the energy method to solve this problem is that the whole motion can be considered at once rather than two stages. Because; During the first stage before the clutch is disengaged: Work done by driving force - work done against resistance = gain in KE Or since there is a loss of KE because the car is slowing down: work done against resistance - work done by driving force = loss of KE In the second stage the engine makes no contribution, so that Total work done against resistance = loss of KE Adding these two equations, we have for the complete motion:
Total work done against resistance - work done by driving force in first stage = total loss of KE

Initially 36 km / h = 36 The KE at the start =

1000 = 10m / s 60 60

1 1 mu 2 = 800 10 2 = 40000 2 2

Since there is no KE at the end, the loss in KE is 40 000 J The work done by the driving force over the 10m for which it acts is 140 10 = 1400 J If the resistance is R newtons, the work done against this resistance over the distance of 30m is:

(R 30 )J
30 R 1400 =

40000 so that, R = 1380 N

The force due to the brakes is thus 1380 N

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Mechanics Introduction

Dr. Stuart McLachlan

Potential Energy PE
The (GRAVITATIONAL) POTENTIAL ENERGY of a body in a given position is the work, which would be done by its weight if it were to move from that position to a point at some fixed level. PE = weight of body x height above fixed level PE = mgh

Combined PE and KE
Loss of PE = Gain in KE Therefore, (KE + PE) at start = (KE + PE) at end That is, as the stone falls the sum of its kinetic energy and its potential energy remains constant.

Conservation of Energy
Two quantities of energy have been discussed which we have given the name energy, kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy. In general terms a body, which is moving is, by virtue of its movement, capable of doing work as it loses its speed. For example, a railway engine which runs into a buffer will compress the buffer; it is thereby doing work, since the force compressing the buffer is moving its point of application. A body, which is capable of doing work, is said to posses energy. Broadly speaking, energy is something, which can be fed into a machine or an engine to produce useful results. For example, in a windmill the kinetic energy of the air is used to drive the sails; in a hydroelectric plant the potential energy of a mass of water at a height is used to drive a dynamo. Energy appears in many different forms. Heat and electricity are forms of energy. A mass of gas under compression, possess energy, which can be released when they undergo chemical change; these substances are called fuels. Within the individual atoms of matter is stored a vast quantity of nuclear energy. Energy is continually changing from one form into another. For example, the chemical energy of coal may be used to heat the water in a boiler. Some of this water is turned into steam, part of whose energy is due to its state of compression. This may be used to drive a piston in a cylinder, thereby creating kinetic energy. This kinetic energy can in turn be used to drive a dynamo and create electrical energy. The quantity of energy involved in these changes is governed by a very important principle, first stated by Joule, known as the CONSERVATION OF ENERGY. This states that, despite the changes, which its form undergoes, energy is neither created nor destroyed. In any system out of which and into which no energy passes the total amount of energy remains unaltered.

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Mechanics Introduction Example

Dr. Stuart McLachlan

A cyclist reaches the top of a hill with a speed of 3 m/s. He descends 30 m and then rises 20 m on the other side, reaching the top of the next rise with a speed of 2.5 m/s. The total mass of the cyclist and his machine is 120 kg, the road and air resistances amount to 20 N and the road distance between the two points is 800 m. Find the work done by the cyclist during this stretch. At the start the KE is And at the end it is 1 2 120 3 = 540 J 2 1 2 120 2.5 = 375 J 2

In calculating the PE, take as the fixed level that of the point at the end of his ride. He starts at a height of 30m 20m = 10m above this; his weight is 120 x 9.81 = 1176 N, so that PE at start = 1176 10 = 11760 J And the PE at the end is zero. The work done against resistance is 20 800 = 16000 J The work energy principle takes the form: (KE+PE) at start + work done by cyclist work done against resistance = (KE+PE) at end Therefore, 540 + 11760 + work done by cyclist 16000 = 375 + 0 so that the work done by the cyclist is 4075 J

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