CVEN365 Introduction To Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory Manual

CVEN365 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering LABORATORY MANUAL
Giovanna Biscontin Texas A&M University January 19, 2007
CVEN365 Laboratory Manual
G. Biscontin
Civil Engineering Department
Contents
1 2 Lab Safety and Policy Determining Water Content of Soil Specimens 2.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Water Content by Microwave Oven Method 2.2.1 Standard Reference . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Required Materials and Equipment 2.2.3 Test Specimen . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.5 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Water Content by Oven Method . . . . . . 2.3.1 Standard Reference . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Required Materials and Equipment 2.3.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.4 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 6 6 9 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 21
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Particle Size Analysis of Soils 3.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Standard Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Particle size analysis of coarse grained fraction 3.3.1 Required Materials and Equipment . . 3.3.2 Test Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.4 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Particle size analysis of ne grained fraction . . 3.4.1 Required Materials and Equipment . . 3.4.2 Hydrometer Calibration . . . . . . . . 3.4.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.4 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Atterberg Limits: Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils 4.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Standard Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Determination of Liquid Limit (Multi-Point Method) . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Required Materials and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.4 Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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ii 4.4 Determination of Plastic Limit . . . . . . . 4.4.1 Required Materials and Equipment 4.4.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plasticity Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CVEN365 Laboratory Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 22 22 22 25 25 25 25 26 26 27 29 29 29 29 30 31 32 33 34 37 37 37 37 38 38 38 39 43 43 43 45 45 46 47 47 49 49 49 49 49 49 50 51
4.5 5
Classication According to USCS 5.1 Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Initial Classication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Highly Organic Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Non Highly Organic Soils . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Procedure for Classication of Fine Grained Soils . 5.4 Procedure for Classication of Coarse Grained Soils Visual Classication of Soils 6.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Standard Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Descriptive Information for Soils . . . . . . . . 6.5 Procedure for Identifying Fine-Grained Soils . 6.6 Identication of Inorganic Fine-Grained Soils . 6.7 Procedure for identifying Coarse-Grained Soils 6.8 Check List For Description Of Soil . . . . . . . Compaction Using Standard Effort 7.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Standard Reference . . . . . . . . 7.3 Required Materials and Equipment 7.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.1 Specimen preparation . . . 7.4.2 Compaction . . . . . . . . 7.5 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Measuring Suction with the Filter Paper Method 8.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Soil Suction Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Required Materials and Equipment . . . . . . 8.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 Soil Matric Suction Measurements . . . . . . 8.6 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hydraulic Conductivity 9.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Standard Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Fundamental Test Conditions . . . . . . . . 9.4 Constant head test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.1 Required Materials and Equipment 9.4.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.3 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . .
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G. Biscontin
CONTENTS 9.5 Falling head test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5.1 Required Materials and Equipment 9.5.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5.3 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iii 52 52 52 54 57 57 57 57 57 59 59 59 61 61 61 63 66 66 67 67 67 67 67 69 70 75 75 75 76 77 78 81 81 81 82 83 83 83 84
10 Flow Nets 10.1 Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 Flow Net Facts . . . . . . . . 10.3 Drawing Flow Nets . . . . . . 10.4 Rules for Sketching Flow Nets 10.5 Common Mistakes . . . . . . 10.6 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7 Example Problem . . . . . . .
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11 Plaxis exercise 1: Groundwater calculation 11.1 Groundwater calculations for an embankment 11.1.1 Case 1: uniform embankment . . . . 11.1.2 Initial conditions . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.3 Case 2: Zoned embankment . . . . . 11.1.4 Case 3: anisotropic conditions . . . . 12 State of Stress: Mohrs Circle 12.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2 Two-Dimensional States of Stress . . . . . 12.3 Mohrs Circle of Stress . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3.1 The Pole Method . . . . . . . . . . 12.4 Principal Stresses and Principal Planes . . . 12.5 Mohrs Circles of Total and Effective Stress 13 Instrumentation and Calibration 13.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2 Transducers . . . . . . . . . . 13.3 Calibration . . . . . . . . . . 13.3.1 Calibration Procedure 13.4 Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Shrink/Swell Test 14.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . 14.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . . 14.3 Specimen Preparation . . 14.4 Procedures . . . . . . . . 14.5 Calculations . . . . . . . 14.5.1 Shrinkage Limit 14.6 Report . . . . . . . . . .
Texas A&M University
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G. Biscontin
iv 15 One-Dimensional Consolidation 15.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.2 Standard Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.2.1 Required Materials and Equipment 15.3 Specimen Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.5 Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.6 Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CVEN365 Laboratory Manual 87 87 87 88 88 89 90 90 93 93 93 94 97 97 99 101 101 101 101 102 103 104 107 107 107 107 108 109 109 111 111 111 111 112 113 113 115 115 115 115 117 117 120 121
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16 Plaxis exercise 2: consolidation settlements calculation 16.1 Consolidation settlements of an embankment during construction and after completion 16.1.1 Input of geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.1.2 Input of material parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.1.3 Generation of new mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.1.4 Initial conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Direct Shear Test of Soils Under Consolidated Drained Conditions 17.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.2 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.3 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.5 Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.6 Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Triaxial Unconned Compression Test 18.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.2.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . 18.2.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . 18.3 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4 Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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19 Unconsolidated Undrained Triaxial Test 19.1 Specimen preparation . . . . . . . . . . 19.1.1 Preparation of the specimen . . 19.1.2 Fitting end caps and membrane 19.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.3 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.4 Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A CVEN 365 Laboratory Design Project A.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . A.2 Report Submissions . . . . . . . . A.2.1 Data laboratory reports . . A.2.2 Design reports . . . . . . A.3 Project overview . . . . . . . . . A.4 Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.5 Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Biscontin
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CONTENTS A.6 Part III A.6.1 A.6.2 A.6.3 A.6.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Planned Construction Sequence Construction Monitoring . . . . Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . Laboratory Test Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
v 122 122 122 124 125
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Chapter 1
Lab Safety and Policy

Safety is a primary concern in all of the CE Department Geotechnical Engineering laboratories. Both the Undergraduate laboratory (RM-117) and Graduate laboratory (RM-116D) are outtted with equipment that could cause injury if one is not alert while performing experiments. Following is an outline of general policy and Dos and Donts in these laboratories. Safety is everyones concern. 1. No food or drink is allowed in the laboratories. 2. Ovens: The large ovens in both rooms are set at 105 degrees C. Use properly insulated gloves to handle objects you are retrieving out of the oven. The gloves are placed near the oven for this purpose. Please return the gloves to the table by the oven. The microwave ovens are used for moisture determination in SOILS ONLY. Never place more than ONE soil sample at a time (in its aluminum dish) in a microwave oven during this process. Check that a heat sink (in the form of a ceramic bowl) is in the microwave to avoid explosions. 3. There are two re extinguishers in the Undergraduate laboratory and one extinguisher in the Graduate laboratory. Please observe the mounting locations on the walls and make a mental note of their access. 4. Safety glasses are in a large white cabinet on the north wall of the Undergraduate Laboratory. Should one need to use a hammer or blunt instrument to break up dried soil samples then all persons of the laboratory group will be required to wear safety glasses during this process, including the teaching assistant. 5. Each lab island has a sink with two faucets. One faucet provides hot and cold tap water and is used for cleanup only. The other faucet has a white button on it and is labelled DW (distilled water). 6. During some sessions noise from machinery (such as sieve shakers) may get loud. If this becomes a problem, please notify the teaching assistant and ear protection will be provided on an as-needed individual basis. 7. Barrels are provided for used soil when the experiment is completed. Never throw trash (foil cups, paper, plastic, etc.) in these barrels. There are trash bins provided for the garbage. 8. At the end of each lab session always clean all the instruments and other materials used. A paper towel dispenser hangs on the wall for cleanup. 9. Counterbalanced Load Frames:
CVEN365 Laboratory Manual There are four double load frames in the Undergraduate laboratory and two double load frames in the Graduate laboratory. These frames are safe to operate when using the correct procedure. Never touch these frames when not in use. When using the loading frames: Never have your head under the top counterweight. The weight may fall while making adjustments to the set up. This typically occurs at least once a semester. You want to make sure the weight does not fall on you, and especially your head.
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Chapter 2
Determining Water Content of Soil Specimens

2.1 Purpose
The water (or moisture) content of a soil is recorded in every test in geotechnical engineering. This basic type of information provides insight on the conditions of the soil. The water content of undisturbed samples from the site is also measured and reported on boring logs and in the engineering reports. Sometimes, we need to mix a soil to a certain water content to meet specications for construction. Traditionally, we used a standard oven set at a temperature of 110o C. These days we can also use a microwave oven, which gives immediate results. The two methods are only slightly different and they are both explained in this chapter. You will mostly use the microwave oven method, but in a few cases the standard method is more reliable. The instructions for the specic test will tell you which method to use for each laboratory experiment.
2.2
Water Content by Microwave Oven Method
This method is commonly used as a quicker alternative to the standard oven drying method, therefore it is mostly used when immediate results are needed. You cannot use the microwave oven method for soils with signicant levels of organics. The main problem with using the microwave oven for water content determination is the possibility of heating the soil to temperatures higher than 110o C. The higher temperature may actually change the chemical structure of the clay minerals (think about pottery) and give wrong results. By drying the soil in several steps you minimize the chance of overheating.
2.2.1
Standard Reference
ASTM D 4643 - Standard test method for determination of water (moisture) content of soil by the microwave oven heating.
2.2.2
Required Materials and Equipment
The following items will be required for this testing method: A microwave oven. Variable power controls are important and reduce the potential for overheating the test specimen.
CVEN365 Laboratory Manual A scale having a 2000 g or greater and readability of 0.1 g is required. Specimen container suitable for use in a microwave. These containers must be dry. Gloves or holders to handle hot containers. Heat sink, something that will absorb the microwave energy once all the water has been extracted from the specimen and will prevent overheating. Tools such as knives or spatulas for cutting the specimen before and during testing.
2.2.3
Test Specimen
Select the minimum mass of soil to use for moisture content determination based on the following table: No more than 10% of sample made of particles larger than: (mm) 2.0 4.75 19 mm 90% or more of sample passes sieve No. 10 4 3/4 in Recommended mass of moist specimen (g) 100 to 200 300 to 500 500 to 1000
Table 2.1: Minimum mass of specimen
2.2.4
Procedure
It is important to prepare the specimen as quickly as possible to minimize moisture loss that will result in the wrong water content measurement. Break up the soil into small size pieces. If the specimens cannot be tested immediately, store them in a sealed container to prevent loss of moisture. 1. Make sure you have a copy of the appropriate moisture content determination form ready for use. You can nd it at the end of this chapter. 2. Determine the mass of a clean, dry container or dish, and record it. 3. Place the soil specimen in the container, and immediately determine and record the total mass. 4. Place the soil specimen in the container in a microwave oven with the heat sink and turn the oven on for 3 min. 5. After the set time has elapsed, remove the container and soil from the oven taking care not to burn yourself, and immediately record the mass. 6. Mix the soil carefully with a small spatula, make sure you do not lose any soil. 7. Return the container and soil to the oven and reheat for 1 min. 8. Repeat step 5 through 7 until the change in the measured mass becomes insignicant on the calculated moisture content. A change of 0.1% or less of the initial wet mass of the soil should be acceptable for most specimens. 9. Use the nal mass determination in calculating the water content.
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2. Determining Water Content of Soil Specimens
2.2.5
Calculations
Calculate the Water content of the sample as follows: w= where: w = water content, % Mcws = mass of container and wet specimen, g Mcs = mass of container and oven dry specimen, g Mc = mass of container, g Mw = mass of water, g and Ms = mass of solid particles. Mcws Mcs Mw 100 = 100 Mcs Mc Ms (2.1)
Moisture Content Determination by Microwave Oven

Sample No. Boring No. Depth Description of sample Date 09/05/03 B-24 12-L 2.4 m Brown silty clay Tested by After 3 min. 155.0 131.8 23.2 111.8 20.75 After 1 more min. 155.0 122.3 32.7 102.3 31.96 11.21 Jane Doe After 1 more min. 155.0 121.5 33.5 101.5 33.00 1.04 After 1 more min. 155.0 121.3 33.7 101.3 33.27 0.27 After 1 more min. 155.0 121.2 33.8 101.2 33.39 0.12 Project Location
Mass of container, Mc (g)
20.0
Initial mass of container + wet specimen, Mcws (g) Mass of container + dry specimen, Mcs (g) Mass of water, Mw = Mcws Mcs (g) Mass of solid particles, Ms = Mcs Mc (g) Moisture content w = Mw 100% (%) Ms Percent difference in water content (%)
Figure 2.1: Example of water content by microwave oven calculation
2.3
Water Content by Oven Method
Drying takes at least 12 hours in a standard oven, but the temperature is constant avoiding problems with overheating. If you have a large sample, overheating is likely in a microwave oven, therefore the standard oven is recommended.
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2.3.1
Standard Reference
ASTM D 2216 - Standard test method for laboratory determination of water (moisture) content of soil and rock by mass.
2.3.2
The following items will be required for this testing method: A drying oven at a temperature of 110o C 5o C. A scale with readability of 0.01 g is required for specimens with mass of less than 200 g. Specimen container suitable for use in an oven. For small samples (less than 200 g) use the aluminum containers with a lid to prevent moisture loss before drying and moisture gain from the air after drying. The containers must be dry. Gloves or holders to handle the container. Tools such as knives, or spatulas. A marker, if the container does not have an identifying feature.
2.3.3
Procedure
1. Make sure you have a copy of the appropriate moisture content determination form ready for use. 2. Determine the mass of a clean, dry container or dish, and record it. Remember to record the container ID or mark the container. Many similar containers are placed in the oven at the same time and may be moved. You want to make sure you will be able to nd your specimen. 3. Place the soil specimen in the container, and immediately determine and record the total mass. 4. Place contained and soil specimen in the oven for at least 12 hours. Longer drying times will not compromise the results. 5. After the set time has elapsed, remove the container and soil from the oven taking care not to burn yourself, and immediately record the mass. 6. Calculate the water content.
2.3.4
Calculations
Follow the same procedure as above in section 2.2.5.
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2. Determining Water Content of Soil Specimens
Moisture Content Determination by Microwave Oven

Sample No. Boring No. Depth Description of sample Date Tested by After 3 min. After 1 more min. After 1 more min. After 1 more min. After 1 more min. Project Location
Mass of container, Mc (g) Initial mass of container + wet specimen, Mcws (g) Mass of container + dry specimen, Mcs (g) Mass of water, Mw = Mcws Mcs (g) Mass of solid particles, Ms = Mcs Mc (g) Moisture content w = Mw 100% (%) Ms Percent difference in water content (%)
Moisture Content Determination by Oven

Sample No. Boring No. Depth Description of sample Date Tested by Mass of container, Mc (g) Initial mass of container + wet specimen, Mcws (g) Mass of container + dry specimen, Mcs (g) Mass of water, Mw = Mcws Mcs (g) Mass of solid particles, Ms = Mcs Mc (g) Moisture content w = Mw 100% (%) Ms Project Location
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Chapter 3
Particle Size Analysis of Soils

3.1 Purpose
The particle size distribution of a soil (also called a gradation curve) is primarily used for classication purposes. The distribution of particle sizes larger then 0.075 mm (retained on the No. 200 sieve) is determined by sieving, while distribution of particles sizes smaller then 0.075 mm is determined by sedimentation process using a hydrometer.
3.2
Standard Reference
ASTM D 422 - Standard test method for particle-size analysis of soils.
3.3
3.3.1
Particle size analysis of coarse grained fraction

A scale sensitive to 0.01 g Sieves, bottom pan, and a lid (The table below provides a list of common sieve sizes) Mechanical sieve shaker Sieve No. 4 10 40 80 100 200 Opening (mm) 4.75 2.00 0.425 0.180 0.150 0.075
3.3.2
Test Sample
The size of the sample (i.e., the amount of soil) will depend on the maximum size of the particles present in the sample itself, according to the following table:
10 Nominal diameter of largest particles in. (mm) 3/8 (9.5) 3/4 (19.0) 1 (25.4) 1.5 (38.1) 2 (50.8) 3 (76.2) Approximate Minimum Mass of Portion g 500 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
3.3.3
Procedure
1. Clean each sieve to remove any soil left over from previous tests. Use the soft brush on the ner mesh sieve and the wire brush on the coarser mesh sieve. Take care not to damage the mesh. 2. Measure and record the mass of each sieve, including the bottom pan. 3. Obtain the appropriate amount of sample. 4. Weigh and record the mass of the sample selected. 5. Assemble the sieves in order from largest to smallest so that the coarsest is at the top and the nest is on the bottom followed by the pan. 6. Place the sample on to the top sieve taking care not to lose any of the mass and place the lid securely on top. 7. Place the set of sieves in the sieve shaker and adjust the clamps to secure the sieves. 8. Set the shaker on high and set the timer to ve minutes. 9. Remove the sieves from the sieve shaker 10. To insure that all the particles passed though the appropriate sieve, tap each sieve over a sheet of paper, starting with the top sieve. Put any material that falls on to the paper into the next sieve and repeat the process with the next sieve. 11. Measure and record the mass retained in each sieve. 12. Sum the mass of the material retained on each sieve to verify that there has been no change in the total mass of the sample. (Note: A mass loss of less than 2% is acceptable.)
3.3.4
Calculations
Determine the weight of soil that is retained on each sieve, Wi . Calculate the percent of soil that is retained on each sieve (%Ri ): %Ri =
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Wi 100 W
(3.1)
3. Particle Size Analysis of Soils Calculate the percent passing each sieve (%Pi ):
i
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%Pi = 100
k=1
%Ri
(3.2)
Plot the percent passing values on the grain size analysis chart provided.
3.4
3.4.1
Particle size analysis of ne grained fraction

Stirring apparatus. Hydrometer, type 151H or 152H. Sedimentation cylinder, glass cylinder marked for a volume of 1000 ml. A solution of 40 g/l solution of sodium hexametaphosphate (or Calgon) in distilled water is used as a dispersing agent and will be provided Thermometer, accurate to 1o F (0.5o C). Graduated beaker to 250 ml capacity. Timer.
3.4.2
Hydrometer Calibration
The specic gravity of the solution of water and dispersing agent is higher than the specic gravity of distilled water. This difference must be accounted for when using the equations for percentage of soil remaining in suspension in section 3.4.4, which were developed for distilled water. In addition, the hydrometers were calibrated at a constant temperature of 68o F (20o C), which cannot be ensured in our laboratory. Finally, hydrometers are graduated by the manufacturer to be read at the bottom of the meniscus formed by the liquid on the stem. However, given the difculty of conducting a reading at the bottom of the meniscus through the soil-water suspension, the readings should be taken at the top of the meniscus and then corrected. The combined amount of the corrections for these three items is called composite correction and should be determined before or while conducting the actual test. For convenience, measurement of the composite correction can be made at a few different temperatures spanning the range expected during the test, and the result graphed. The correction for intermediate temperatures can be estimated using a linear approximation. Calibration procedure 1. In a graduate cylinder, mix 125 ml of the 40 g/l solution of sodium hexametaphosphate (or Calgon) and then distilled water up to 1000 ml. 2. Allow the temperature of the solution to become in equilibrium with the temperature in the room. 3. Place the hydrometer in the solution, allow to adjust to the temperature and stop moving. 4. Read the hydrometer at the top of the meniscus formed on the stem.
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CVEN365 Laboratory Manual 5. The composite correction for hydrometer 151H is the difference between this reading and one; for hydrometer 152GH it is the difference between the reading and zero. 6. Repeat the measurement in parallel with your hydrometer measurements in the soil-water-dispersing agent mix, when the room temperature changes.
3.4.3
Procedure
1. Obtain the equivalent of 50 g of air dried soil from the material passing the #200 sieve (do not oven dry the soil). 2. Determine the hygroscopic water content (due to humidity in the air) using an additional 10-15 g of soil. 3. Mix the soil to a thick slurry using 125 ml of the distilled water-dispersing agent solution. 4. Mix the slurry in a stirring apparatus for 60 seconds. 5. Transfer to the sedimentation cylinder and ll with distilled water up to the 1000 ml mark. 6. Mix thoroughly: cover the sedimentation cylinder mouth using a rubber glove and your hand and turn the cylinder upside down and back for 1 minute. 7. Set the cylinder down and quickly start the timer. Take readings using the hydrometer at 4, 15, 30, 60, 90, 120 seconds. Be careful in inserting the hydrometer, so that it will be stabilized as soon as possible and leave in the suspension for the rst 2 minutes. Take readings at the top of the meniscus. 8. Repeat the mixing process and take a second set of readings for the rst 2 minutes. 9. Remove the hydrometer from the suspension and place with a spinning motion in a cylinder lled with distilled water. To take the following readings, carefully place the hydrometer in the suspension about 20-25 s before the reading is due. 10. Take readings at 5, 15, 30, 60, and 1140 minutes. Place the hydrometer into the distilled water immediately after each reading. After each reading, take the temperature of the suspension by inserting the thermometer into the suspension. 11. At the end of the experiment, obtain the nal dry weight of soil.
3.4.4
Calculations
Hygroscopic correction factor Determine the hygroscopic correction factor based on the determination of the hygroscopic water content results: HygroscopicCF = Ws Wt (3.3)
where: Ws is the weight of the soil after oven drying and Wt is the initial weight of the air dry sample.
3. Particle Size Analysis of Soils Diameter of soil particles
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The diameter of the soil particles is calculating according to Stokes law, assuming that the particles are spherical, and measuring the density of the suspension: D= where: = viscosity of water (10.09 millipoise at 20o C) L = depth at which the density of the suspension is being measured (that is, where the center of gravity of the hydrometer is). See appendix for values of L given hydrometer reading. w = unit weight of water Gs = specic gravity of the solid particles G1 = specic gravity of the solution (usually assumed to be 1) T = elapsed time For convenience, the above calculations can be simplied as follows: L (3.5) T where: K is a constant that depends on temperature and specic gravity of the solid particles, given in the appendix. D(mm) = K Percentage of soil in suspension Calculate the (oven) dry weight (W) of the soil by multiplying the air-dry weight of the soil to be used in the hydrometer analysis by the hygroscopic correction factor. The percentage of soil remaining in suspension at the level at which the hydrometer is measuring the density is calculated differently for the two hydrometers. For Hydrometer 151H: P = For Hydrometer 152H: P = where: P = percentage of soil remaining in suspension at the level at which the hydrometer is measuring Rh = corrected hydrometer reading W = weight of the oven dry soil, after hygroscopic correction Gs = specic gravity of the solid particles G1 = specic gravity of the dispersing solution (usually 1) = correction factor, see appendix Rh 100 W (3.7) 100, 000 Gs (Rh G1 ) W Gs G1 (3.6) 18L (Gs G1 )w T (3.4)
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Sieve Analysis of Coarse Fraction

Sample No. Boring No. Depth Description of sample Date Total weight of sample Sieve No. Weight Sieve (g) of Weight of Sieve + Soil (g) Weight of Soil Retained (g) Percentage Retained (%) Percentage Passed (%) Tested by Project Location
Total weight of soil (g)
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Hydrometer Analysis
Tested by Project Boring Depth
3. Particle Size Analysis of Soils
Date Sample No.
(A) Hygroscopic water content (1) Cup No. (3) Mass cup + soil (air dry) (5) Mass of water (7) Mass of soil (air dry) (9) Hygroscopic correction factor (2) Mass of cup (4) Mass cup + soil (oven dry) (6) Mass of soil (oven dry) (8) Hygroscopic water content
Composite Correction
(B) Hydrometer Analysis Hydrometer Type Mass of air dry soil Date Time Elapsed Actual HyTime drometer Reading (min) (rh ) Hydrometer Reading Correction (Rh )
Specic Gravity of Soil (Gs ) Calculate mass of oven dry soil Temperature Effective K from table Hydrometer Depth (degrees C)
Diameter of particle, D (mm)
Percent ner in suspension (%)
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3. Particle Size Analysis of Soils
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Chapter 4
Atterberg Limits: Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils
4.1 Purpose
The liquid limit, plastic limit, and the plasticity index of soils are used extensively to correlate with engineering behavior such as compressibility, hydraulic conductivity, shrink-swell, and shear strength. Atterberg dened four possible states of consistency for soils: liquid, plastic, semi-solid and solid. The liquid limit divides the plastic and liquid states and is dened as the water content at which the soil ows to close a standard size groove when shaken in a standardized device. At this water content the soil has an approximate shear strength of 2.5 kPa. The plastic limit separates plastic and semi-solid states. At water contents below the plastic limit the soil cannot be molded without cracking.
4.2
Standard Reference
ASTM D 4318 - Standard test method for liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index of soils.
4.3
4.3.1
Determination of Liquid Limit (Multi-Point Method)

Liquid limit device cup Grooving tool 200-250 g of soil passing the No. 40 sieve, 425m aperture size Scale with accuracy of 0.001 g Water content cup Spatula and mixing tools
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Figure 4.1: Procedure for adjusting the liquid limit device.
4.3.2
Preparation
Inspection of Wear Clean the liquid limit device and make sure it is in good working order. The results of the test will be incorrect if the device is not working properly. In particular, check for: signs of wear on the base where the cup makes contact. The worn spot should be no greater than 10mm ( 3 in.) in diameter. 8 wear on the rim of the cup (reduced to no less than half its original thickness). and in the center where the groove is dug into the soil (indentation should be less than 1mm or 0.004 in.). side to side movement of the cup should be less than 3mm ( 1 in.). 8 the cup should not drop before the cup hanger loses contact with the cam excessive wear of the grooving tool If your liquid limit device is not in good order please alert your laboratory instructor to obtain a new liquid limit device. Calibration It is very important to calibrate your device so that the drop height is correct. The wrong drop height will cause the test results to be incorrect. Adjust the height of drop of the cup so that the point on the cup that comes in contact with the base rises to a height of 10 0.2 mm. Place a piece of masking tape across the contact spot on the bottom of the cup and running parallel to the hinged side. Slide the height gage (usually at the end of the grooving tool) under the cup. The gage should touch both the cup and the tape (see g. 4.1). If the drop height is correct you should hear a clicking sound, but produce no motion when cranking the handle. Adjust as needed.
4.3.3
Procedure
Soils should be tested starting from the natural water content to ensure the results are more representative of the actual eld conditions. In our laboratory we will be using air dried samples because it is easier to store the soil and ensure a constant supply.
4. Atterberg Limits: Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils
21
The liquid limit is dened as the water content at which a standard groove cut in the remolded soil sample by a grooving tool closes over a length of 13 mm (0.5 in) at exactly 25 blows of the liquid limit cup falling from a height of 10 mm on a hard rubber base. It is very difcult to mix the soil at the right water content, even after a number of trials. However, if different trials are plotted on a semi-logarithmic scale they should lie on a straight line and the liquid limit could be taken as the value of water content where the line crosses the 25 blows mark. For this reason, in a liquid limit test we try to mix the soil at least three different water contents aiming at blow counts above and below 25. 1. Mix the soil thoroughly with enough distilled water to reach a consistency requiring about 25 to 35 blows of the liquid limit device to close the groove. This is about the consistency of creamy peanut butter. Keep in mind that it is easier to add water than to take it away, so try to aim for the thicker consistency. 2. Using a spatula, place a portion of the prepared soil in the cup of the liquid limit device at the point where the cup rests on the base, squeeze it down, and spread it into the cup to a depth of about 10 mm at its deepest point, tapering to form an approximately horizontal surface. Take care to eliminate air bubbles from the soil pat, but form the pat with as few strokes as possible. Keep the unused soil in the mixing/storage dish. Cover the dish to retain the moisture in the soil. 3. Form a groove in the soil pat by drawing the tool, beveled edge forward, through the soil on a line joining the highest point to the lowest point on the rim of the cup. When cutting the groove, hold the grooving tool against the surface of the cup and draw in an arc, maintaining the tool perpendicular to the surface of the cup throughout its movement. 4. Verify that no crumbs of soil are present on the base or the underside of the cup. Lift and drop the cup by turning the crank at a rate of approximately 2 drops per second until the two halves of the soil pat come in contact at the bottom of the groove along a distance of 13mm ( 1 in). 2 5. Record the number of drops, N, required to close the groove. 6. Quickly remove a slice of soil approximately the width of the spatula, along the groove and including the portion of the groove in which the soil owed together, place in a container of known mass, and obtain a water content. Try to determine water content as soon as possible. The sample is small and looses water quickly through evaporation. 7. Return the soil remaining in the cup to the mixing cup. Wash and dry the cup and grooving tool and reattach the cup to the carriage in preparation for the next trial. 8. Remix the entire soil specimen in the dish adding distilled water to increase the water content of the soil and decrease the number of blows required to close the groove. 9. Repeat steps 1-8 for at least two additional trials producing successively lower numbers of blows to close the groove. One of the trials shall be for a closure requiring 25 to 35 blows, one for closure between 20 and 30 blows, and one trial for a closure requiring 15 to 25 blows.
4.3.4
Calculation
Plot the relationship between the water content, wn , and the corresponding number of drops, N, on the graph provided. Draw the best straight line through the three or more plotted points. Take the water content corresponding to the intersection of the line with the 25-drop abscissa as the liquid limit of the soil and round to the nearest whole number. Computational methods may be substituted for the graphical method for tting a straight line to the data and determining the liquid limit.
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4.4
4.4.1
Determination of Plastic Limit

Ground glass plate Metal rod, 3.2 mm diameter Balance Water content cup
4.4.2
Procedure
1. Select about 20 g of soil from the material prepared for the liquid limit test. 2. Reduce the water content of the soil to a consistency at which it can be rolled without sticking to the hands by spreading or mixing on the glass plate. 3. From this plastic limit specimen, select a 1.5 to 2.0 g portion. Form the selected portion into a ball. 4. Roll the mass between the palm or ngers and the glass plate to form a thread of uniform diameter 1 throughout its length. Keep rolling until the thread reaches 3.2 mm ( 8 in) diameter. Compare to the metal rod to determine if the diameter is 3.2 mm. The process should take no more than 2 minutes for each thread. 5. When the thread has reached a 3.2 mm diameter, break it into pieced and knead together in a ball. Repeat the rolling and kneading process until the thread crumbles and the soil can no longer be rolled into a 3.2 mm thread. Do not cheat, be consistent: apply the same rolling pressure during each stage of the rolling and do not pretend to roll while you wait for the soil to dry and crumble. If the soil breaks into threads of shorter length, roll each of these shorter pieces into threads 3.2 mm in diameter and repeat the kneading and rolling process. 6. Collect the broken pieces in a water content cup and cover to prevent further drying while rolling the next 1.5-2.0 g of soil. 7. Select another 1.5 to 2.0 g portion of soil from the plastic limit specimen and repeat the operations steps 3-6 until the container has at least 6g of soil. 8. Use the 6 g of soil to obtain the water content according to the procedures in chapter 2. 9. Go through the procedure in steps 1-8 until you have obtained two 6 g samples and water content values. The water contents should not have a difference of more than 1.4%. The plastic limit is the average of the two water content values.
4.5
Plasticity Index
Calculate the plasticity index as follows: P I = LL P L where:

(4.1)
4. Atterberg Limits: Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils LL = liquid limit PL = plastic limit
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24
Atterberg Limits Determination

Sample No. Boring No. Depth Description of sample Date Liquid Limit Determination Can No. Mass of can (g) Mass of wet soil + can (g) Mass of dry soil + can (g) Mass of dry soil (g) Mass of water (g) Water content, (%) No. of drops Project Location
Tested by
LIQUID LIMIT = PLASTIC LIMIT = PLASTICITY INDEX =
Plastic Limit Determination Can No. Mass of can (g) Mass of wet soil + can (g) Mass of dry soil + can (g) Mass of dry soil (g) Mass of water (g) Water content, (%)
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Chapter 5
Classication of Soils According to the Unied Soil Classication SyStem (USCS)

The Unied Soil Classication System (USCS) is based on the classication scheme developed by Arthur Casagrande for the United States Army in the 1940s. In its simplest form, it consists in assigning a two- or four-letter group symbol to the soil sample.
5.1
Denitions
nes: soil particles passing the #200 sieve (nominal diameter smaller than 0.075mm). Coefcient of uniformity: Cu =
D60 D10 .
2 D30 D10 D60 .
Coefcient of curvature: Cc = Cz = Plasticity Index: PI = LL-PL.
5.2
5.2.1
Initial Classication
Highly Organic Soils
Organic soils are recognized by: large presence of organic materials; dark brown, dark gray or black color; organic odor, especially when wet very soft consistency In this case, the material is classied as a peat, with symbol PT, and no further analysis is necessary.
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5.2.2
Non Highly Organic Soils
1. Determine gradation curve by sieve analysis. Use only the material with size smaller than 3in (75mm). But report the percentage (by weight) of these large particles. 2. If the soil contains less than 5% nes a detailed sieve analysis is required to estimate the values of the coefcient of uniformity, Cu , and the coefcient of curvature, Cc or Cz . 3. If the soil contains between 5% and 12% nes, the liquid limit and the plastic limit of the nes should be determined, in addition to the detailed gradation curve and Cu , Cc . 4. If the soil contains more than 12% nes the liquid limit and the plastic limit of the nes should be determined, but it is sufcient to estimate the percentage of soil in the sand and gravel range. The gradation characteristics, Cu and Cc , are not required.
5.3
Procedure for Classication of Fine Grained Soils
Follow this procedure if 50% or more by weight passes the #200 sieve. This is equivalent to saying that 50% or more by weight has a nominal diameter smaller than 0.075mm.
Figure 5.1: Plasticity chart (from ASTM Standard D2487).
1. Calculate the plasticity index (PI). 2. Compare with the plasticity chart: LL>50 and PI>A line High plasticity clay (CH) LL>50 and PI<A line High plasticity silt (MH) LL<50 and PI>A line Low plasticity clay (CL) LL<50 and PI<A line Low plasticity silt (ML) In the shaded area with 16<LL<25-30 and 4<PI<7 above the A line Silty clay (CL-ML)
5. Classication According to USCS
27
If the soil has organic content: refer to ASTM standard D2487 on the proper procedure. In short, you need to oven dry the specimen to eliminate the organic material and calculate the LL on the oven dried specimen. The classication is based on the difference between the LL before and after oven drying. 3. You can add more information on the soil specimen classication after the main group symbol. If 15% to 30% of the soil had nominal diameter larger than 0.075mm, use with sand or with gravel, depending on which is predominant. If 30% to 50% of the soil had nominal diameter larger than 0.075mm, use sandy or with gravelly, depending on which is predominant.
5.4
Procedure for Classication of Coarse Grained Soils
Follow this procedure if 50% or more by weight is retained by the #200 sieve. This is equivalent to saying that 50% or more by weight has a nominal diameter larger than 0.075mm. 1. >50% of the specimen is retained on the #4 sieve (nominal diameter larger than 4.75mm) Gravel (G) If <5% nes and Cu 4 and 1 Cc 3 Well-graded gravel (GW) If <5% nes and Cu 4 and/or not 1 Cc 3 Poorly-graded gravel (GP) If 5% < f ines < 12% and the nes are clay Well-graded gravel with clay (GW-GC) or Poorly-graded gravel with clay (GP-GC) based on Cu and Cc tests above. If 5% < f ines < 12% and the nes are silt Well-graded gravel with silt (GW-GM) or Poorly-graded gravel with silt (GP-GM) based on Cu and Cc tests above. If >12% nes and nes are clay based on plasticity chart Clayey gravel (GC) If >12% nes and nes are silt based on plasticity chart Silty gravel (GM) If >12% nes and nes are CL-ML based on plasticity chart Silty clayey gravel (GM-GC) 2. >50% of the specimen is retained between the #4 and the #200 sieves (nominal diameter between 0.075 and 4.75mm) Sand (S) If <5% nes and Cu 6 and 1 Cc 3 Well-graded sand (SW) If <5% nes and Cu 6 and/or not 1 Cc 3 Poorly-graded sand (SP) If 5% < f ines < 12% and the nes are clay Well-graded sand with clay (SW-SC) or Poorlygraded sand with clay (SP-SC) based on Cu and Cc tests above. If 5% < f ines < 12% and the nes are silt Well-graded sand with silt (SW-SM) or Poorlygraded sand with silt (SP-SM) based on Cu and Cc tests above. If >12% nes and nes are clay based on plasticity chart Clayey sand (SC) If >12% nes and nes are silt based on plasticity chart Silty sand (SM) If >12% nes and nes are CL-ML based on plasticity chart Silty clayey sand (SM-SC)
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Chapter 6
Visual Classication of Soils

6.1 Purpose
During drilling and sampling operations in the eld classication has to be carried out quickly and without gradation analyses or Atterberg limits. An approximate procedure is then used and the description is noted on the boring log. The initial boring log is often checked later in the laboratory with the help of the retrieved soil samples. Even in the laboratory a small portion of the samples will be actually tested for classication purposes. The specimens for classication testing are chosen from the different layers that were identied during eld operations and from previous information, where available. The remaining samples are classied based on their similarities in the tested samples and visual-manual procedures illustrated below.
6.2
Standard Reference
ASTM D2488 - Standard practice for description and identication of soils (visual-manual procedure).
6.3
Terminology
Gravel Particles of rock that will pass a 3 in (75 mm) sieve and be retained on a No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve with the following subdivisions: coarse - passes 3 in (75 mm) sieve and retained on
3 4
in (19 mm) sieve.
ne - passes a 3.4 in (19 mm) sieve and retained on a No.4 (4.75 mm) sieve. Sand Particles of rock that will pass a No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve and be retained on a No. 200 (75 m) sieve with the following subdivisions: coarse - passes a No. 4 (4.75 mm) and retained on No. 10 (2.00 mm) sieve medium - Passes a No. 10 (2.00 mm) sieve and is retained on a No. 40 (425 m) sieve. Silt Soil passing a No. 200 (75 m) sieve that is non-plastic or very slightly plastic and that exhibits little of no strength when dry. For classications, a silt is ne grained soil or the ne grained portion of a soil, with a plasticity index less than 4, or the plot of plasticity index versus liquid limit falls below the A line.
30
Clay Soil passing a No. 200 (75 m) sieve that can be made to exhibit plasticity within a range of water contents, and that exhibits considerable strength when air-dry. For classications a clay is a ne grained soil or a ne grained portion of a soil, with a plasticity index equal to or greater than 4, and the plot of plasticity index versus liquid limit falls on or above the A line. Organic Silt A silt with sufcient organic content to inuence the soil properties. For classications, an organic silt is a soil that would be classied as a silt, except that its liquid limit value after oven drying is less than 75% of its liquid limit value before oven drying. Organic Clay A clay with sufcient organic content to inuence the soil properties. For classication, an organic clay is a soil that would be classied as a clay, except that its liquid limit value after oven drying is less than 75% of its liquid limit value before oven drying.
6.4
Descriptive Information for Soils
Angularity Describe the angularity of the sand (coarse sizes only), gravel, cobbles, and boulders, as angular, subangular, subrounded, or rounded in accordance with the criteria in table 6.1. A range of angularity may be stated, such as subrounded to rounded. Shape Describe the shape of gravel, cobbles, and boulders as at, elongated, or at and elongated if they meet the criteria if they meet in table 6.2. Otherwise do not mention the shape. Indicate the fraction of particles that have that shape; for example: one-third of the gravel is at. Color Described the color of the sample when moist. Odor Describe the odor of the sample if organic or unusual Moisture Condition Describe the moisture condition as dry, moist, or wet in accordance with the criteria in table 6.3 Consistency For intact ne-grained soil, describe the consistency as very soft, soft, rm, hard, or very hard in accordance with the criteria in table 6.4. This observation is inappropriate for soils with signicant amounts of gravel. Cementation Describe the cementation of intact coarse grained soil as weak, moderate, or strong, in accordance with Table 6.5. Range of particle sizes For gravel and sand components, described the range of particle sizes within each components. For example, about 20% ne to coarse gravel, about 40% ne to coarse sand. Maximum particle size Describe the maximum particle size found in the sample for each size classication. For example, the largest particle size for sand size particles and the largest particle for gravel size particles. Description Angular Subangular Subrounded Rounded Criteria Particles have sharp edges and relatively plane sides with unpolished surfaces Particles are similar to angular description but have corners and edges Particles have nearly plane sides but have rounded corners and edges Particles have smoothly curved sides and no edges
Table 6.1: Criteria for describing angularity of coarse-grained particles.

6. Visual Classication of Soils The particle shape shall be described as follows where length, width, and thickness refer to the greatness, intermediate, and least dimensions of a particle respectively. Description Criteria Flat Particles with width/thickness > 3 Elongated Particles with length/width > 3 Flat and Elongated Particles meet criteria for both at and elongated Table 6.2: Criteria for describing particle shape. Description Dry Moist Wet Criteria Absence of moisture, dusty, dry to the touch Damp but no visible water Visible free water, usually soil is below water table
31
Table 6.3: Criteria for describing moisture conditions. Description Very soft Soft Firm Hard Very Hard Criteria Thumb will penetrate soil more that 1in. (25mm) Thumb will penetrate soil about 1in. (25mm) Thumb will indent soil about 1/4in. (6mm) Thumb will not indent soil but will readily intent with thumbnail Thumbnail will not indent soil Table 6.4: Criteria for describing consistency Description Weak Moderate Strong Criteria Crumbles or breaks with handling of little nger pressure Crumbles or breaks with considerable nger pressure Will not crumble with nger pressure Table 6.5: Criteria for Describing Cementation Hardness Describe the hardness of coarse sand and larger particles.
6.5
Procedure for Identifying Fine-Grained Soils
Select a representative sample of the material for examination. Remove particles larger than the No. 40 sieve until a specimen equivalent to about a handful of material is available. Use this specimen for performing the dry strength, dilatancy, and toughness test. Dry Strength Select a few dry lumps of about 1/2in. in diameter. Test the strength of the dry pieces by crushing between the ngers. Note the strength as none, low, medium, high, or very high in accordance with the criteria in Table 6.6. If natural dry lumps are used do not use the results of any of the lumps that are found to contain particles of coarse sand. Dilatancy From the specimen select enough material to mold into a ball about 1/2in. in diameter. Mole the material, adding water if necessary, until it has a soft, but not sticky consistency. Smooth the soil in the palm of one hand with a small spatula. Shake horizontally, striking the side of the hand vigorously against the other hand several times. Note the reaction of water appearing on the surface of the soil.
32 Description None Low Medium High Very High
CVEN365 Laboratory Manual Criteria The dry specimen crumbles into powder under mere pressure of handling The dry specimen crumbles into powder with some nger pressure The dry specimen breaks into pieces or crumbles with considerable nger pressure The dry specimen cannot be broken with nger pressure The dry specimen cannot be broken with thumb and a hard surface Table 6.6: Criteria for Describing Dry Strength Squeeze the sample by closing the hand or pinching the soil between the ngers, and note the reaction as none, slow, or rapid in accordance with the criteria in Table 6.7. The reaction is the speed at which the water appears while shaking, and disappears while squeezing. Description None Slow Rapid Criteria No visible change in specimen Water appears slowly on the surface during shaking and does not disappear or disappears slowly upon squeezing Water appears quickly during shaking and disappears quickly during squeezing Table 6.7: Criteria for Describing Dilatancy
Toughness Following the completion of the dilatancy test, the test specimen is shaped into an elongated pat and rolled by hand on a smooth surface or between the palms into a thread about 1/8in. in diameter. Fold the threads and reroll repeatedly until the thread crumbles at a diameter of about 1/8in. The thread will crumble at a diameter of 1/8 in. when the soil is near the plastic limit. Note the pressure required to roll the thread near the plastic limit. Also, note the strength of the thread. After the thread crumbles, the pieces should be lumped together and kneaded until the lump crumbles. Note the toughness of the material during kneading.Describe the toughness of the thread and lump as low, medium or high in accordance with the criteria in table 6.8. Description Low Medium High Criteria Only slight pressure is required to roll the thread near the plastic limit. The thread and lump are soft and weak Medium pressure is required to roll the thread to near the plastic limit. The thread and lump have medium stiffness. Considerable pressure is needed to roll thread near the plastic limit. The thread and lump have very high stiffness Table 6.8: Criteria for Describing Toughness
Plasticity On the basis of observations made during the toughness test, describe the plasticity of the material in accordance with the criteria given in Table 6.9.
6.6
Identication of Inorganic Fine-Grained Soils
Identify the soil as follows:

6. Visual Classication of Soils Description Nonplastic Low Medium Criteria A 1/8in. thread cannot be rolled at any water content The thread can barely be rolled and the lump cannot be formed when drier than the plastic limit The thread is easy to roll and not much time is required to reach the plastic limit. The thread cannot be rolled after reaching the plastic limit. The lump crumbles drier than the plastic limit It takes considerable time rolling and kneading to reach the plastic limit. The thread can be rolled several times after reaching the plastic limit. The lump can be formed without crumbling when drier than the plastic limit. Table 6.9: Criteria for Describing Plasticity Soil Symbol ML CL MH CH Dry Strength None to Low Medium to High Low to Medium High toVery High Dilatancy Slow to rapid None to Slow None to Slow None Toughness Low or thread cannot be formed Medium Medium High
33
High
Table 6.10: Identication of Inorganic Fine-Grained Soils from Manual Test
6.7
Procedure for identifying Coarse-Grained Soils
1. The soil is a gravel if the percentage of gravel is estimated to be more than the percentage of sand. 2. The soil is a sand if the percentage of gravel is estimated to be equal to or less than the percentage of sand. 3. The soil is a clean gravel or clean sand if the percentage of nes is estimated to be 5% of less. 4. Identify the soil as well-graded gravel, GW, or as well-graded sand, SW, if it has a wide range of particle sizes and substantial amounts of the intermediate particle sizes. 5. Identify the soil as a poorly graded gravel, GP, or as a poorly graded sand, SP, if it consists predominantly of one size (uniformly graded), or it has a wide range of sizes with some intermediate sizes obviously missing. 6. The soil is either a gravel with nes or a sand with nes if the percentage of nes is estimated to be 15% or more. 7. Identify the soil as a clayey gravel, GC, or a clayey sand, SC, if the nes have the properties of clays. 8. Identify soil as a silty gravel, GM, or a silty sand, SM, if the nes have the properties of a silt. 9. If the soil is estimated to contain 10% nes, give the soil a dual identication using two group symbols. The rst group symbol shall correspond to a clean gravel or sand (GW,GP, SW, SP) and the second symbol shall correspond to a gravel or sand with nes (GC, GM, SC, SM). 10. The group name shall correspond to the rst group symbol plus the words with clay or with silt to indicate the plasticity characteristics of the nes. For example: well-graded gravel with clay, GW-GC or poorly graded sand with silt, SP-SM.
34
11. If the specimen is predominantly sand or gravel but contains an estimated 15% or more of the other coarse-grained constituent, the words with gravel or with sand shall be added to the group name. For example: poorly graded gravel with sand, GP or clayey sand with gravel, SC. 12. If the specimen is predominantly sand or gravel but contains an estimated 15% or more of the other coarse-grained constituent, the words with gravel or with sand shall be added to the group name. For example: poorly graded gravel with sand, GP or clayey sand with gravel, SC. 13. If the eld sample contains any cobbles or boulders, or both the words with cobbles or with cobbles and boulders shall be added to the group name. For example: silty gravel with cobbles, GM.
6.8
Check List For Description Of Soil
1. Group Name 2. Group Symbol 3. Percent of cobbles or boulders, or both 4. Percent of gravel, sand or nes, or all three (by dry weight) 5. Particle size range gravel - ne or coarse, sand - ne, medium or coarse 6. Particle angularity: angular, subangular, subrounded, rounded. 7. Particle shape: (if appropriate) at, elongated, at and elongated 8. Maximum particle size dimension 9. Hardness of coarse sand and larger particles 10. Plasticity of nes: nonplastic, low, medium, high, very high 11. Dry strength: none, low, medium, high, very, high 12. Dilatancy: none,slow, rapid 13. Toughness: lox, medium, high 14. Color (in moist conditions) 15. Odor (if unusual or organic) 16. Moisture: dry, moist, wet 17. Consistency (ne-grained soils only): very soft, soft, rm, hard, very hard 18. Cementation: weak, moderate, strong 19. Local name (if any) 20. Geologic interpretation 21. Any additional comments
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6. Visual Classication of Soils
35
Classication Data Sheet

Sample Classication Comments
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36
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Chapter 7
Compaction Using Standard Effort

7.1 Purpose
Soil placed as engineering ll (embankments, foundation pads, road bases) must be compacted to the selected density and water content to ensure the desired performance and engineering properties such as shear strength, compressibility, or permeability. Also, foundation soils are often compacted to improve their engineering properties. Laboratory compaction tests provide the basis for determining the percent compaction and water content needed in the eld, and for controlling construction to assure that the target values are achieved. In a geotechnical laboratory you would prepare at least four (preferably ve) specimens with water contents bracketing the estimated optimum water content. A specimen having a water content close to optimum would be prepared rst by trial additions of water and mixing and then water contents for the rest of the specimens would be selected to provide at least two specimens wet and two specimens dry of optimum, and water contents varying by about 2%, but no more than 4%. In this laboratory exercise each group in your section will compact one of the specimens at a specic water content, as directed by the laboratory instructor, and the results from all the groups will be combined later. The data, when plotted, represents a curvilinear relationship known as the compaction curve. The values of optimum water content and standard maximum dry unit weight are determined from the compaction curve. These test methods apply only to soils (materials) that have 20% or less by mass of particles retained on the No.4 (4.75 mm) sieve.
7.2
Standard Reference
ASTM D 698 - Standard test methods for laboratory compaction characteristics of soil using standard effort (12,400 ft-lbf/ft3 (600 kN-m/m3 )).
7.3
Mold - A cylindrical metal mold having a 4.000 0.016 in (101.6 0.4 mm) average inside diameter, a height of 4.584 0.018 in (116.4 0.5 mm) and a volume of 0.0333 0.0005 f t3 (944 14 cm3 ). Rammer - with free fall of 12 0.05 in (304.8 1.3 mm) from the surface of the specimen. The mass of the rammer is 5.5 0.02 lbm (2.5 0.01 kg). Sample extruder - A jack for extruding compacted specimens from the mold.
38 Balance - with 1 g readability. straight edge - for leveling off compacted sample
mixing tools - for mixing the sample of soil with increments of water.
7.4
7.4.1
Procedure
Specimen preparation
1. Obtain from your laboratory instructor a sample of the soil to be tested. You will need approximately 2 kg. 2. Without previously drying the sample, pass it through a No. 4 (4.7 mm) sieve. Determine the water content of the processed soil. See chapter 2 for the procedure. 3. Double check the target water content for your specimen with the laboratory instructor. 4. Calculate how much water should be added or subtracted from your sample to obtain the desired water content. Remember to account for the moisture already present in the sample and use the exact value for the mass of the soil, not the approximate number. 5. To add water, spray it into the soil during mixing; to remove water, allow the soil to dry in air at ambient temperature Mix the soil frequently during drying to maintain an even water content distribution. Thoroughly mix each specimen to ensure even distribution of water throughout and then place in a separate covered container.
7.4.2
Compaction
1. Determine and record the mass of the mold or mold and base plate. 2. Assemble and secure the mold and collar to the base plate. Place on the concrete oor of the laboratory, NOT on the counters. 3. The specimen is compacted in 3 layers. Remember that after compaction the layers should be approximately equal in thickness and the last layer should extend above the top of the mold, but no more than 1 4 in (6 mm). Place approximately 1/3 of the loose soil into the mold for each layer and spread into a layer of uniform thickness. 4. Compact each layer with 25 blows. In operating the manual rammer, do not lift the guide sleeve during the rammer upstroke. Hold the guide sleeve steady and within 5o of vertical. Apply the blows at a uniform rate of approximately 25 blows per minute and in such a manner as to provide complete, uniform coverage of the specimen surface. Usually this is achieved by moving the rammer along the perimeter of the mold and using 5 blows to cover the whole area. Then the pattern is repeated for 5 times. 5. After compaction of the rst two layers, trim any soil remaining on the mold walls or extending above the compacted surface and include it with the soil for the next layer. Before placing the next layer of soil scarify the surface of the compacted soil with a knife or other suitable tool to avoid separation of the layers at the joints later in the test.
7. Compaction Using Standard Effort 6. If the third layer extends above the top of the mold by more than compaction mold, the specimen should be discarded.
1 4
39 in (6 mm) or below the top of the
7. Following compaction of the last layer, remove the collar and base plate from the mold. A knife may be used to trim the soil adjacent to the collar to loosen the soil from the collar before removal to avoid disrupting the soil below the top of the mold. 8. Carefully trim the compacted specimen even with the top of the mold by means of the straightedge scraped across the top of the mold to form a plane surface even with the top of the mold. Initial trimming of the specimen above the top of the mold with a knife may prevent the soil from tearing below the top of the mold. Fill any holes in the top surface with unused or trimmed soil from the specimen, press in with the ngers, and again scrape the straightedge across the top of the mold. 9. Determine and record the mass of the specimen and mold to the nearest gram. 10. Remove the material from the mold using the sample extruder. 11. Obtain a specimen for water content by using the whole specimen or a representative sample. Select a suitable container and record its weight. 12. Weigh the container and the specimen. 13. Place in the oven for 24 hours. If the entire specimen is used, break it up to facilitate drying. 14. Record the weight of the oven dried specimen in the container.
7.5
Calculations
Post the following information as directed by the laboratory instructor: laboratory section (week day), group (color), date, mass of moist specimen in the mold, mass of mold, water content determination: mass of moist soil after compaction and can, mass of can, mass of oven dried specimen an can. See section 7.5 for a form to ll. Calculate the total unit weight of each specimen: t = where: Mt = mass of moist soil Msm = mass of the moist specimen and mold Mm = mass of the mold Vm = volume of the mold (944 cm3 ) g = acceleration of gravity (9.807 m/s2 ) Calculate water content of each compacted specimen: w= where:
(Msm Mm )g Mt g = Vm Vm
(7.1)
Mw g (Mwsc Msc ) = Ms g (Msc M c
(7.2)
40 Mw = mass of water Ms = mass of dry soil Mwsc = mass of wet soil and can Msc = mass of dry soils and can Mc = mass of can w = water content Calculate dry unit weight: d = t 1+w
(7.3)
Plot the values and draw the compaction curve as a smooth curve through the points (see example, kN Fig. 3). Plot dry unit weight to the nearest 0.1 lbf , (0.2 m3 ) and water content to the nearest 0.1 %. ft3 From the compaction curve, determine the optimum water content and maximum dry unit weight. Plot the 100% saturation curve.
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7. Compaction Using Standard Effort
Compaction Test
Tested by Boring Depth
Date Sample No. Project Description of sample Volume of mold (Vm )
Group
Mass of moist specimen + mold
Mass of mold Mm (kg) Mt (kg) Mc (g)
Mass of moist specimen
Can no.
Mass of can
Mass of dry soil
Water content
Dry unit weight of compacted specimen Ms (g) w (%) d (kN/m3 )
Msm (kg)
Moist unit weight of compacted specimen t (kN/m3 )
Water content determination Mass of Mass Mass of wet soil of dried water + can soil + can Mwsc Msc Mw (g) (g) (g)
41
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42
Moisture content Determination

Sample No. Boring No. Depth Description of sample Date Tested by After 3 min. After 1 more min. After 1 more min. After 1 more min. After 1 more min. Project Location
Mass of container, Mc (g) Initial mass of container + wet specimen, Mcws (g) Mass of container + dry specimen, Mcs (g) Mass of water, Mw = Mcws Mcs (g) Mass of solid particles, Ms = Mcs Mc (g) Moisture content w = Mw 100% (%) Ms Percent difference in water content (%)
Group Data Sheet

Group Target Water Content (%) Moist Weight (kN/m3 ) Unit Water Content Dry Weight (kN/m3 ) Unit Dry Unit Weight for 100% Sat. (kN/m3 )
(%)
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Chapter 8
Measuring Suction with the Filter Paper Method

8.1 Purpose
The lter paper method has long been used in soil science and engineering practice and it has recently been accepted as an adaptable test method for soil suction measurements because of its advantages over other suction measurement devices. Basically, the lter paper comes to equilibrium with the soil either through vapor (total suction measurement) or liquid (matric suction measurement) ow. At equilibrium, the suction value of the lter paper and the soil will be equal. After equilibrium is established between the lter paper and the soil, the water content of the lter paper disc is measured. Then, by using lter paper water content versus suction calibration curve, the corresponding suction value is found from the curve. This is the basic approach suggested by ASTM Standard Test Method for Measurement of Soil Potential (Suction) Using Filter Paper (ASTM D 5298). ASTM D 5298 employs a single calibration curve that has been used to infer both total and matric suction measurements. The ASTM D 5298 calibration curve is a combination of both wetting and drying curves. Bulut (2001) demonstrates that the wetting and drying suction calibration curves do not match, an observation that was also made by Houston et al. (1994). In this test, the wetting curve as shown in Figure 8.2 is used because the lter paper becomes wet during the test.
8.2
Soil Suction Concept
In general, porous materials have a fundamental ability to attract and retain water. The existence of this fundamental property in soils is described in engineering terms as suction, negative stress in the pore water. In engineering practice, soil suction is composed of two components: matric and osmotic suction (Fredlund and Rahardjo 1993). The sum of matric and osmotic suction is called total suction. Matric suction comes from the capillarity, texture, and surface adsorptive forces of the soil. Osmotic suction arises from the dissolved salts contained in the soil water. This relationship can be formed in an equation as follows: ht = hm + h where: ht = total suction (kPa) hm = matric suction (kPa) (8.1)
44 hp = osmotic suction (kPa)
Total suction can be calculated using Kelvins equation, which is derived from the ideal gas law using the principles of thermodynamics and is given as: ht = where: ht = total suction R = universal gas constant T = absolute temperature V = molecular volume of water P/Po = relative humidity P = partial pressure of pore water vapor Po = saturation pressure of water vapor over a at surface of pure water at the same temperature. If equation 8.2 is evaluated at a reference temperature of 25o , the following total suction and relative humidity relationship can be obtained: ht = 137, 182 ln(P/Po ) (8.3) RT ln V P Po (8.2)
It can be said, in general, that in a closed system under isothermal conditions the relative humidity may be associated with the water content of the system such as 100% relative humidity refers to a fully saturated condition. Therefore, the suction value of a soil sample can be inferred from the relative humidity and suction relationship if the relative humidity is known. In a closed system, if the water is pure enough, the partial pressure of the water vapor at equilibrium is equal to the saturated vapor pressure at temperature, T. However, the partial pressure of the water vapor over a partly saturated soil will be less than the saturation vapor pressure of pure water due to the soil matrix structure and the free ions and salts contained in the soil water (Fredlund and Rahardjo 1993). In engineering practice, soil suction has usually been calculated in pF units (Schoeld, 1935) (i.e., suction in pF = log10 |suction in cm of water|). However, soil suction is also currently being represented in log(kP a) unit system (Fredlund and Rahardjo 1993) (i.e., suction in log(kP a) = log10 |suction in kPa|). The relationship between these two systems of units is approximately suction in log(kP a) = suction in pF - 1. Matric suction can be calculated from pressure plate and pressure membrane devices as the difference between the applied air pressure and water pressure across a porous plate. Matric suction can be formed in a relationship as follows: hm = (ua uw ) where: hm = matric suction ua = applied air pressure uw = free water pressure at atmospheric condition
(8.4)
8. Measuring Suction with the Filter Paper Method
45
The osmotic suction of electrolyte solutions, that are usually employed in the calibration of lter papers and psychrometers, can be calculated using the relationship between osmotic coefcients and osmotic suction. Osmotic coefcients are readily available in the literature for many different salt solutions. Table 1 gives the osmotic coefcients for several salt solutions. Osmotic coefcients can also be obtained from the following relationship (Lang 1967): = where: f = osmotic coefcient v = number of ions from one molecule of salt (i.e., v = 2 for NaCl, KCl, NH4 Cl and v = 3 for Na2 SO4 , CaCl2 , Na2 S2 O3 ,etc.) m = molality w = molecular mass of water w = density of water The relative humidity term (P/P o) in eq. 8.5 is also known as the activity of water (aw ) in physical chemistry of electrolyte solutions. The combination of eq. 8.2 and eq. 8.5 gives a useful relationship that can be adopted to calculate osmotic suctions for different salt solutions: h = vRT m (8.6) w ln vmw P Po (8.5)
8.3
Schleicher & Schuell No. 589-WH lter paper Sensitive balance with accuracy of 0.0001 g Constant temperature container (or cooler) moisture tins and glass jars PVC rings, electrical tape tweezers and gloves Oven and aluminum block
8.4
Procedure
A testing procedure for total suction measurements using lter papers can be outlined as follows: 1. At least 75% by volume of a glass jar should be lled with the soil; the smaller the empty space remaining in the glass jar, the smaller the time period that the lter paper and the soil system require to come to equilibrium.
46
CVEN365 Laboratory Manual 2. A ring type support, which has a diameter smaller than lter paper diameter and about 1 to 2cm in height, is put on top of the soil to provide a non-contact system between the lter paper and the soil. Care must be taken when selecting the support material; materials that can corrode should be avoided, plastic or glass type materials are much better for this job. 3. Two lter papers one on top of the other are inserted on the ring using tweezers. The lter papers should not touch the soil, the inside wall of the jar, and underneath the lid in any way. 4. Then, the glass jar lid is sealed very tightly with plastic tape. 5. Steps 1, 2, 3, and 4 are repeated for every soil sample. 6. After that, the glass jars are put into the ice-chests in a controlled temperature room for equilibrium.
Researchers suggest a minimum equilibrating period of one week (ASTM D 5298; Houston et al., 1994; Lee 1991). After the equilibration time, the procedure for the lter paper water content measurements can be as follows: 1. Before removing the glass jar containers from the temperature room, all aluminum cans that are used for moisture content measurements are weighed to the nearest 0.0001 g. accuracy and recorded. 2. After that, all measurements are carried out by two persons. For example, while one person is opening the sealed glass jar, the other is putting the lter paper into the aluminum can very quickly (i.e., in a few seconds) using tweezers. 3. Then, the weights of each can with wet lter paper inside are taken very quickly. 4. Steps 2 and 3 are followed for every glass jar. Then, all cans are put into the oven with the lids halfopen to allow evaporation. All lter papers are kept at 105 5o C temperature inside the oven for at least 10 hours. 5. Before taking measurements on the dried lter papers, the cans are closed with their lids and allowed to equilibrate for about 5 minutes. Then, a can is removed from the oven and put on an aluminum block (i.e., heat sinker) for about 20 seconds to cool down; the aluminum block functions as a heat sink and expedites the cooling of the can. After that, the can with the dry lter paper inside is weighed very quickly. The dry lter paper is taken from the can and the cooled can is weighed again in a few seconds. 6. Step 5 is repeated for every can.
8.5
Soil Matric Suction Measurements
Soil matric suction measurements are similar to the total suction measurements except instead of inserting lter papers in a non-contact manner with the soil for total suction testing, a good intimate contact should be provided between the lter paper and the soil for matric suction measurements. Both matric and total suction measurements can be performed on the same soil sample in a glass jar as shown in Fig. 1. A testing procedure for matric suction measurements using lter papers can be outlined as follows:
8. Measuring Suction with the Filter Paper Method
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Figure 8.1: Assembly for total and matric suction measurements.
8.6
Procedure
1. A lter paper is sandwiched between two larger size protective lter papers. The lter papers used in suction measurements are 5.5cm in diameter, so either a lter paper is cut to a smaller diameter and sandwiched between two 5.5cm papers or bigger diameter (bigger than 5.5cm) lter papers are used as protection. 2. Then, these sandwiched lter papers are inserted into the soil sample in a very good contact manner (i.e., as in Fig. 1). An intimate contact between the lter paper and the soil is very important. 3. After that, the soil sample with embedded lter papers is put into the glass jar container. The glass container is sealed up very tightly with plastic tape. 4. Steps 1, 2, and 3 are repeated for every soil sample. 5. The prepared containers are put into ice-chests in a controlled temperature room for equilibrium.
8.7
Calculations
After obtaining all of the lter paper water contents, gure 8.2 is employed to get total suction and matric values of the soil samples.
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Figure 8.2: Filter paper wetting calibration curve.
Paper Suction Determination

Sample No. Boring No. Depth Description of sample Date Tested by Total Suction Paper Container Number Mass of container (g) Mass of wet paper + container (g) Mass of wet lter paper (g) Mass of hot container (g) Mass of dry lter paper (g) Mass of water in lter paper (g) Water content of lter paper (%) Matric Suction Paper Project Location
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Chapter 9
Hydraulic Conductivity
9.1 Purpose
Hydraulic conductivity is the parameter that tells us how fast water can ow through soil. This quantity is measured to determine if a particular soil is a suitable material for a levee, dam or landll liner, or lter. During this laboratory both the constant head and the falling head methods will be used.
9.2
Standard Reference
ASTM D 2434 - Standard test method for permeability of granular soils (constant head).
9.3
Fundamental Test Conditions
The following test conditions are prerequisites for laminar ow of water through granular soils, under constant-head conditions: Continuity of ow with no soil volume change during a test. Flow with the soil voids saturated with water and no air bubbles in the soil voids. Flow is steady state with no change in hydraulic gradients. Direct proportionality of velocity of ow with hydraulic gradients below certain values, at which turbulent ow starts. All other types of ow involving partial saturation of soil voids, turbulent ow, and unsteady state of ow are transient in character and yield variable and time-dependent coefcients of permeability; therefore, they require special test conditions and procedures.
9.4
9.4.1
Constant head test

Permeameter - Specimen cylinders with minimum diameter of 8 or 12 times the maximum particle size. The permeameter should be tted with a porous disk at the bottom with a permeability greater
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Figure 9.1: Schematic of constant head test set-up. than that of the soil specimen, but with openings small enough to prevent movement of the soil particles. The permeameter should be tted with manometer outlets for measuring head loss, h, over a length, L, equivalent to at least the diameter of the cylinder. Sample - A representative sample of air-dried granular soil containing less than 10% of the material passing the No. 200 sieve. Constant head board - Board including manometer tubes with scales for measuring head of water and a water reservoir. Plastic tubing Stopwatch Thermometer
9.4.2
Procedure
1. Unscrew the three nuts on the top of the permeameter cell and remove the top. Make sure the #200 mesh screen is covering the two ports on the inside middle of the cell.
9. Hydraulic Conductivity
51
2. Place one of the porous stones in the bottom of the cell. Fill the cell with the soil sample. Place the other porous stone on top. The top of this stone should be about 1/4 inch below the top of the cell. 3. Make sure the surface where the O-ring seals off the cell is clean and replace the top. Evenly tighten each of the nuts on the top of the cell. 4. Connect a tube coming out of the reservoir on the board to the water faucet. 5. Place the other tube coming out of the reservoir over the sink so that water will be allowed to drain out. 6. Connect tubes from points A and B on the permeameter cell to the two manometers. The distance between these two points on our sample is 10 cm. 7. Connect a tube from the needle valve on the board to the lower ball valve on the cell. 8. Fill the reservoir with water. Adjust the water tap so that the level in the cup remains the same and water is draining into the sink. This gives us constant head. 9. Let the water ow slowly from the reservoir, into the cell, through the bottom porous stone, soil sample, top stone, out of the top of the cell. The water will replace the voids within our sample. 10. Get all of the bubbles out of the tubes by tapping them. De-air the lines going to the manometer tubes. Close the top ball valve and open the lower ball valve. Crack the petcock valve to purge out any air bubbles and then close it off. 11. Open the top ball valve on the cell and watch water come out of the top of the cell. The needle valve on the board controls the ow out of the top of the cell. 12. Record the differential reading between the two manometers. 13. Using a beaker, collect 100 mL of water from the water coming out of the top of the cell. Time how long it takes to get 100 mL using the stopwatch. 14. Repeat this process collecting 200 and then 300 mL of water. 15. Take the temperature of the water in the constant head cup. Our data will only be good for water at this specic temperature.
9.4.3
Calculations
Determine the average time it took to collect 100 mL of water. Calculate the cross-sectional area of our soil sample. The diameter of the sample is 2.5 in or 6.35 cm. Calculate the coefcient of permeability, k. k= Where Q=volume of water collected L=sample height
QL Aht
(9.1)
52 A=cross-sectional area of soil specimen h=differential reading between h0 and h1 t=duration of water collection Calculate the corrected k value for the temperature you recorded. kcorrected = k T C 20C
(9.2)
9.5
9.5.1
Falling head test

Permeameter Sample - use the same sample prepared for the constant head test Calibrated stand pipe Plastic tubing Calipers Stopwatch
9.5.2
Procedure
1. Connect a tube between points A and B on the permeameter cell. We bypass the manometers this time. 2. We have a new sample height for this test. Measure the height using the calipers from the top of the bottom porous stone to the bottom of the top stone. 3. Attach a tube from the top ball valve on the cell to the calibrated stand pipe valve. 4. Open both of these valves. 5. Attach a tube from the water faucet to the lower ball valve on the cell. 6. Let the water ow through the cell, out of the top, and into the stand pipe. 7. Purge any bubbles from the tubes by opening the petcock valve on the permeameter cell. 8. Allow water to ow slowly through the stand pipe and out of the funnel at the top. 9. When there are no more bubbles, disconnect the hose from the faucet and close the ball valve at the same time. 10. Time how long it takes the water to drop a known distance in the stand pipe.
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Figure 9.2: Schematic of falling head test set-up.
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9.5.3
Calculations
Calculate the cross-sectional area of the tube. The inner diameter of the tube is 3/16 in. Calculate the coefcient of permeability, k. k= Where a=cross-sectional area of tube L=sample height A=cross-sectional area of soil specimen t=elapsed time h0 =initial head h1 =nal head Calculate the corrected k value for the temperature you recorded using 9.2. aL h0 ln At h1 (9.3)
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Constant Head Data

H = L= Temp =
mL Collected
Time (s)
Falling Head Data

L= h0 = h1 = Temp =
Trial Number
Time (s)
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Chapter 10
Flow Nets
10.1 Denitions
Flow net a graphical representation of the 2 D ow of water through soils Flow line the ow path of a particle of water Equipotential line a line representing constant head
10.2
Flow Net Facts
The area between two ow lines is called a ow channel. The rate of ow in a ow channel is constant. The velocity of ow is normal to equipotential lines. The difference in head between two equipotential lines is called the potential drop or head loss.
10.3
Drawing Flow Nets
Identify prexed conditions, noting starting directions of lines. Draw trial family of ow lines (or equipotentials) consistent with prexed conditions. Keeping the lines you just drew, sketch rst trial ow net. Make all lines intersect other set of lines at 90 degrees. Erase and redraw lines until all gures are square. Subdivide as desired for detail and accuracy.
10.4
Rules for Sketching Flow Nets
Flow lines must intersect equipotential lines at right angles. The area between ow lines and equipotential lines must be curvilinear squares. An inscribed circle should be able to be drawn that touches each side of the square.
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Figure 10.1: Budhu, 2000.
Figure 10.2: Cedergren, 1989.
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10. Flow Nets
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Figure 10.3: Cedergren, 1989. Flow lines cannot intersect other ow lines. Equipotential lines cannot intersect other equipotential lines. The more ow lines and equipotential lines drawn, the more accurate your results. However, the more lines, the more difcult it will be to draw the ow net. Drawing a few will allow you to obtain a suitable solution.
10.5 10.6 10.7
Common Mistakes Example Example Problem
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Figure 10.4: Cedergren, 1989.
Figure 10.5: Budhu, 2000.
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Chapter 11
Plaxis exercise 1: Groundwater calculation

The second phase of the project requires you to evaluate the design of embankment in terms of seepage. You will use nite elements to solve Laplace equation for complex boundary conditions and non-homogeneous cross sections.
11.1
Groundwater calculations for an embankment
Start Plaxis 7.2 Professional, Plaxis Input and select New Project.
11.1.1
Case 1: uniform embankment
General settings In the Project tab sheet, enter 365 Project in the Title box. In the General box select the Plane strain model and 15-node elements. In the Dimensions tab sheet, leave the default units (note: everything is in m, kN, etc..). For Geometry dimensions, enter: left:0.00, Right=65.00, bottom=0.00, top=16.00. In the Grid section, leave spacing at 1m, but increase the number of intervals to 2. This allows you to snap-to-grid. defaults. Click OK to conrm. Input of geometry Select the Geometry line tool. Use gure 11.1 in the next page to construct the geometry of the problem. Note: right click to end a geometry line. Use the selection tool (red arrow) to click and drag on points you want to move or delete. To input coordinates with the keyboard you can click in the Point number and coordinates bar below the drawing area and use the syntax: (x coord. y coord). The geometry line tool must be selected and you must have a space between the two numbers). You need point 8 because that is the highest water level impounded. Input of boundary conditions Click on the standard xities button. The bottom will be prevented from moving both in the vertical and horizontal directions, the sides can slide in the vertical direction, but not in the horizontal. The xities appear as green marks at the bottom and sides (see gure 11.1).
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Point 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
X (m) 0.0 61.0 61.0 0.0 10.0 28.0 34.0 52.0 26.5
Y (m) 0.0 0.0 8.5 8.5 8.5 14.5 14.5 8.5 14
Table 11.1: Coordinates of the embankment.
Figure 11.1: Geometry input of the embankment.
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11. Plaxis exercise 1: Groundwater calculation Input of material properties
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In this part you assign the material parameters that describe the response of the soil. You should assign appropriate values for dry and wet for both soils. You were supposed to measure the hydraulic conductivity of the sand in last weeks laboratory. Since that did not happen because of technical problems results from previous tests have been used to estimate the hydraulic conductivity of the clayey sand listed in table 11.1. Check that the suggested values for k are indeed appropriate for the materials used in your project. Input all the remaining parameters according to the table. Notice that you are not going to perform any calculation of stresses or strains at this time, therefore the stiffness and Poissons ratio inputs are inconsequential, as well as the material model selected. Follow these steps to create a new data set: Click on the Material sets button. Select new. A new window appears. General tab: write clay in the Identication box. Select the linear elastic Material model and the drained conditions. Parameters tab: follow the information on the table. Notice that you only need to input Eref and . Click OK. Repeat the same process for the clayey sand. Click on the data set clay and drag to the soil cluster (area) in the drawing area and drop it. The cluster should become of the same color as the data set. Repeat for the sand embankment. Parameter dry wet kx ky Eref Mesh generation In the mesh menu select grid coarseness: very ne. Generate the mesh. Remember the mesh must be generated any time changes are made to the geometry. When the mesh appears in a new window you need to click on update to save the new mesh. You may also want to select the embankment cluster (click on it and it should become cross-hatched in red) and select Rene cluster in the Mesh menu. The mesh will be re-generated with additional elements added to the embankment. See gure 11.2 for an example. Note that your mesh may be diffrent. Clay Sand
8 105 m/day 8 105 m/day 30,000kN/m3 0.33
8 103 m/day 8 103 m/day 40,000kN/m3 0.33
11.1.2
Initial conditions
Once the geometry is dened, the materials selected and the discretization completed, you need to input the initial conditions. In this case you will only go so far as setting up the pore pressures due to steady-state seepage through the embankment. Click on the green arrow pointing to Initial conditions on the top right. You will be asked about the unit weight of water, you can OK the default.
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Figure 11.2: Mesh of the embankment generated by Plaxis.
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11. Plaxis exercise 1: Groundwater calculation
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Figure 11.3: Values of total head for the embankment. Generation of pore pressures The geometry should look all gray. If not you need to make sure the green light on the left is selected. Select the Closed ow boundary tool (vertical black line) and make the bottom of the geometry impermeable. Click on point 0 and then point 1. Right click to end. Also make the top of the embankment a closed ow boundary. Click on the selection tool (the red arrow) and assign boundary conditions: double click on the different geometry lines and assign the head to the end points of the geometry line based on gure 11.3. Click on Generate water pressures, the button with blue crosses. Select: Groundwater calculation (steady state) Does the calculation converge? If not, the problem is in the large difference in hydraulic conductivity between the two materials, which causes very high exit velocities at the toe of the embankment. This may eventually erode the embankment and result into serious problems for the stability. In most cases, the problem is solved by adding a drain at the toe of the embankment. A drain is usually designed to attract the ow and it is constructed with less erodible materials. Go back to the geometry input and add a drain at the toe of the embankment. Make the drain 0.5m thick and extend it a small length on either side of the toe (see gure 11.4, but dont add the core boundaries yet). You need to assign another material set to the drain, use a high hydraulic conductivity, two orders of magnitude larger than the sands. The other material parameters are not important for this exercise, so you can use the same as the sands. Re-mesh the problem, rening the
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Figure 11.4: Geometry of the zoned embankment with the drain. drain cluster. You want to make sure that the groundwater surface is all inside the embankment and does not cross the slope. This avoids seepage on the side of the embankment and prevents erosion. The calculations should converge now.
11.1.3
Case 2: Zoned embankment
In the original design the embankment was to be constructed with a central low hydraulic conductivity core to minimize the ow. The geometry needs to me modied to include the core. Go back to the geometry input (red arrow at the top left). You may want to save this new geometry under a different name, in case you need to go back to your original problem for more considerations. Repeat all the steps from the previous part. Remember that the core is supposed to be constructed by compacting the in-situ clay when you assign the material properties for the new cluster. You will also need to re-mesh the geometry.
11.1.4
Case 3: anisotropic conditions
What happens if the hydraulic conductivity is larger (3 to 10 times) in the horizontal direction than it is in the vertical direction? This is typically the case in clays.
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Chapter 12
State of Stress: Mohrs Circle

12.1 Purpose
In order to describe the state of stress at a point, it is necessary to characterize both normal and shear stresses acting on any arbitrary plane passing through that point. A three-dimensional state of stress is fully characterized by six components (3 normal stresses and 3 shear stresses). In the case of geotechnical engineering, we often limit the analysis to two-dimensional states of stress and strain. Mohrs circle construction is one of the simplest methods to examine the state of stress and strain in the soil.
12.2
Two-Dimensional States of Stress
The 2-D state of stress at a point can be represented by the normal and shear stresses acting on the faces of an innitesimal plane element, such as that in gure 12.1a. The normal stress xx acts on the plane normal to the x-axis in the direction parallel to the x-axis. The shear stress xz act on the same plane, but in the direction parallel to the z-axis. The directions of zz and zx are dened similarly. By equilibrium it follows that xz = zx . In soils, normal stresses are usually compressive and, by convention, compression is taken as positive (notice that the opposite convention is used in continuum mechanics). Then, stresses xx and zz in gure 12.1a are positive quantities and the shear stresses are also positive as marked. If the stresses xx , zz , xz are known, it is possible to calculate the magnitudes of the stresses ( , ) on some arbitrary plane at an angle with the x-axis 12.1b.
12.3
Mohrs Circle of Stress
For the purpose of plotting Mohrs circles, and for this purpose alone, we adopt the convention that counterclockwise shear stresses are taken as positive quantities. Thus, the counter-clockwise shear stress zx in gure 12.1a is positive and the clockwise shear stress xz is negative when constructing the Mohrs circle in gure 12.1c.
12.3.1
The Pole Method
The pole of a Mohrs circle is a unique point on the Mohrs circle characterized by an important property: if a line is drawn through the pole with the direction of any plane in the physical space, it intersects the Mohrs circle at a point that denes the state of stress on that plane.
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Figure 12.1: State of stress in a two-dimensional element and the corresponding Mohrs circle.
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12. State of Stress: Mohrs Circle
69
Figure 12.2: Principal planes and principal stresses By reversing the denition we can locate the pole as the intersection of the line representing the physical plane on which the stresses are acting (line QP or RP) and the Mohrs circle. Line QP is parallel to the plane on which zz and zx act and is parallel to the x-axis. The point P where the line intersects the Mohrs circle is the pole, P. Similarly, RP is parallel to the z-axis and it also identies the pole. We may now use the pole of the circle to calculate the state of stress on any plane through the material. For example, the normal and shear stresses ( , ) on the plane inclined at an angle to the x-axis. We draw a line, PN, trough P inclined at with line QP (and the x-axis). The stresses at point N are the stresses acting on that plane.
12.4
Principal Stresses and Principal Planes
The points at which the Mohrs circle crosses the -axis represent planes on which the shear stress is zero and the normal stress is either a minimum or a maximum. These planes are known as principal planes ande the corresponding stresses as principal stresses. From the geometry of the Mohrs circle the principal stresses occur on two orthogonal planes, therefore the stresses must also be orthogonal (see gure 12.2. In three-dimensional stress analysis there are three principal stresses and three principal planes. These will be denoted by 1 , 2 and 3 , and it is usual practice to dene 1 2 3 ; 1 is the major principal stress, 2 is the intermediate and 3 is the minor. When the layering of soils is horizontal, the vertical and horizontal stresses (v , v , h and h ) are principal stresses and the vertical and horizontal planes are principal planes. Since it is an axi-symmetric state of stress (the horizontal stress is the same independent of the direction in the horizontal plane) v = 1 and h = 2 = 3 .
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12.5
Mohrs Circles of Total and Effective Stress
So far we havent differentiated between total and effective stresses. If the stresses acting on the element in gure 12.1 are total stresses, the effective stresses can be calculated using the principle of effective stress: =u The effective stress circle has the same diameter of the total stress circle, but it is translated to the left by the amount of the pore pressure (see gure 12.3). By examining the circles, we note that:
= u = Thus, for a given state of total stress, changes in pore pressure have no effect on the shear stresses.
Figure 12.3: Mohrs circles of total and effective stress.
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Figure 12.4: Example 1.

72
Figure 12.5: Example 2.

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A loading due to a proposed embankment is estimated to be equivalent to a uniform load of 100kPa as shown in gure 12.6. The unit weight of the foundation material is 16kN/m3 , and Ko is 0.5. The water table is at 5m depth. Draw the Mohrs circle for the initial stresses in the soil, before the construction of the embankment. Two exiting pipelines run parallel to the embankment at a depth of 3m, as shown in gure 12.6. We want to make sure that the stress increase in the soil due to the construction of the embankment is not going to damage the pipelines. What is the increase in stresses at A and B? Draw the new Mohrs circles for both points. What is the magnitude and the direction of the principal stresses at point A and B after construction?
Figure 12.6: Schematic of the embankment and location of the pipelines.
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Chapter 13
Instrumentation and Calibration

13.1 Purpose
The purpose of this laboratory exercise is to familiarize students with some of the basic instrumentation commonly used in geotechnical engineering laboratories to measure the mechanical properties of soils. For the purposes of this class we will assume that electronic instrumentation is the preferred method for all measurements in our experiments and we will familiarize ourselves with how they operate and calibrate them for future usage in our later laboratories. Typically, the physical quantities that we need to measure when conducting experiments on soils are temperature, force, displacement, and pressure. The choice of which sensor to use for a particular task, in a particular situation depends on two main considerations: a) technical characteristics of the sensor; b) a costbenet analysis, which includes considerations on ease of use as well. Temperature is the easiest to accurately measure and for all experiments in this lab will be measured with a simple mercury thermometer or a hand held digital thermometer. In many research laboratories the instrumentation is kept at a carefully controlled, constant temperature, because many sensors are sensitive to temperature, even if they are not meant to measure it. Commercial geotechnical laboratories are not usually equipped with constant temperature rooms, and the expense would not be justied in normal circumstances. The experimenter must consider cost, simplicity, technical characteristics and time to decide whether to use relatively inexpensive instrumentation such as mechanical dial indicator based instruments (for displacement and force measurements) and simple pressure gages or the more expensive, more accurate and automated electronic instrumentation. These days, the cost of electronics is usually not an impediment to the use of electronic instrumentation for all the measuring needs in a soil mechanics laboratory.
13.2
Transducers
A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. An electronic transducer has either an input or an output that is electrical in nature, such as a voltage or a current. In our case, we are interested in a transducer that senses a physical change (force, displacement, pressure) and converts it to an electrical signal, directly related to that physical change. We call this type of transducer a sensor. The principle of electronic instrumentation is to use an electrical sensor to detect change in a physical quantity and output an electrical signal to a measuring device. This electrical signal becomes convenient to use as the input signal to a measurement system, such as an elaborate voltmeter, a chart recorder, an oscilloscope, or even better, a computer that will accumulate all the information over time in memory, so it can be used at a later date. The relationship between measured output voltage and physical quantity being sensed is the response function, usually expressed in terms of a formula and obtained through a calibration process.
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A good example: you are driving a car at the speed indicated on your speedometer. The rotation rate of the cars wheel is detected by a sensor, which outputs a voltage that increases with increasing speed. You could then use a digital voltmeter to read the output of the sensor. Obviously, you would get a speeding ticket, because the voltage alone does not tell you the speed. You also need a relationship between measured voltage and speed and, youd rather see your speed directly in miles/hr. In order to make this conversion to MPH one has to determine the correlation between the sensors output voltage and the known speed. Usually the voltage is measured at several different speeds in order to maximize the accuracy of the conversion relationship. Lastly, thanks to the relationship between voltage and speed, the voltmeter can be re-scaled in MPH rather than volts. In conclusion, we used a sensor to detect a certain physical quantity and then converted the electrical current output from the sensor (through calibration against a known standard) to engineering units that are more meaningful and useful to us. In general, when examining the technical characteristics of a sensor we consider: Precision, or the ability to detect small changes in the measured quantity reliably, and the ability to measure the same value under repeated identical conditions. Example: a typical measuring tape has a precision of 1/4in., because that is the closest distance between two marks. Accuracy, the difference between the measured quantity and the true value, as dened by accepted standards. Example: when you weigh yourself with a cheap scale the precision may be 1lb, but the needle indicates a weight that may not be accurate. In fact if you step down and back up the needle will usually indicate a different weight: the scale is not accurate. Range Stability Noise Temperature coefcient Linearity error Physical ruggedness, and size.
13.3
Calibration
You will calibrate two instruments this week. Both will be used in future laboratories during the rest of the semester. These instruments are a force transducer and a displacement transducer. Output accuracy of these transducers is only as good as the quality of the transducer, accuracy of the standard used in comparison, and the care taken in calibrating the transducer to the known standard. In this weeks lab we will calibrate both the force (in N) and displacement transducer (in mm), each to a known physical standard. We will vary the physical parameters over a known range of the instrument and record the voltage output at each point over that range. We can then generate a best-t line through those points by plotting the physical input parameter (mm or N) against the resulting voltage output reading from the transducer. Plot the input parameter in physical units on the Y axis and the resultant output reading on the X axis. Using any appropriate software package, determine the best t to your data. Usually, a linear t is the most appropriate and will have the form: Physical Quantity = CF * Output Voltage + ZERO Where: CF is the calibration factor ZERO, this constant ensures that when the physical quantity is zero (for example: no force applied) or in the initial position (example: we need to measure the differential
13. Instrumentation and Calibration
77
displacement, not the absolute position) the formula will give a zero reading. Notice that in the case of the force transducer the ZERO is very important because any error in estimating the ZERO during calibration results in an error in our estimate of the applied load. When measuring differential displacement we set the initial measurement as ZERO, without calibrating the sensor again. This formula is the response function for the transducer and will be used in the future. Given this formula, we can use the transducer in different experiments, read the output, and know from our calibration constants what the resulting measurement is in physical units.
13.3.1
Calibration Procedure
Calibration of LSCT (Linear Strain Conversion Transducer) The LSCT is calibrated using a known standard, the 0-1 micrometer head on a xture that holds the LSCT face to face with the micrometer anvil. The micrometer can be moved by any desired increment (down to .001 inches if necessary) and the resulting output voltage is recorded at each point along the range over which calibration is desired. The range we will calibrate our instrument over is 0-1 and we will take a series of readings in .1 increments over the entire range. Additionally, we will take a smaller increment series of readings about the middle of our range, say, from .5 to .6 and take these readings at the .025 increments. Our complete set of input points will start at 0 and go: .1, .2, .3, .4, .5, .525, .550, .575, .6, .7, .8, .9, and 1.000, for a total of 14 readings. For each physical input change we will read and record the corresponding output voltage. When completed, a calibration plot and corresponding transducer formula can be generated in MS Excel, or any similar software package. Using statistical analysis we will also analyze our transducer for linearity. 1. Obtain LSCT transducer and record: Serial number, range, date of todays calibration, and your group color. 2. Obtain calibration xture with the micrometer head. Take the time to examine the xture such that you are familiar with its proper usage. If you are uncertain, ask your TA for assistance. 3. Insert the LSCT in the xture and lock it down using the allen key. Make certain that the micrometer head reads exactly 1.000 inches. When mounting the LSCT in the xture, slide the plunger up to the face of the micrometer rod and ensure that it just barely physical touches. IT MUST TOUCH. 4. Plug the transducer into the 10 volt excitation receptacle as explained in classroom discussion. 5. Insert the voltmeter probes into the excitation jacks on the lab island panel. Record the excitation voltage with the transducer plugged it. Then move the voltmeter probes to the transducer output jacks on the panel. 6. Start your calibration and record each input parameter, its incremental change, the resulting output voltage reading (in millivolts, 1/1000 of a volt), and the incremental voltage change from the previous reading. 7. Record all 14 data points in the data sheet and use MS Excel to reduce your data as described in class. Remember to convert the units from inches to millimeters. Calibration of Force transducer The calibration of the force transducer is similar to the procedure outlined above for the LSCT. However, the physical quantity will be in kilogram force (kgf) and the calibration range of the force transducer will be
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from 0 to 200 kgf, in 10 kgf increments. This makes a total of 21 points of input and 21 corresponding output voltage readings. The process is the same but dealing with the load frames used in this procedure (and safe usage) will explained in detail during class. Remember to transform the units from kgf to Newton (N).
13.4
Report
For the report, be sure to include: Memo to Mike Linger Plot with data on same page. Display equation of best t line and R2 value taken to 5 decimal places. Include raw data
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13. Instrumentation and Calibration
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Calibration Data Sheet (LSCT)

Date Transducer type Excitation Voltage (V) Micrometer Reading (in) Tested by Serial number Incremental displacement (in) Transducer output (mV) Change transducer output (mV) in
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Calibration Data Sheet (Force)

Date Transducer type Excitation Voltage (V) Mass Added Tested by Serial number Incremental Applied Force (N) Transducer output (mV) Change in Transducer Output (mV)
(kg)
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Chapter 14
Shrink/Swell Properties of Expansive Soils

14.1 Purpose
This test method outlines procedures for demonstrating the shrink/swell potential of a given soil sample. Typically, the shrink/swell test is performed on soils with a high shrink/swell potential. These soils are generally clays that undergo large volume changes from cycles of wetting and drying. In this test, water will be introduced to a sample that is laterally restrained with a constant load applied, and the one-dimensional volume change will be measured with respect to time. This test method is most commonly performed on undisturbed samples of ne grained soils naturally sedimented in water, although the same procedures can be applied to compacted soils.
14.2
Apparatus
Consolidometer - A device to hold the specimen in a ring that is either xed to the base or oating (supported by friction on periphery of specimen) with porous disks on each face of the specimen. The inside diameter of the ring shall be determined to a tolerance of 0.075mm (0.003in). The Consolidometer shall also provide a means of submerging the specimen, for transmitting the concentric vertical load to the porous disks, and for measuring the change in height of the specimen. - Minimum Specimen Diameter - The minimum specimen diameter shall be 50mm (2.00in). - Minimum Specimen Height-The minimum initial specimen height shall be 12mm (0.5in), but shall be not less than ten times the particle diameter. - Minimum Specimen Diameter-to-Height Ratio-The minimum specimen Diameter-to-Height Ratio shall be 2.5 - Specimen Ring Rigidity-The rigidity of the ring shall be such that, under hydrostatic stress conditions in the specimen, the change in diameter of the ring will not exceed 0.03% of the diameter under the greatest load applied. - Specimen Ring Material-The ring shall be made of a material that is non-corrosive in relation to the soil tested. The inner surface shall be highly polished or shall be coated with a low friction material. Silicone grease of molybdenum disulde is recommended; polytetrauoroethylene is recommended for non-sandy soils. Porous Disks-The porous disks shall be of silicone carbide, aluminum oxide, or similar non-corrosive material. The grade of the disks shall be ne enough to prevent intrusion of soil into the pores. If necessary, a lter paper may be used to prevent infusion of soil into the disks; however, the permeability
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CVEN365 Laboratory Manual of the disks, and lter paper, if used, must be at least one order of magnitude higher than that of the specimen. Specimen Trimming Device-A trimming turntable or a cylindrical cutting ring may be used for trimming the sample down to the inside diameter of the consolidometer ring with a minimum of disturbance. A cutter having the same inside diameter as the specimen ring shall attach to or be integral with the specimen ring. The cutter shall have a sharp edge, a highly polished surface and be coated with a low-friction material. Alternatively, a turntable or trimming lathe may be used. The cutting tool must be properly aligned to form a specimen of the same diameter as that of the ring. Deformation Indicator-To measure change in specimen height, with a readability of 0.0025mm (0.0001in.). (Deformation transducer). Miscellaneous Equipment-Including timing device with a 1s readability, distilled or de-mineralized water, spatulas, knives, wire saws, used in preparing the specimen. Environment-Tests shall be performed in an environment where temperature uctuations are less than and there is no direct exposure to sunlight.
4o C(7o F)
14.3
Specimen Preparation
All possible precautions should be taken to minimize disturbance of the soil or changes in moisture and density during specimen preparation. Avoid vibration, distortion, and compression. 1. Prepare test specimens in an environment where soil moisture change during preparation is minimized. A high humidity environment is usually used for this purpose. 2. Trim the specimen and insert it into the consolidation ring. When specimens come from undisturbed soil collected using sample tubes, the inside diameter of the shall be at least 5mm (0.25in) greater than the inside diameter of the consolidation ring. It is recommended that either a trimming turntable or cylindrical cutting ring be used to cut the soil to the proper diameter. When using a trimming turntable, make a complete perimeter cut, reducing the specimen diameter to the inside diameter of the consolidation ring. Carefully insert the specimen into the consolidation ring, by the width of the cut, with a minimum of force. Repeat until the specimen protrudes from the bottom the ring. When using a cylindrical cutting, trim the soil to a gentle taper in front of the cutting edge. After the taper is formed, advance the cutter a small distance to form the nal diameter. Repeat the process until the specimen protrudes from the ring. 3. Trim the specimen ush with the plane ends of the ring. The specimen may be recessed slightly below the top of the ring, to facilitate centering of the top of the stone, by partial extrusion and trimming of the bottom surface. For soft to medium soils, a wire saw should be used for trimming the top and the bottom of the specimen to minimize smearing. A straightedge with a sharp cutting edge may be used for the nal trim after the excess soil has rst been removed with a wire saw. For stiff soils, a sharpened straightedge alone may be used for trimming the top and bottom. If a small particle is encountered in any surface being trimmed, it should be removed and the resulting void lled with soil from the trimmings. 4. Determine the initial wet mass of the specimen, MTo , in the consolidation ring by measuring the mass of the ring with the specimen and subtracting the mass of the ring.
14. Shrink/Swell Test
83
5. Determine the initial height, Ho , of the specimen to the nearest 0.025mm (0.001in.) by taking the average of at least 4 evenly spaced measurements over the top and bottom surfaces of the specimen using a dial comparator or other suitable measuring device. 6. Compute the initial volume, Vo , of the specimen to the nearest 0.25 cm3 (0.015 in3 ) from the diameter of the ring and the initial specimen height. 7. Obtain two or three natural water content determinations of the soil in accordance with Method D2216 from material trimmed adjacent to the test specimen if sufcient material is available.
14.4
Procedures
1. Preparation of the porous disks and other apparatus will depend on the specimen being tested. The consolidometer must be assembled in such a manner as to prevent a change in water content of the specimen. Dry porous disks and lters must be used with dry, highly expansive soils and may be used for all other soils. Damp disks may be used for partially saturated soils. Saturated disks may be used when the specimen is saturated and known to have a low afnity for water. Assemble the ring with the specimen, porous disks, lter disks (when needed) and consolidometer. If the specimen will not be inundated shortly after application of the seating load, enclose the consolidometer in a lose tting plastic or rubber membrane to prevent change in specimen volume due to evaporation. 2. After assembly of the consolidometer, secure a displacement transducer and/or dial gauge to the consolidometer in a manner to prevent disturbance during the experiment. At time zero, add distilled water to the consolidometer. Take readings at 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30, 60, 120, 240, 480, 960, 1440, 2880, 5760 minutes, etc. Be sure to keep the sample submerged in water, and add distilled water if necessary. 3. Once the test has been completed, obtain a nal water content of the sample by weighing the ring with sample to determine the nal weight, and oven dry the entire sample for a period of at least 12 hours.
14.5
Calculations
The goal of this test is to determine the shrink/swell potential of a soil sample. To do this, the following parameters need to be determined.
14.5.1
Shrinkage Limit
To determine the shrinkage limit, rst determine the mass of soil solids in the soil sample: Ms = Mt 1 + winitial (14.1)
Where Ms is the mass of the soil solids in the sample; Mt is the initial total mass of the sample before swelling; and winitial is the initial water content of the sample before swelling. Then determine the dry density of the sample using: dry = Ms Vt (14.2)
Where dry is the dry density of the sample before swelling; and Vt is the total volume of the sample before swelling.
84 The shrinkage limit of the soil is then calculated using: SL = w 1 dry Gs
(14.3)
Where SL is the shrinkage limit of the sample in decimal form; w is the density of water; Gs is the specic gravity of the soil solid particles (assume 2.7 unless otherwise specied) Using time-deformation data, you can plot the percentage of swell of the sample as a function of time. The percentage swell is given by: S= L 100% L0 (14.4)
Where S is swell in percent (%); DL is the change in height of the sample; L0 is the initial sample height. Lastly, you can compare the experimentally measured and the theoretically calculated volume change. The theoretical volume change can be calculated as: dry L = w 100% L0 w Where Dw is the increase in water content from the shrinkage limit in decimal form given by: w = wf inal SL Where wf inal is the nal water content of the sample. (14.6) (14.5)
14.6
Report
For the report, be sure to include: Final displacement reading Shrinkage Limit Percentage swell versus time(min) plot Theoretical volume change Actual volume change Initial and nal degrees of saturation Initial and nal water contents
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14. Shrink/Swell Test
85
Swell Test Data Sheet

Date Section No. Description of sample Mass of sample ring Diameter of sample ring Laterally Constrained Test Initial sample height Initial sample volume Test Container No. Mass of container (g) Mass of wet soil + container (g) Mass of dry soil + container (g) Mass of dry soil (g) Mass of water (g) Water content, (%) Before Initial sample mass Final sample height After Tested by Group No.
Mass of sample ring + 1 Height of sample ring
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Time Deformation Data Sheet

Elapsed time (mm) Displacement reading (in) Net displacement
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Chapter 15
One-Dimensional Consolidation
15.1 Purpose
A surface load, for example due to the construction of a building, results in increased stresses in the underlying soils. The increase in stress also causes settlements. When the soils are ne grained and saturated the increase in total stress is carried by the water, as excess pore pressure. Since these soils have low hydraulic conductivity the excess pore pressure will dissipate slowly and the settlement will be delayed in time. The consolidation test, or oedometer test, is used to determine the parameters that can be used to estimate both the magnitude and the time rate of the settlements. The test is performed on a cylindrical specimen, constrained laterally by a ring and allowed to compress under a constant load. The load is held on the sample for 24 hours or until all excess pore pressure is dissipated. During this time the change in height is measured. The load is usually doubled at the end of the 24 hour period and the process repeated. Usually 5 or 6 load increments are applied and then data are taken during one unloading step. The measurements are used to determine the relationship between the effective stress and void ratio or strain, and the rate at which consolidation can occur. This test method uses conventional consolidation theory based on Terzaghis consolidation equation to compute the coefcient of consolidation, cv . The analysis is based on the following assumptions: The soil is saturated and has homogeneous properties. The ow of pore water is in the vertical direction. The compressibility of soil particles and pore water is negligible compared to the compressibility of the soil skeleton. The stress-strain relationship is linear over the load increment. The ratio of soil permeability to soil compressibility is constant over the load increment. Darcys law for ow through porous media applies.
15.2
Standard Reference
ASTM D 2435 - Standard test method for one-dimensional consolidation properties of soils.
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15.2.1
Load Device - A suitable device for applying vertical loads or total stresses) to the specimen. The device should be capable of maintaining specied loads for long periods of time with an accuracy of 0.5% of the applied load and should permit quick application of a given load increment without signicant impact. Consolidometer - A device to hold the specimen in a ring that is either xed to the base or oating (supported by friction on periphery of specimen) with porous disks on each face of the specimen. The inside diameter of the ring shall be determined to a tolerance of 0.075mm (0.003in). The consolidometer shall also provide a means of submerging the specimen, for transmitting the concentric vertical load to the porous disks, and for measuring the change in height of specimen. - The minimum specimen diameter is 50 mm (2.00 in). - The minimum specimen height is 12 mm (0.5 in), but not less than ten times the maximum particle diameter. - The minimum specimen diameter-to-height ratio is 2.5. - The ring must be made of a material that is noncorrosive in relation to the soil tested. The inner surface needs to be highly polished or coated with a low-friction material. Porous disks - The porous disks are made of noncorrosive material. The grade of the disks shall be ne enough to prevent intrusion of soil into the pores. If necessary, lter paper may be used to prevent intrusion of the soil into the disks; however, the permeability of the disks, and lter paper, if used, must be at least one order of magnitude higher than that of the specimen. Specimen trimming device - A trimming turntable or a cylindrical cutting ring may be used for trimming the sample down to the inside diameter of the consolidometer ring with a minimum of disturbance. The specimen ring has a sharp edge that can be used as a cutter. Alternatively, a turntable or trimming lathe may be used. The cutting tool must be properly aligned to form a specimen of the same diameter as that of the ring. Deformation indicator - To measure change in specimen height, with a readability of 0.0025 mm (0.0001 in.). Miscellaneous equipment - A timing device with 1 s readability, distilled or demineralized water, spatulas, knives, and wire saws, used in preparing the specimen. Tests shall be performed in an environment where temperature uctuations are less than 4o C(7o F ) and there is no direct exposure to sunlight.
15.3
Specimen Preparation
All possible precautions should be taken to minimize disturbance of the soil or changes in moisture and density during specimen preparation. Avoid vibration, distortion, and compression. 1. Prepare test specimens in an environment where soil moisture change during preparation is minimized. A high humidity environment is usually used for this purpose.
15. One-Dimensional Consolidation
89
2. Trim the specimen and insert it into the consolidation ring. When using a cylindrical cutting ring, trim the soil to a gentle taper in front of the cutting edge. After the taper is formed, advance the cutter a small distance to form the nal diameter. Repeat the process until the specimen protrudes from the ring. 3. Trim the specimen ush with the plane ends of the ring. For soft to medium soils, a wire saw should be used for trimming the top and bottom of the specimen to minimize smearing. A straightedge with a sharp cutting edge may be used for the nal trim after the excess soil has rst been removed with a wire saw. For stiff soils, a sharpened straightedge alone may be used for trimming the top and bottom. If a small particle is encountered in any surface being trimmed, it should be removed and the resulting void lled with soil from the trimmings. 4. Determine the initial wet mass of the specimen, MT o , in the consolidation ring by measuring the mass of the ring with specimen and subtracting the tare mass of the ring. 5. Determine the initial height, Ho , of the specimen to the nearest 0.025 mm (0.001 in.) by taking the average of at least four evenly spaced measurements over the top and bottom surfaces of the specimen using a dial comparator or other suitable measuring device. 6. Compute the initial volume,VO , of the specimen to the nearest 0.25cm3 (0.015in3 ) from the diameter of the ring and the initial specimen height. 7. Obtain two or three natural water content determinations of the soil from material trimmed adjacent to the test specimen if sufcient material is available.
15.4
Procedure
1. Preparation of the porous disks and other apparatus will depend on the specimen being tested. The consolidometer must be assembled in such a manner as to prevent a change in water content of the specimen. Dry porous disks and lters must be used with dry, highly expansive soils and may be used for all other soils. Damp disks may be used for partially saturated soils. Saturated disks may be used when the specimen is saturated and known to have a low afnity for water. Assemble the ring with specimen, porous disks, lter disks (when needed) and consolidometer. If the specimen will not be inundated shortly after application of the seating load, enclose the consolidometer in a loose tting plastic or rubber membrane to prevent change in specimen volume due to evaporation. 2. Place the consolidometer in the loading device and apply a seating pressure of 5 kPa (100lbf /f t2 ). Immediately after application of the seating load, adjust the deformation indicator and record the initial zero reading, do . If necessary, add additional load to keep the specimen from swelling. Conversely, if it is anticipated that a load of 5kP a(100lbf/ft2 ) will cause signicant consolidation of the specimen, reduce the seating pressure to 2 or 3 kPa (about 50 lbf/ft2 ) or less. 3. If the test is performed on an intact specimen that was either saturated under eld conditions or obtained below the water table, inundate shortly after application of the seating load. As inundation and specimen wetting occur, increase the load as required to prevent swelling. Record the load required to prevent swelling and the resulting deformation reading. 4. The specimen is to be subjected to increments of constant total stress.
90
CVEN365 Laboratory Manual 5. The standard loading schedule shall consist of a load increment ratio (LIR) of one which is obtained by doubling the pressure on the soil to obtain values of approximately 12, 25, 50, 100, 200, etc. kPa (250, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000, etc. lbf/ft2 ). 6. The standard rebound or unloading schedule should be selected by halving the pressure on the soil (that is, use the same increments as before, but in reverse order). However, if desired, each successive load can be only one-fourth as large as the preceding load, that is, skip a decrement. An alternative loading, unloading, or reloading schedule may be employed that reproduces the construction stress changes or obtains better denition of some part of the stress deformation (compression) curve, or aids in interpreting the eld behavior of the soil. 7. Before each pressure increment is applied, record the height or change in height, df , of the specimen. 8. The standard load increment duration is 24 h. Record the height or change in height, d, at time intervals of approximately 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15 and 30 min, and 1, 2, 4, 8 and 24 h. Take sufcient readings near the end of the pressure increment period to verify that primary consolidation is completed. For some soils, a period of more than 24 h may be required to reach the end-of-primary consolidation. 9. To minimize swell during disassembly, rebound the specimen back to the seating load (5 kPa). Once height changes have ceased (usually overnight), dismantle quickly after releasing the nal small load on the specimen. Remove the specimen and the ring from the consolidometer and wipe any free water from the ring and specimen. Determine the mass of the specimen in the ring and subtract the tare mass of the ring to obtain the nal wet specimen mass, MT f . The most accurate determination of the specimen dry mass and water content is found by drying the entire specimen at the end of the test. If the soil sample is homogeneous and sufcient trimmings are available for the specied index testing, then determine the nal water content, wf , and dry mass of solids, Md , using the entire specimen.
15.5
Calculation
The goal of this test is to determine the magnitude of settlement and the rate of settlement. For this purpose, the compression index, Cc , the re-compression index or swelling index, Cr , the coefcient of secondary compression, C , the coefcient of consolidation, cv , and the pre-consolidation pressure zc must be obtained from the data. Consult your textbook for the appropriate methods to use for interpretation of the data.
15.6
Report
For the report, be sure to include: cv , C , and void ratio for each day Void ratio versus effective stress plot z c, Cc , Cr Displacement versus time for each day included in appendix
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15. One-Dimensional Consolidation
91
Consolidation Data
Sample No. Boring No. Depth Description of sample Date Load (kPa) Time 12 Day 1 25 Day 2 50 Day 3 Tested by 100 Day 4 200 Day 5 25 Day 6 Seat Day 7 Project Location
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Chapter 16
Plaxis exercise 2: consolidation settlements calculation

The third phase of the project requires you to evaluate the settlements of the embankment due to consolidation of the soft marine clay. During this exercise we are going to simulate the construction of the embankment in three steps. After each step we will let the soil consolidate for a time before applying a new load increment. The delay is required to allow the soil to gain strength. If the embankment were built in one step the soil wouls fail.
16.1
16.1.1
Consolidation settlements of an embankment during construction and after completion

Input of geometry
Start Plaxis 7.2 Professional, Plaxis Input and select your old project, developed in the rst Plaxis exercise. If the title of the project does not appear on the list, select More les and navigate to the folder where the project is located. The geometry input needs to be changed because we are going to simulate the construction of the embankment in three steps. We need to draw the geometry lines that dene the three layers that will be placed. The boundaries of the foundation soil (the marine clay) will also need to be extended. - Select the Geometry line tool on the top left of the toolbar. - Draw a line from point (16.0, 10.5) to point (46.0, 10.5) dening the rst layer. Notice that points are created at the intersection between the new line and the lines delimiting the core. Right click to exit the drawing tool. - Draw the line between the second and the third layer between point (22.0, 12.5) and point (40.0, 12.5). - Click on and drag point 0 to the left as much as possible. Hold the shift key to ensure the bottom line remains horizontal. - Repeat with point 3, so that point 0 and 3 are aligned. - Repeat on the right boundary.
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Figure 16.1: Geometry input of the embankment. Plaxis parameter= = 0.434Cc 1+eo = 0.434Cr 1+eo k =Cv mv w c = c = = Description Virgin compression Unload-reload Hydraulic conductivity and time rate Cohesion Friction angle Dilatancy Value
5kPa 30 degrees 0
Table 16.1: Relationships between clay properties and Plaxis parameters.
16.1.2
Input of material parameters
In this part you assign the new material parameters that describe the response of the soil. We have two soils in this problem: a soft marine clay as a foundation, and a clayey sand for the compacted soil embankment. At this point we will disregard the drain material. In the rst Plaxis exercise the only important material parameter was the hydraulic conductivity. In this exercise selecting the correct mechanical properties of the materials involved is essential for predicting the settlements. Plaxis offers ve possible material models to represent the response of soils. The linear elastic material model is not effective when trying to represent consolidation problems, therefore a different model must be selected. In our experience, the soft soil model gives quite realistic predictions of the actual response of soft clays, such as the one at our site. This model is quite complicated mathematically and requires a total of seven parameters to describe the stress-strain response and the failure conditions. The data from a consolidation test on a sample of the soft marine clay, such as those you have been testing, are given in gures 16.2. You can determine Cc and Cr from this gure. The coefcient of consolidation Cv was determined to be 6.37 102 m2 /day. The value of the modulus od volumetric compressibility (mv ) is calculated from the consolidation curve plotted in the strain vs. vertical effective stress space. You can nd the curve and a plot of the variation of mv in gure 16.3. Complete table 16.1 with the Plaxis parameters you derive from the results of the consolidation test. The embankment material will be modeled as a linear elastic-perfectly plastic material with parameters in table 16.2. Follow these steps to change the material data sets: - Click on the Material sets button on the toolbar. - Double click on the clay to edit the soft marine clay material data set.
16. Plaxis exercise 2: consolidation settlements calculation
95
Figure 16.2: Consolidation curve for the marine clay.
Plaxis parameter= Value E =2.0 104 kPa = 0.20 c = 1 kPa = 35 degrees = 0
Description Young modulus Poisson ratio Cohesion Friction angle Dilatancy
Table 16.2: Material parameters for the embankment material.
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Figure 16.3: Consolidation curve in strain vs. vertical effective stress and modulus of volume compressibility for the marine clay.
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16. Plaxis exercise 2: consolidation settlements calculation - Select Soft soil model for Material model. - Select Undrained for Material type. - Enter the parameters from table 16.1, including those you calculated. - Click OK and Apply. - Double click on the clayey sand to edit the embankment material data set. - Select Mohr Coulomb for Material model. - Select Drained for Material type. - Enter the parameters from table 16.2. - Click OK and Apply.
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16.1.3
Generation of new mesh
Since new geometry lines were added, a new mesh must be generated. - In the mesh menu select Global coarseness and then Medium. - Click on Generate mesh on the right of the toolbar - Click on update when the new window appears.
16.1.4
Initial conditions
Once the geometry is dened, the materials selected and the discretization completed, you need to input the initial conditions. In this case you will need to dene both the initial pore pressures and the initial stresses. Click on the green arrow on the top right of the toolbar to go to the Initial conditions section. Generation of pore pressures The geometry should look all gray. If not, you need to make sure the green light on the left is selected. - Select the Phreatic line tool on the top left of the toolbar. - Draw the groundwater level at the ground surface, or 8.5 m. Click on the left boundary at height 8.5 m and then click on the right boundary at 8.5 m. Right click to end the line. - Click on Generate water pressures, the button with blue crosses. - Select: Phreatic line and OK. - A new window appears with the calculated initial pore pressures. It is easier to interpret the results by selecting shadings from the drop down menu. Do the results agree with what you expected? - Click on Update. Generation of initial stresses Select the other green light button in the middle of the toolbar. The geometry should now appear in color. The initial stresses are calculated before construction begins, therefore we need to de-select the embankment. As you click on the clusters (areas) forming the embankment they should become white like the background. This tells the program to ignore the weight of those areas in the calculations. Click on Generate initial stresses, the button with the red crosses, to calculate. The pop up window shows the values of Ko that will be used in the calculations and OCR (or POP=pre-consolidation pressure). Click OK to accept the proposed values. Check that the calculated stresses are what you would expect them to be, and update.
98
Figure 16.4: Mesh of the embankment.
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16. Plaxis exercise 2: consolidation settlements calculation
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16.2
Calculations
Click on the green arrow Calculate to go to the calculations section of Plaxis. In this part we will dene all the phases of construction and the periods of consolidation. First, dene all phases of the problem. - Click next to create a new phase. We need to build the rst layer of the embankment. - On Calculation type select Plastic and Load adv. ultimate level. - On the Parameters tab select Staged construction (on the bottom right section) and click on Dene. - The geometry appears, click on the areas forming the rst layer of the embankment. They should become colored as you click on them. Now the program is going to add the weight of the rst layer. - Click next to create a new phase. We need to allow consolidation to occur. - On Calculation type select Consolidation and Automatic time stepping. - On the Parameters tab select Ultimate time interval and input the length of time before the next layer of the embankment is placed. For example 120 days. - Repeat the same procedure for the next two layers. For the second consolidation phase use 180 days. If you forget and use 120 days the embankment will fail when the third layer of soil is added. - On the last consolidation phase, select Minimum pore pressure to allow consolidation to continue until the excess pore pressures are dissipated. Once all the calculation phases are dened, you need to select some special points for which you would like to plot stress-strain curves, settlement vs. time curves, etc... Click on the Select points for curves button, the one with red and white crosses in the toolbar. A new window appears with all the points tacked by the nite element calculations. Enlarge the central portion of the embankment and select a point on the original ground surface in the center of the embankment. Other points of interest are at the center of the clay layer and at the toe of the embankment. The displacements are calculated at these points. To get the stress points, click on the button Select stress points for stress/strain curves, the red triangle with crosses inside. Then select points in the mesh that are close to the points you selected earlier. notice that the point are not the same, but possible you can get close. If you make a mistake you cannot undo, but its not a problem: youll have more info than you need. Now you are ready to calculate the problem. Check that each phase is preceded by a blue arrow. A blue arrow means that the program will actually perform the calculations related to this phase. Click on the green arrow Calculate on the toolbar. The calculation starts. This may take a while. In the window that pops up you want to look at the value of M stage for the plastic phases, as well as the Global error. M stage increasing shows the percentage of weight being applied, from 0 to 1. During the consolidation phases, look at the Time increase and Pmax, the maximum pore pressure, decrease. Once the calculation is completed the blue arrow will become a green cross. Select the phase you want to see and click on the green arrow Output. Do not double click, you will deselect the phase. The usual output window will appear. Explore the results for each phase. Look at total displacements (since the beginning) or total increments (during this phase only). Use the different views: arrows, shadings, or contours. Also look at the excess pore pressures in the different views. You can draw cross sections with the cross section (A-A) button. Clicking on the Table button will give you the actual values for each point in the gure you are seeing.
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Chapter 17
Direct Shear Test of Soils Under Consolidated Drained Conditions

The following method departs from the ASTM Standard D3080, copyright c American Society for Testing and Materials, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959
17.1
Purpose
This test method covers the determination of the consolidated drained shear strength of a soil material in direct shear. The test is performed by deforming a specimen at a controlled strain rate on or near a single shear plane determined by the conguration of the apparatus. Generally, three or more specimens are tested, each under a different normal load, to determine the effects upon shear resistance and displacement, and strength properties such as Mohr strength envelopes. Shear stresses and displacements are nonuniformly distributed within the specimen. An appropriate height cannot be dened for calculation of shear strains. Therefore, stress-strain relationships or any associated quantity such as modulus, cannot be determined from this test.
17.2
Terminology
Relative Lateral Displacement-The horizontal displacement of the top and bottom shear box halves. Failure-The stress condition at failure for a test specimen. Failure is often taken to correspond to the maximum shear stress attained, or the shear stress at 15 to 20 percent relative lateral displacement. Depending on soil behavior and eld application, other suitable criteria may be dened.
17.3
Apparatus
Shear Device-A device to hold the specimen securely between two porous inserts in such a way that torque is not applied to the specimen. The shear device shall provide a means of applying a normal stress to the faces of the specimen, for measuring change in thickness of the specimen, for permitting drainage of water through the porous inserts at the top and bottom boundaries of the specimen, and for submerging the specimen in water. The device shall be capable of applying a shear force to the specimen in water. The device shall be capable of applying a shear force to the specimen along a predetermined shear plane (single shear) parallel to the faces of the specimen. The frames that hold the specimen shall be sufciently rigid to prevent their distortion during shearing. The various parts
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CVEN365 Laboratory Manual of the shear device shall be made of material not subject to corrosion by moisture or substances within the soil, for example, stainless steel, bronze, or aluminum, etc. Dissimilar metals, which may cause galvanic action, are not permitted. Shear Box, a shear box, either circular or square, made of stainless steel, bronze, or aluminum, with provisions for drainage through the top and bottom. The box is divided vertically by a horizontal plane into two halves of equal thickness which are tted together with alignment screws. The shear box is also tted with gap screws, which control the space (gap) between the top and bottom halves of the shear box. Porous Inserts, Porous inserts function to allow drainage from the soil specimen along the top and bottom boundaries. They also function to transfer horizontal shear stress from the insert to the top and bottom boundaries of the specimen. Porous inserts shall consist of silicon carbide, aluminum oxide, or metal which is not subject to corrosion by soil substances or soil moisture. The proper grade of insert depends on the soil being tested. The permeability of the insert should be substantially greater than that of the soil, but should be textured ne enough to prevent excessive intrusion of the soil into the pores of the insert. The diameter or width of the top porous insert or plate shall be 0.01 to 0.02 in. (0.2 to 0.5 mm) less than that of the inside of the ring. If the insert functions to transfer the horizontal stress to the soil, it must be sufciently coarse to develop interlock. Sandblasting or tooling the insert may help, but the surface of the insert should not be so irregular as to cause substantial stress concentrations in the soil. Device for Applying and Measuring the Normal Force-The normal force is applied by a lever loading yoke which is activated by dead weights (masses) or by a pneumatic loading device. The device shall be capable of maintaining the normal force to within 61 percent of the specied force quickly without exceeding it. Device for Shearing the Specimen-The device shall be capable of shearing the specimen at a uniform rate of displacement, with less than 65 percent deviation, and should permit adjustment of the rate of displacement from 0.0001 to 0.04 in./min (.0025 to 1.0 mm/min). The rate to be applied depends upon the consolidation characteristics of the soils (see 9.12.1). The rate is usually maintained with an electric motor and gear box arrangement and the shear force is determined by a load indicating device such as a proving ring or load cell. 6.4.3 The weight of the top shear box should be less than 1 percent of the applied normal force: this may require that the top shear box be modied and supported by counter force. Shear Force Measurement Device-A proving ring or load cell accurate to 0.5 lbf (2.5 N), or 1 percent of the shear force at failure, whichever is greater. Shear Box Bowl-A metallic box which supports the shear box and provides either a reaction against which one half of the shear box is restrained, or a solid base with provisions for aligning one half of the shear box, which is free to move coincident with applied shear force in a horizontal plane. Miscellaneous Equipment, including timing device with a second hand, distilled or demineralized water, spatulas, knives, straightedge, wire saws, etc., used in preparing the specimen.
17.4
Procedure
1. Assemble the shear box.

17. Direct Shear Test of Soils Under Consolidated Drained Conditions
103
2. Place moist porous inserts over the exposed ends of the specimen in the shear box; place the shear box containing the undisturbed specimen and porous inserts into the shear box bowl and attach the shear box. 3. Connect and adjust the shear force loading system so that no force is imposed on the load measuring device. 4. Properly position and adjust the horizontal displacement measurement device used to measure shear displacement. Obtain an initial reading or set the measurement device to indicate zero displacement. 5. Place a moist porous insert and load transfer plate on the top of the specimen in the shear box. 6. Place the normal force loading yoke into position and adjust it so the loading bar is horizontal. 7. Apply a small normal load to the specimen. Verify that all components of the loading system are seated and aligned. The top porous insert and load transfer plate must be aligned so that the movement of the load transfer plate into the shear box is not inhibited. Record the applied vertical load and horizontal load on the system. 8. Attach and adjust the vertical displacement measurement device. Obtain initial reading for the vertical measurement device and a reading for the horizontal displacement measurement device. 9. Select the appropriate displacement rate. 10. Shear the specimen, until the shear resistance measured by the load transducer levels off indicating that the specimen has failed.
17.5
Calculation
Calculate the nominal shear stress: = where: = nominal shear stress (lbf /in2 ,kPa), F = shear force (lbf, N), A = initial area of specimen (in2 , mm2 ). Calculate the normal stress acting on the specimen: n= where: n = normal stress (lbf /in2 , kP a), N = normal vertical force acting on the specimen (lbf, N), A = initial area of specimen (in2 , mm2 ).
F A
N A
104
17.6
Report
For the report, be sure to include: Shear stress versus time for each normal stress Mohr Circle plot with , versus n
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17. Direct Shear Test of Soils Under Consolidated Drained Conditions
105
Shear Test Data
Initial Reading Load Applied
Seconds
Reading (mV)
Seconds
Reading (mV)
Seconds
Reading (mV)
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106
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Chapter 18
Triaxial Unconned Compression Test

18.1 Purpose
This test will be used to quickly determine the undrained shear strength of saturated clays. In this test, no radial stress will be applied to the sample (3 =0), but the axial stress, (1 ) will be increased until the sample fails (can no longer support load). The load is applied quickly so that the pore water cannot drain, meaning that the sample is sheared at a constant volume. Since we are not applying a radial stress, the principle of effective stresses gives: 3 = 3 u = 0 u = u (18.1)
Because soils cannot sustain tension, 3 must be positive, and therefore, the excess water stresses, u, must be negative. The results from the UC test are used to: Estimate the short-term bearing capacity of ne-grained soils for foundations Estimate the short-term stability of slopes Compare the shear strengths of soils from a site to establish soil strength variability quickly and costeffectively (the UC test is cheaper than others) Determine the stress-strain characteristics under fast (undrained) loading conditions
18.2
18.2.1
Procedure
Materials
Soil sample Sample form and sample manual rammer for compaction Sample extruder Knife Sample holder Calipers Pressure chamber
108 Porous stones Transducers - force and displacement Shearing apparatus Computer - Geotech Data Logger Program Digital Voltmeter
18.2.2
Procedure
1. Refer to Chapter 3, Compaction Using Standard Effort, for sample preparation. 2. The sample extruded may now be cut in two, lengthwise. Each group should take half of the original sample. 3. Place the sample in the sample holder. 4. Each side of the sample holder cuts the sample to different diameters; one for a coarse preparation, and one for a nal sample preparation 5. Carefully, (very carefully), shave the sample with the knife so that the nal product is a cylindrical sample with a diameter equal to that of the sample holder. 6. Take the sample and lay it horizontally on the sample holder. Using the edge of the holder, cut the ends off of the sample so that they are square. You want a sample with a height-to-diameter ratio between 2 and 2.5 7. Record the dimensions of the sample in several places and record the average height and diameter. 8. Disassemble the compression chamber 9. Place a porous stone on the bottom platen of the compression chamber. Then place the sample with a porous stone on top of it. Re-assemble the compression chamber, taking care to prevent the plunger from interfering with the sample. 10. Place the compression chamber with the sample inside it onto the loading frame. 11. Prepare the computer data acquisition system as directed. 12. Record the serial numbers of the force and displacement transducers 13. Begin data acquisition and then start applying a load to produce an axial strain at a rate of 1/2 to 2%/min. Allow the computer to take the readings, and stop the data acquisition when the failure plane in the sample is visible. 14. Save the computer data, and make a sketch of the failed sample, noting the angles of the failure planes. 15. Record a water content of the sample after completion of the test.
18. Triaxial Unconned Compression Test
109
18.3
Calculations
The undrained shear strength is given as: Pz 1 = 1 2A 2 where Pz is the axial load applied to the sample and Su = A= Ao (1 e1 ) (18.2)
(18.3)
Note that because we are assuming no volume change, and we are axially deforming our sample, the cross sectional area of the sample changes as the strain increases.
18.4
Report
For the report, be sure to include: Force vs. time plot Displacement vs. time plot Stress versus strain plot versus plot, (including the Mohrs circle) Values for su and qu (ultimate stress, or s1 at failure)
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110
Unconned Compression Test Data

Sample No. Boring No. Depth Description of sample Date Time (s) Force (mV) Tested by Displacement (mV) Project Location
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Chapter 19
Unconsolidated Undrained Triaxial Test

19.1 Specimen preparation
The test will be carried out on a compacted specimen of clayey sand. Prepare the compacted specimen following the directions on chapter 7 and as directed by your teaching assistant. The procedure is similar to that used for the preparation of the unconned compression specimen. Once the soil is extruded, carefully divide the sample into two parts and obtain one specimen from each part.
19.1.1
Preparation of the specimen
1. Trim the specimen to the desired dimensions: diameter 38mm (1.5in) and height 76mm (3in), using a trimming device. The trimming apparatus should allow for convenient trimming of a cylindrical specimen of constant cross section, using either a wire saw or a steel blade. Be careful during the trimming and while handling the specimen because the material is prone to cracking and crumbling. The specimen should be slightly taller than the nal desired height to allow the removal of top and bottom slices prior to nal measurement and testing. Be particularly careful in trimming the specimen ends to ensure they are perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the specimen (otherwise alignment becomes a real problem). 2. Place the specimen on a small piece of saran wrap while you are handling it to avoid loss of moisture. 3. Obtain the moist weight of the specimen. 4. Measure height to 0.1mm (0.01in) with a caliper. Care should be taken that the measuring does not penetrate soft specimens. The average of 3 readings should be used. 5. Measure the specimen diameter to 0.01mm (0.001in) in two perpendicular directions and three elevations (center, near top and near bottom) to obtain an average. 6. Measure the thickness of the membrane. Usually this is done by folding the membrane and measuring the thickness of several layers at a time and then dividing by the number of layers.
19.1.2
Fitting end caps and membrane
1. Carefully place the specimen on the bottom cap and then the top cap on the specimen. If needed, also place porous stones. Make sure the specimen is centered and the assembly is aligned (VERY IMPORTANT!!).
112
Figure 19.1: Stages of membrane tting (from Head, 1992) 2. Fit two o-rings over the membrane stretcher and roll them near the middle of its length. Fit a membrane inside the stretcher and fold back the ends, over and outside. Apply vacuum to the membrane stretcher. Make sure the membrane is actually being pulled out and adheres to the stretcher. It may take a little tugging, but be careful not to twist the membrane at this point. 3. Carefully lower the membrane stretcher over the specimen until it is nicely centered. Then release vacuum and allow the membrane to adhere to the specimen. 4. Carefully release the membrane ends covering the caps and trying to minimize the amount of air entrapped in contact with the sample. 5. Lower the stretcher so that the bottom is located at about mid-height of the lower cap. Roll down and off one o-ring to seal the membrane. 6. Raise the membrane stretcher all the way up so that the bottom is located at about mid-height of the top cap. Roll down and off the o-ring. 7. Carefully fold the membrane over the o-rings.
19.2
Procedure
1. Assemble the triaxial cell. 2. Carefully check that the piston is aligned with the top cap. 3. If not, undo the cell set up and try to gently adjust the alignment until it works. It is important that you do so very gently as to minimize the disturbance to the sample. 4. Place the cell in the loading frame.
19. Unconsolidated Undrained Triaxial Test 5. Prepare the computer data acquisition system as directed. 6. Record the serial numbers of the transducers.
113
7. Slowly increase pressure in the cell to the desired conning pressure. Be careful, the loading rod may be lifted by the pressure if it is not locked. Allow 10 minutes under conning pressure for the sample to equilibrate. 8. Begin data acquisition and note the reading for the load transducer (this should be the zero reading, or no load is applied). Then start loading at a strain rate of approximately 1%/min. Before the loading rod comes into contact with the top cap the load transducer is reading the upward force due to the chamber pressure and the friction between the rod and the seal. 9. Allow the computer to take the readings, and stop the data acquisition when the axial strains reach 15%. 10. Save the computer data, and make a sketch of the failed sample, noting the angles of the failure planes. 11. Record a water content of the sample after completion of the test.
19.3
Calculations
The deviator stress is given as: Pz A where Pz is the axial load applied to the sample (corrected for uplift and friction and: 1 3 = A= Ao (1 e1 ) (19.1)
(19.2)
Note that because we are assuming no volume change, and we are axially deforming our sample, the cross sectional area of the sample changes as the strain increases. You also need to correct the deviator stress 1 3 for the effect of the membrane: 4Em tm 1 (19.3) D where: Em is Youngs modulus of the membrane, use 1400 kPa; tm is the thickness of the membrane and 1 = H/H is the vertical strain. (1 3 ) =
19.4
Report
Include the following information in the report: Rate of strain, in percent per minute. The stress-strain curve, (1 3 ) vs. Axial strain at failure, in percent. The value of compressive strength and the major and minor principal stresses at failure.
1.
114 The sample water content A failure sketch of the specimen.
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Appendix A
CVEN 365 Laboratory Design Project

A.1 Introduction
The CVEN 365 laboratory assignments are sequenced as a series of steps in the design of a retention pond for storing treated efuent from a wastewater treatment plant. The tentative laboratory schedule is given in the course syllabus and it is also reported in table A.1. The overall project is subdivided into four design tasks associated with individual laboratory sessions as indicated in table A.2.
A.2
Report Submissions
Reporting is required at two levels: (1) data laboratory reports documenting the laboratory sessions, and (2) design reports in which soil parameters derived from laboratory measurements are applied to the design of the retention pond. All reports are individual and must be submitted at the beginning of the laboratory session. Collaboration is encouraged during the collection and reduction of the data. However, each student shall work on the evaluation of the results on her/his own and submit an original report.
A.2.1
Data laboratory reports
One week after each laboratory session a laboratory report shall be submitted containing the following information: Name, date, laboratory section, laboratory test(s) performed. Descriptions of test procedures are not required. The report should simply make a concise statement as to the test performed with appropriate reference to the test procedure. Data measurements. Copies of handwritten records of measurements are required in the submission. In some laboratory exercises, it may be convenient to tabulate and reduce data in a computer spreadsheet format. Computer spreadsheets are acceptable, but are not a substitute for original records of data measurements. All data sheets shall be initialed and dated by the person taking the measurement. Data reduction. Data measurements must generally be reduced to compute specic soil material parameters. Data reduction in a computer spreadsheet format is acceptable. However, example handwritten calculations should be included in sufcient detail to allow a reviewer to track through all steps of the data reduction.
116
Date Jan. 15-19 Jan. 22-26 Jan. 29- Feb. 2 Feb. 5-9 Feb. 12-16 Feb. 19-23 Feb. 26-Mar. 2 Mar. 5-9 Mar. 19-23 Mar. 26-30 Apr. 2-6 Apr. 9-13 Apr. 16-20, 2005 Apr. 23-27, 2005
Laboratory 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Subject No laboratory Particle size determination Water content Determination of Atterberg limits Visual classication Proctor compaction test Total suction by lter paper method Determination of hydraulic conductivity Flow nets drawing Computer exercise 1: 2-D seepage Mohr circles Instrumentation Shrink test Consolidation Computer exercise 2: consolidation Direct shear test Triaxial test: unconned Triaxial test: unconsolidated undrained Computer exercise 3: strength Table A.1: Assignment schedule
Assignment
Data report 1 Data report 2 Design Report 1 Data report 3 Design Report 2 Data report 4 Data report 5 Data report 6 (draft) Data report 6 Design Report 3 Data report 7 Data report 8
Design Task I II III IV
Laboratory Sessions 2, 3, 4 5, 6 9, 10 11, 12, 13, (14)
Topic Preliminary evaluation of soils Permeability and seepage Consolidation and settlement Strength and slope stability
Table A.2: Design tasks
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A. CVEN 365 Laboratory Design Project
117
Test evaluation. The report should conclude with (1) recommended soil material parameters (i.e., liquid limit, unit weight, etc.) to be used in the project design, and (2) an assessment of the overall level of reliability of the reported material parameters and the reasons for such assessment. Specic information to be included in the weekly reports will vary according to the specic tasks performed. Students should clarify any uncertainties in reporting requirements with the teaching assistant prior to leaving the laboratory session.
A.2.2
Design reports
Material parameters obtained from the laboratory sessions will be utilized in the design tasks listed in A.2. Design reports will be due according to the schedule in table A.1. The design reports shall follow this format: Introduction. An introductory section shall outline the basic issues being addressed in the report. For example, Design Report II will address seepage through the retaining levee. Analytical model. This section shall present the geometry and material properties for the section that is to be analyzed. For example, a presentation of the seepage model in Design Task II should include a description (including a sketch) of the levee embankment and the underlying foundation, the boundaries of the various soil types within the levee and foundation, and the permeability of each soil type. Analytical methods. This section shall state and briey describe the methods used in the analysis. For example, two analysis methods will be used for the seepage analyses in Design Task II: ow nets and nite element analyses. Discussion. This section shall report the outcome of the analyses (seepage quantities, foundation settlements, etc.) In cases where more than one type of analysis is performed, the results should be compared and discussed. Uncertainties in the analysis, and how such uncertainty may be reduced, may also be discussed here. Conclusion. The implications of the analyses should be discussed here. For example excessive settlement could lead to overtopping and failure of the levee. If the analyses suggest inadequate performance of the levee, suggested modications to the design should be presented. Appendices. Supporting information for the design task should be appended to the design report. For example, the weekly results for Laboratory Sessions 2, 3, and 4 should be appended to Design Report I. Specic topics to be included in the design reports may vary according to the topic under consideration. Students should clarify any uncertainties in reporting requirements with the teaching assistant prior to report preparation.
A.3
Project overview
Figure A.1 shows a plan view of the project. A 20-ft high ring levee will be constructed to provide containment for treated efuent from a wastewater treatment plant. To provide access for maintenance, the levee crown must have a minimum width of 20 ft. The preliminary levee design (Figure 2) calls for landside and waterside slopes of 3 horizontal to 1 vertical (3H:1V). The levee is to be a zoned embankment comprised of a clay core buttressed by outer zones of sand. The purpose of the core is to provide a seepage barrier to
118
Figure A.1: Plan View of Water Retention Pond retain the water in the pond. The purpose of the sand zones is to improve the stability of the embankment against a sliding failure - sands typically have higher shearing resistance than clays. When suitable materials are locally available, zoned embankments are typically the design of choice, since they combine the favorable water retention properties of clays with the favorable strength properties of sands. The levee will be founded on a 28-ft deep stratum of what has been visually classied as soft clay. Beneath the soft clay are Pleistocene age deposits comprised of stiff clays and dense to very dense sands. Clay for the core will be obtained locally from the same clay stratum that comprises the levee foundation. The native clay will be excavated, dried to a water content approximating the optimum water content, and placed in the core zone. The sand will be obtained from a borrow source located in a stream channel deposit approximately two miles from the site. In-place unit weight and moisture tests in the sand deposit indicate a dry unit weight of 103 lb/ft3 and a water content of 9.7%. The volume of available sand from this source is uncertain, so the preliminary evaluations must provide reasonably accurate estimates of the sand volumes that must be excavated from the borrow source. The geotechnical studies for this project have been divided into four main tasks: Preliminary evaluations will involve performing index and classication tests on the proposed clay and sand levee embankment soils. Based on these tests, a qualitative assessment will be made regarding the suitability of these soils for their proposed use in the levee embankment. The preliminary evaluations will also include compaction tests on the sand. Data from these compaction tests will be needed for estimating the required volume of sand that must be excavated from the borrow source. Unit
119
Figure A.2: Preliminary Design of Levee Section
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120
CVEN365 Laboratory Manual weight measurements from the compaction tests will also be used in later settlement and slope stability analyses.
Seepage studies. Estimates seepage ow rates are needed to verify that water loss from the pond will be within acceptable levels. The rst stage of the seepage studies will entail permeability test measurements supplemented by empirical estimates of permeability based on index properties. These permeability values will be utilized in ow net and nite element studies to obtain estimates of water loss due to seepage. Settlement studies. Excessive settlement of the soft clay foundation soil can lead to loss of freeboard and ultimately to overtopping of the levee. Consolidation tests on the foundation soils will be performed to provide the necessary material parameters for settlement analyses. Using these parameters, estimates of levee settlement will be performed using: (1) simplied one-dimensional consolidation settlement analyses and (2) two-dimensional nite element consolidation analyses. Slope stability. Stability analyses are required to verify that the shear strength of the levee embankment and foundation soils are capable of resisting the gravitational loads caused by the weight of the added embankment. The stability studies will entail: (1) laboratory measurements of the shear strength properties of the levee embankment and foundation soils, and (2) slope stability analyses to evaluate the factor of safety against a slope failure.
A.4
Part I
This part of the project involves preliminary evaluation of the soils proposed for levee embankment construction. Laboratory Sessions 2 through 4 involve a series of index property and compaction tests on which the preliminary evaluation will be based. Tests will be performed a sand proposed for the outer zones (shell) of the levee. The tests series includes the following: Laboratory Session 2: Sieve analysis of proposed levee shell material. Laboratory Session 3: Liquid limit and plastic limit of proposed shell material. Visual classication of proposed shell materials. Hydrometer analysis of proposed shell material. Laboratory Session 4: Standard Proctor compaction test on proposed levee shell material. Filter paper suction test on proposed levee shell material. The gradation curve information for the existing soil, the soft marine clay, is included here in Table A.3. This soil has a plastic limit of and a liquid limit of . Reporting shall be in accordance with the requirements outlined in the project overview. Specic information to be reported includes: Classication of the proposed soils according to the Unied Soil Classication System. An assessment of the suitability of the soils for levee construction. An estimate of the volume of levee shell (sand) material that must be excavated from the borrow area. This estimate should be based on (1) the computed volume of the levee shell, (2) the compacted unit weight of the levee shell material, and (3) the measured unit weight of the sand in the borrow area.
A. CVEN 365 Laboratory Design Project Particle diameter (mm) 0.0782 0.0562 0.0402 0.0331 0.0291 0.0223 0.0174 0.0124 0.0091 0.0065 0.0031 0.0015 Percent Finer (%) 90.06 86.85 83.63 82.02 78.80 56.29 25.73 22.51 19.30 16.08 9.65 6.43
121
Table A.3: Gradation curve for the existing marine clay (from CVEN 649 class of 2004).
A.5
Part II
This part of the project involves seepage analysis of the levee embankment. The seepage analysis involves measurement of hydraulic conductivity and prediction of the ow through the levee embankment. Points to be covered in your design report include the following: 1. Your introductory section should discuss the purpose of the seepage evaluation. Since water loss from a water-retaining structure must necessarily be limited to acceptable levels, a chief concern in this case is the rate of seepage loss through the levee. 2. The clay in both the levee core and in the foundation is assumed to have a hydraulic conductivity of 8 105 m/day. The sand in the levee shell is assumed to have a hydraulic conductivity of 8 103 m/day. Using the guidelines outlines in Table A.4, comment on whether you believe these values are reasonable. 3. Your rst ow analysis will use a graphical ow net solution. In principle, ow nets can be constructed for non-homogeneous soil conditions, but the process is quite tedious and time-consuming. Since the sand hydraulic conductivity exceeds that of the clay by 2 orders of magnitude, a very good rst approximation is to consider the sand as free-draining, i.e., to have innite hydraulic conductivity. Your ow net should therefore be drawn for conditions similar that shown in Figure A.3. Constructing a ow net through an embankment also requires some estimate of the water (phreatic) surface. An estimated phreatic surface is given to you in Figure A.3. 4. Your second ow analysis will be a numerical analysis using the program Plaxis. Instructions for Plaxis are given in Chapter 11 of the laboratory manual. Analysis of non-homogeneous soil conditions is relatively straightforward using Plaxis. Therefore, your Plaxis analysis should input actual values of hydraulic conductivity for the clay and sand, and need not make the simplifying assumptions that were made for your ow net analysis. 5. Both ow net analyses and numerical solutions will provide seepage estimates in terms of ow rate per unit length of levee (e.g., m3 /day/m). While technically correct, seepage estimates presented in this format will probably mean little to a project planner. Seepage rates should therefore be presented in a
122 Soil gravel sandy gravel, clean sand, ne sand sand, dirty sand, silty sand silt, silty clay clay
CVEN365 Laboratory Manual Coefcient of Permeability, k (m/sec) > 103 3 to 105 10 105 to 107 107 to 109 < 109 Relative Permeability High Medium Low Very Low Practically Impermeable
Table A.4: Coefcient of permeability. From Electric Power Research Institute, EPRI EL-6800, 1990. more useful format, such as the daily rate of water loss expressed as a percentage of the total volume of water retained by the ring levee.
A.6
Part III
This part of the project involves prediction of consolidation settlement of the clay foundation due to the added weight of the levee embankment. Settlement is critical to the performance of a water-retaining structure, as excessive loss of freeboard can lead to overtopping and breaching of the structure. Differential settlement can also lead to cracking of the embankment. In addition to concerns for settlement, the consolidation process in soft clays is often closely monitored to ensure that the rate of embankment construction proceeds at a safe pace.
A.6.1
Planned Construction Sequence
Abrupt application of a load to a soft clay stratum can lead to a bearing failure; i.e., the stresses due to the applied load exceed the strength of the clay, resulting in a catastrophic failure. For this reason, construction on soft clays is often performed in incremental stages. Application of the rst load increment induces consolidation. As consolidation occurs, water is expelled from the pores thereby making the clay denser and stronger over time. As the clay gains sufcient strength, it becomes safe to apply the next load increment, and so on. The proposed construction plan for this project calls for the levee embankment to be constructed in three 6.67-ft high stages as indicated in Table A.5.
A.6.2
Construction Monitoring
The progress of consolidation during embankment construction is monitored by two types of measurements: (1) ground surface settlements versus time, and (2) pore water pressure measurements in the clay stratum. In this project, the ground surface settlement will be measured using settlement plates embedded at the centerline of the embankment, and the pore water pressure will be measured by piezometers installed at middepth of the clay layer (gure A.4). Normally the geotechnical engineer will make predictions of settlements and pore water pressures versus time that are likely to occur during construction. These predictions provide Stage 1 2 3 Time from Start of Construction (days) 0 120 300
Table A.5: Planned Construction Stages

123
Figure A.3: Model for Flow Net Construction.

124
Figure A.4: Construction Sequence and Geotechnical Monitoring a basis for evaluating the measurements during construction. If the eld measurements signicantly deviate from predictions, the rate of construction is slowed down or accelerated accordingly.
A.6.3
Analyses
As the geotechnical engineers on this project, your task is to provide predictions of (1) ground surface settlements that will occur over time at the centerline of the embankment, and (2) pore water pressures that will occur over time in the piezometer installed at mid-depth of the clay layer. Conceptual sketches of what these predictions should look like are shown in Figures A.5 and A.6, respectively. Note that settlements continue after excess pore pressures decline to zero due to secondary compression. Your predictions for both settlements and pore pressures should be based on two analyses: One-Dimensional Approximation Although the actual problem involves consolidation in two-dimensions, the one-dimensional consolidation calculations discussed in the lectures and text can provide reasonable rst order predictions of settlements and pore pressures. Specic calculations that you must make include the following: The magnitude of primary consolidation settlement is estimated using the one-dimensional approximation. Due to the non-linearity of these equations, the 28-foot clay layer should be subdivided into four 7-foot sub-layers for settlement calculation purposes. You may also assume
125
Figure A.5: Conceptual sketch of settlement predictions. that the embankment load can be approximated as a uniform load of innite lateral extent; i.e., the change in vertical stress due to the embankment load is the same at all depths within the clay layer (z = f ill df ill ). Finally, you may assume that the clay layer is normally consolidated The time rate of primary consolidation settlement is estimated using the solution to the consolidation equation (depicted graphically in Figure 7.18, curve 1 of Craig). You may assume double drainage in the clay layer for these calculations. The rate of secondary compression settlement is estimated using C . You may assume that primary consolidation is effectively ended when the dimensionless time factor T=1.0. Pore water pressures versus time at mid-depth of the clay layer are estimated using the solution to the consolidation equation (depicted graphically in the handout distributed in class). Two-Dimensional Analysis As noted above, the actual problem is more realistically represented as a twodimensional problem. Two-dimensional analytical solutions for consolidation usually become intractable for all but a few simple cases. However, numerical analyses can effectively model the consolidation process. The computer program Plaxis performs such numerical analyses. A detailed description of consolidation analyses using Plaxis is provided in Chapter 14 of the Laboratory Manual.
A.6.4
Laboratory Test Interpretation
Laboratory test procedures for determining the material parameters required for a consolidation analysis are described in Chapter 13 of the Laboratory Manual. The consolidation test will provide a total of 5 parameters. Three parameters provide the data necessary for estimating the magnitude of primary consolidation settlement: the recompression index Cr (equal to the swell index Cs ), the compression index Cc , and the preconsolidation stress c . The consolidation test also provides estimates of two parameters for characterizing the time rate of settlement: the coefcient of consolidation cv and the coefcient of secondary compression C . The Plaxis program uses essentially the same ve material parameters as the one-dimensional calculations, although the Plaxis denes the parameters slightly differently. Conversion of the material parameters to a form suitable for Plaxis is described in Chapter 14 of the Laboratory Manual.
126
Figure A.6: Conceptual sketch of pore water pressure predictions
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CVEN365 Introduction To Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory Manual

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CVEN365 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering LABORATORY MANUAL

Giovanna Biscontin Texas A&M University January 19, 2007

CVEN365 Laboratory Manual

Civil Engineering Department

CVEN365 Laboratory Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 22 22 22 25 25 25 25 26 26 27 29 29 29 29 30 31 32 33 34 37 37 37 37 38 38 38 39 43 43 43 45 45 46 47 47 49 49 49 49 49 49 50 51

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CVEN365 Laboratory Manual

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Lab Safety and Policy

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Determining Water Content of Soil Specimens

Water Content by Microwave Oven Method

Required Materials and Equipment

Table 2.1: Minimum mass of specimen

2. Determining Water Content of Soil Specimens

Moisture Content Determination by Microwave Oven

Mass of container, Mc (g)

Figure 2.1: Example of water content by microwave oven calculation

Water Content by Oven Method

CVEN365 Laboratory Manual

Required Materials and Equipment

Follow the same procedure as above in section 2.2.5.

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2. Determining Water Content of Soil Specimens

Moisture Content Determination by Microwave Oven

Moisture Content Determination by Oven

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CVEN365 Laboratory Manual

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Particle Size Analysis of Soils

ASTM D 422 - Standard test method for particle-size analysis of soils.

Particle size analysis of coarse grained fraction

CVEN365 Laboratory Manual

Particle size analysis of ne grained fraction

3. Particle Size Analysis of Soils Diameter of soil particles

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CVEN365 Laboratory Manual

Sieve Analysis of Coarse Fraction

Total weight of soil (g)

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3. Particle Size Analysis of Soils

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Date Sample No.

Diameter of particle, D (mm)

Percent ner in suspension (%)

CVEN365 Laboratory Manual

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3. Particle Size Analysis of Soils

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CVEN365 Laboratory Manual

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Determination of Liquid Limit (Multi-Point Method)

CVEN365 Laboratory Manual

Figure 4.1: Procedure for adjusting the liquid limit device.

CVEN365 Laboratory Manual

Determination of Plastic Limit

Calculate the plasticity index as follows: P I = LL P L where:

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CVEN365 Laboratory Manual

Atterberg Limits Determination