Contents

Grammar

1

Grammar	2
Parts of Speech	2
Noun	3
Verb	6
Pronoun	6
Adjective	10
Adverb	13
Preposition	14
Conjection & Interjection	15

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Grammar

What is Grammar?

Grammar

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The term grammar refers to either the inherent structure of words and sentences in a language; or to the study and description of this structure, published as grammar rules in books about the language.

We unconsciously use grammar all the time when we use language for speaking, listening, reading and writing. If we want to improve our English language abilities, there is no escape from addressing grammar issues.

Grammar may be separated into two common broad categories: descriptive and prescriptive. The former tries to look at the grammar of any spoken language or dialect as it actually exists and it judges whether a sentence is grammatical or not based on the rules of the speech group rather than on a set of rules. The perspective grammar prescribes rules for the proper usage. For several hundred years, Grammar has been synonymous with Perspective Grammar.

The CAT Perspective

From the perspective of CAT, we need to focus on the prescriptive grammar. Whenever there is confusion, always go with the choice that conforms to the prescriptive grammar.

Parts of Speech

All the words in the English language are divided into nine great classes. These classes are called the Parts of Speech. They are

Article,	Verb,
Noun,	Adverb,
Adjective,	Preposition,
Pronoun,	Conjunction & Interjection.

Each part of speech explains not what the word is, but how the word is used. In fact, the same word can be a noun in one sentence and a verb or adjective in the next.

Parts of a sentence Adjective Adverb

Description Describes things or people. Alters the meaning of the verb slightly.

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Article

Conjunction Interjection Noun Preposition Pronoun Proper noun (subject) Verb

a, an - indefinite articles the- definite articles Joins words or sentences together A short word showing emotion or feeling Names things Relates one thing to another used instead of a noun to avoid repetition The actual names of people or places etc. Action or doing word

Parts of Speech

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Noun

A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all nouns:

 Late last year our neighbors bought a goat.

 Kapil Dev was a cricketer.

 The bus inspector looked at all the passengers' passes.

 Philosophy is of little comfort to the starving.

Noun Gender

Many common nouns, like doctor or teacher, can refer to men or women. Once, many English nouns would change form depending on their gender -- for example, a man was called an author while a woman was called an authoress -- but this use of gender-specific nouns is very rare today. Those that are still used occasionally tend to refer to occupational categories, as in the following sentences.

 Ashok Kumar was a very prominent nineteenth-century actor.

 Rekha was at the height of her career as an actress in the 1980s.

 The manager was trying to write an advertisement, but he couldn't decide whether he was advertising for a waiter or a waitress.

Types of Noun

There are many different types of nouns. A noun will belong to more than one type: it will be proper or common, abstract or concrete, and countable or non-countable or collective.

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1. Proper Nouns

Parts of Speech

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You always write a proper noun with a capital letter, since the noun represents the name of a specific person, place, or thing. The names of days of the week, months, historical documents, institutions, organisations, religions, their holy texts and their adherents are proper nouns. A proper noun is the opposite of a common noun

Example:

 Beltane is celebrated on the first of May.

2. Common Nouns

A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general sense - usually,

you should write it with a capital letter only when it begins a sentence. A common noun is the opposite of a proper noun.

Example:

 Many child-care workers are underpaid.

3. Concrete Nouns

A concrete noun is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that you can perceive through

your physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell. A concrete noun is the opposite of a abstract noun.

Example:

 The judge handed the files to the clerk.

4. Abstract Nouns

An abstract noun is a noun which names anything which you can not perceive through your five physical senses, and is the opposite of a concrete noun.

Example:

 Buying the air-conditioner was an afterthought.

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5. Countable Nouns

Parts of Speech

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A countable noun (or count noun) is a noun with both a singular and a plural form, and it

names anything (or anyone) that you can count. You can make a countable noun plural and attach it to a plural verb in a sentence. Countable nouns are the opposite of non-countable nouns and collective nouns.

Example:

 We painted the table red and the chairs blue.

6. Non-Countable Nouns

A non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun which does not have a plural form, and

which refers to something that you could (or would) not usually count. A non-countable noun always takes a singular verb in a sentence. Non-countable nouns are similar to collective nouns, and are the opposite of countable nouns.

Example:

 Oxygen is essential to human life.

The word "oxygen" cannot normally be made plural. Since "oxygen" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb "is" rather than the plural verb "are."

7. Collective Nouns

A collective noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons. You could count the

individual members of the group, but you usually think of the group as a whole is generally as

one unit. You need to be able to recognise collective nouns in order to maintain subject-verb agreement. A collective noun is similar to a non-countable noun, and is roughly the opposite of

a countable noun.

Example:

 The class was startled by the bursting light bulb.

8. Possessive Nouns

The possessive expresses ownership, usually of the following noun, and often corresponds to a structure with of.

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Example:

 Khan's wrath = the wrath of Khan

Parts of Speech

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Most singular possessives are formed by adding an apostrophe + s.

Common

Possessive

singular	bird	bird's
plural birds		birds'

Most plural possessives are formed by adding an apostrophe following the s-ending of the plural.

the bird's territory = the territory of the bird the birds' territory = the territory of the birds

If a noun is plural but does not end in s, the possessive is formed by adding apostrophe+s.

	Common	Possessive
singular woman		woman's
plural	women	women's

Verb

A verb or compound verb asserts something about the subject of the sentence and express

actions, events, or states of being. The verb or compound verb is the critical element of the predicate of a sentence.

Example:

 Dracula bites his victims on the neck.

The verb "bites" describes the action Dracula takes.

 In early October, Sonam will plant twenty mango trees.

Here the compound verb "will plant" describes an action that will take place in the future.

Pronoun

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Parts of Speech

A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. We can use a pronoun instead of a noun.

Pronouns are words like: he, you, ours, themselves, some, each

the sentence would become cumbersome and repetitive. We would have to say things like:

Example:

If we didn't have pronouns,

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 Do you like the prime minister I don't like the prime minister. The prime minister is too pompous.

With pronouns, we can say:

 Do you like the prime minister I don't like him. He is too pompous.

The different types of pronouns are as follows:

1. Subjective personal pronouns:

It indicates that the pronoun is acting as the subject of the sentence. The subjective personal pronouns are "I," "you," "she," "he," "it," "we," "you," "they."

Example:

 You are surely the strangest child I have ever met.

You and I acts as a subject in the above sentence and hence are called subjective personal pronouns

2.	Objective personal pronouns:
It	indicates that the pronoun is acting as an object of a verb, compound verb, preposition, or

infinitive phrase. The objective personal pronouns are: "me," "you," "her," "him," "it," "us," "you," and "them."

Example:

 After reading the novel, Akash threw it into the garbage can.

The pronoun "it" is the direct object of the verb "threw."

 Give the list to me.

Here the objective personal pronoun "me" is the object of the preposition "to."

3.	Possessive Personal Pronouns:
It	indicates that the pronoun is acting as a marker of possession and defines who owns a

particular object or person. The possessive personal pronouns are "mine," "yours," "hers," "his," "its," "ours," and "theirs." Note that possessive personal pronouns are very similar to

possessive adjectives like "my," "her," and "their."

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Example:

 This is yours.

Parts of Speech

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The possessive pronoun "yours" functions as a subject complement.

4. Demonstrative Pronouns:

It points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun. "This" and "these" refer to things that are nearby either in space or in time, while "that" and "those" refer to things that are farther away in space or time. Example:

 Three customers wanted these.

Here "these" is the direct object of the verb "wanted."

5. Interrogative Pronouns:

It is used to ask questions. The interrogative pronouns are "who," "whom," "which," "what" and the compounds formed with the suffix "ever" ("whoever," "whomever," "whichever," and "whatever"). Note that either "which" or "what" can also be used as an interrogative adjective, and that "who," "whom," or "which" can also be used as a relative pronoun.

who and whom are used to refer people while which and what are user to refer things and animals.

who acts as the subject of a verb, while whom acts as the object of a verb, preposition

Example:

 Who wrote the novel Rockbound

"who" is the subject of the sentence and an interrogative pronoun.

6. Relative Pronouns:

These are used to link one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause. The relative pronouns are "who," "whom," "that," and "which." The compounds "whoever," "whomever," and "whichever" are also used as relative pronouns.

who and whoever refers to the subject of a clause or sentence, and whom and whomever refers to the objects of a verb, a verbal or a preposition.

Example:

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Parts of Speech

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 The cricketer who scores the highest runs is not always elected ‘man of the match’.

The relative pronoun who is the subject of the verb "scores" and introduces the subordinate clause "who scores the highest runs". This subordinate clause acts as an adjective modifying "cricketer”.

 Whoever broke the window will have to replace it.

Here "whoever" functions as the subject of the verb "broke."

7. Indefinite Pronouns:

This pronoun refers to an identifiable but not specified person or thing. An indefinite pronoun conveys the idea of all, any, none, or some.

The most common indefinite pronouns are "all," "another," "any," "anybody," "anyone," "anything," "each," "everybody," "everyone," "everything," "few," "many," "nobody," "none," "one," "several," "some," "somebody," and "someone."

Example:

 Many were invited to the lunch but only twelve showed up.

Here "many" acts as the subject of the compound verb "were invited.

8. Reflexive Pronouns:

It refers back to the subject of the clause or sentence. The reflexive pronouns are "myself," "yourself," "herself," "himself," "itself," "ourselves," "yourselves," and "themselves." Note each of these can also act as an intensive pronoun.

Example:

 Diabetics give themselves insulin shots several times a day.

Here themselves act a reflexive pronoun.

9. Intensive Pronouns:

It is a pronoun used to emphasise its antecedent. Intensive pronouns are identical in form to reflexive pronouns.

Example:

 I myself believe that god does not exist.

 The Prime Minister himself said that he would increase job opportunities.

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Adjective

1. Desriptive adjectives

 Attributive Adjectives:

 Predicate Adjectives:

2. Limiting adjectives

 Definite & Indefinite Articles

 Possessive Adjectives:

 Demonstrative Adjectives:

 Indefinite Adjectives:

 Interrogative Adjectives:

 Cardinal Adjectives:

 Ordinal Adjectives:

 Proper Adjectives:

 Nouns used as Adjectives:

Parts of Speech

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An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun. by describing, identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies.

In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives:

 Large trees could be seen.

 They are happy.

In the preceding examples, the adjective large modifies the noun trees, and the adjective happy modifies the pronoun they.

Grammarians also consider articles ("the," "a," "an") to be adjectives.

Two types of adjectives are

1. descriptive, describing a quality of the noun

2. limiting, limiting the noun being described

Examples: descriptive: tall tree, stellar performance limiting: my dog, the second try

1. Desriptive adjectives

These can be attributive adjectives or predicate adjectives.

i) Attributive Adjectives:

Adjectives which appear directly beside the noun, most commonly before, are called attributive, because they attribute a quality to the noun they modify. More than one adjective can modify the same noun.

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Example:

Parts of Speech

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 He washed the empty cup.

 "Empty" is an attributive adjective, as it is placed directly beside the noun "cup." It is describing the cup.

The chatter made the room noisy. This is an instance in which the attributive adjective appears directly behind the noun. "Noisy" is describing the "room."

ii) Predicate Adjectives:

Adjectives which appear after a linking verb are called predicative, because they form part of the predicate. They modify the subject of the sentence or clause (a clause is a portion of a sentence which contains a subject and a predicate).

Examples:

 The painting was colourful.

noun: painting linking verb: was adjective: colourful (describing the noun"painting")

 The wind remained strong.

noun: wind linking verb: remained adjective: strong (describing the noun "wind")

2. Limiting adjectives

They do as their name suggests, they limit the noun being described. There are nine types of Limiting Adjectives:

i) Definite & Indefinite Articles

There is only one definite article, the. When used before a noun, it specifies a particular noun as opposed to any one. Examples:

 the dog (a specific, identifiable dog)

 the walls (specific, identifiable walls)

There are two indefinite articles, a and an. These are used with a noun when a specific noun is not being pointed at.

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Examples:

 a dog (any dog)

 an apple (any apple)

ii) Possessive Adjectives:

Parts of Speech

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The possessive adjectives my, your, his, her, its, our, and their modify nouns by showing possession or ownership.

Examples:

 my sweater

 their party

iii) Demonstrative Adjectives:

A demonstrative adjective is a demonstrative pronoun that appears before a noun and emphasizes it.

Example: (note the difference)

 demonstrative pronoun: These are wonderful.

 demonstrative adjective: These apples are wonderful.

iv) Indefinite Adjectives:

Indefinite adjectives are indefinite pronouns used before a noun.

Example: (note the difference)

 pronoun: Several witnessed the event.

 adjective: Several pedestrians witnessed the event.

v) Interrogative Adjectives:

The interrogative adjectives what, which, and whose modify nouns and pronouns to indicate a question about them.

Example: (note the difference)

 pronoun: Which fell

 adjective: Which trapeze artist fell

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vi) Cardinal Adjectives:

Parts of Speech

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Adjectives that modify the noun by numbering it (stating how many) are cardinal adjectives. Examples:

 five books

 two fish

vii) Ordinal Adjectives:

An ordinal adjective indicates the position of a noun in a series.

Examples:

 the first date

 the fourth day

vii) Proper Adjectives:

Adjectives derived from proper names are called proper adjectives. They are easily recognizable in that they are always capitalized.

Examples:

 French bread

 Shakespearean sonnet

ix) Nouns used as Adjectives:

Sometimes nouns can be used as adjectives to define or describe another noun.

Examples:

 the porch light

 a house fly

Adverb

An adverb is any word that modifies verbs, adjectives (including numbers), clauses, sentences and other adverbs, except for nouns; modifiers of nouns are primarily called as determiners and adjectives.

Adverbs typically answer questions such as how?" (or "in what way?), when?, where?, why? and to what extent?. They often end in -ly.

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Parts of Speech

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In	the following examples, each of the highlighted words is an adverb:
		The seamstress quickly made the mourning clothes.
In	this sentence, the adverb "quickly" modifies the verb "made" and indicates in what manner (or

how fast) the clothing was constructed.

 The midwives waited patiently through a long labour.

Similarly in this sentence, the adverb "patiently" modifies the verb "waited" and describes the manner in which the midwives waited.

 The boldly spoken words would return to haunt the rebel.

In this sentence the adverb "boldly" modifies the adjective "spoken."

 We urged him to dial the number more expeditiously.

Here the adverb "more" modifies the adverb "expeditiously."

 Unfortunately, the bank closed at three today.

In this example, the adverb "unfortunately" modifies the entire sentence.

Preposition

A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a sentence. They begin

prepositional phrases.

A prepositional phrase is a group of words containing a preposition, a noun or pronoun object

of the preposition, and any modifiers of the object.

For example, in the sentence "The cat sleeps on the sofa", the word "on" is a preposition, introducing the prepositional phrase "on the sofa".

Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a preposition:

 The children climbed the mountain without fear.

In this sentence, the preposition "without" introduces the noun "fear." The prepositional phrase

"without fear" functions as an adverb describing how the children climbed.

 There was rejoicing throughout the land when the government was defeated.

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Parts of Speech

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Here, the preposition "throughout" introduces the noun phrase "the land." The prepositional phrase acts as an adverb describing the location of the rejoicing.

The spider crawled slowly along the banister.

The preposition "along" introduces the noun phrase "the banister" and the prepositional phrase "along the banister" acts as an adverb, describing where the spider crawled.

The dog is hiding under the porch because it knows it will be punished for chewing up a new pair of shoes.

Here the preposition "under" introduces the prepositional phrase "under the porch," which acts as an adverb modifying the compound verb "is hiding."

English Preposition Rule

A preposition is always followed by a "noun". It is never followed by a verb.

By "noun" we include:

 noun (dog, money, love)

 proper noun (name) (Bangkok, Mary)

 pronoun (you, him, us)

 noun group (my first job)

 gerund (swimming)

A preposition cannot be followed by a verb. If we want to follow a preposition by a verb, we must

use the "-ing" form which is really a gerund or verb in noun form.

Conjection & Interjection

Conjuction

You can use a conjunction to link words, phrases, and clauses, as in the following example:

 I ate the pizza and the pasta.

 Call the movers when you are ready.

There are three types of conjuction:

Co-ordinating Conjunctions

also called coordinators, are conjunctions that join two or more items of equal syntactic importance. Coordinating conjunctions include for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so.

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Correlative conjunctions

Parts of Speech

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are pairs of conjunctions that work together to coordinate two items. English examples include both … and, (n)either … (n)or, and not (only) … but (also)

Subordinating conjunctions

also called subordinators, are conjunctions that introduce a dependent clause. English examples include after, although, if, unless, so that, therefore, in spite of, despite, because, etc

Interjection

An interjection usually has no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence and simply expresses emotion on the part of the speaker.

You usually follow an interjection with an exclamation mark. Interjections are uncommon in formal academic prose, except in direct quotations.

The highlighted words in the following sentences are interjections:

 Ouch, that hurt!

 Oh no, I forgot that the exam was today.

 Hey! Put that down!

 I heard one guy say to another guy, "He has a new car, eh?"

 I don't know about you but, good lord, I think taxes are too high!

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