Ch 3 Fluid Statics - I

Introduction to fluid statics (1)

Fluid at rest:

No shear stresses Only normal forces due to pressure

Prepared for CEE 3500 CEE Fluid Mechanics by Gilberto E. Urroz, August 2005
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Normal forces are important:

Overturning of concrete dams Bursting of pressure vessels Breaking of lock gates on canals

Introduction to fluid statics (2)

Introduction to fluid statics (3)

For design: compute magnitude and location of normal forces Development of instruments that measure pressure Development of systems that transfer pressure, e.g.,

Average pressure intensity p = force per unit area Let: F = total normal pressure force on a finite area A dF = normal force on an infinitesimal area dA The local pressure on the infinitesimal area is
p= dF dA

automobile breaks hoists

If pressure is uniform, p = F/A BG units: psi (=lb/in2) or psf (=lb/ft2) SI units: Pa (=N/m2), kPa (=kN/m2) Metric: bar, millibar; 1 mb = 100 Pa

Isotropy of pressure
dy = normal to paper dx = dl sin dy = dl cos z x

Variation of pressure in static fluid (1)

p dl dy z
p
For the figure at left:

dl dx pz dx dy

p dz dxdy z 2

dz

px dy dz

dx
dxdydz

dx dy dz

dz

dy x

Along y: forces cancel each other Along x: p dy dl cos px dy dx = 0 p = px Along z: pz dy dx p dy dl sin - dx dy dz = 0 Neglecting highest term p = py = px (isotropic)
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p dz p dxdy z 2 p

Differential element shown Constant density fluid Forces acting: Body force = dxdydz Surface forces = pressure forces Fluid at rest Element in equilibrium Sum of forces must be zero

F x =0 x =0

F y =0 y =0

F y =0 z =

Variation of pressure in static fluid (2)

z
p F x =0 x =0

Variation of pressure in static fluid (3)

p dz dxdy z 2
dp = dz

z
p

p dz dxdy z 2

dx
dxdydz

dx
dxdydz

p F y =0 y =0

dz dy O x y
p dz p dxdy z 2

dz dy O x y
p dz p dxdy z 2

p dz p dz F x = p dxdy p dxdydxdydz =0 z 2 z 2

F y =0 z =
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dp = dz

For incompressible fluids: constant, integrate dp/dz = - directly For compressible fluids: g = f(z) or g = f(p), e.g., atmospheric pressure (Sample problem 3.1 pp. 47-49)

Sample problem 3.1. - Pressure variation in the atmosphere Solving dp/dz = - with p(z1) = p1
(a) Assume air has constant density: p p1 = - (z - z1) (b) Assume isothermal conditions: pv = const p/ = p1 /1 = p1 /p1 dp/dz = - p1 /p1 dp/p = - (1 /p1 ) dz after integration and simplification: p/p1 = exp(-(1 /p1)(z-z1)) (c) Assume isentropic conditions: pv n = p/ p/ n=p1 /1n 1/n 1/n 1/n = 1(p/p1 ) dp/p = - (1 /p1 ) dz after integration and simplification: p 1-1/n - p11-1/n = - (1-1/n) (1 /p11/n )(z - z1)

Sample problem 3.1. - cont. (2) Solving dp/dz = - with p(z1) = p1

(d) Assume air temperature decreasing linearly with height at standard lapse For temperature variation use: T = a + bz, with a = 518.67oR, b = - 0.003560 oR/ft Use gas law = p/RT, together with hydrostatic law dp/dz = -g, to get dp/p = - g/(R(a+bz)) dz After integration and simplification:
p abz = p 1 abz 1
g / Rb

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Sample problem 3.1. - cont. (3)

See Appendix A, Table A.3, to get: T1 = 59.0oF, p1 = 14.70 psia, 1 = 0.07648 lb/ft3, z1 = 0 ft. Also, for isentropic process use n = 1.4. And, for standard temperature decrease, a = 518.67oR, b = - 0.003560 oR/ft. The elevation of interest is z = 20 000 ft. Expressing p1 in standard BG units: p1 = 14.70144 = 2116.8 lb/ft2 (a) p = p1 (z-z1) = 2116.8 0.07648 (20 000 - 0) = 587.20 lb/ft2 = 587.20/144 psia = 4.08 psia (b) p = p1 exp(-(1/p1)(z-z1)) = 14.70 exp(-(0.07648/2116.8)(20 000 0)) = 7.14 psia (c) n = 1.4, 1/n = 0.714, 1-1/n = 0.286, p 0.286 = p1 0.286 -0.286 (1 /p10.714 )(z z1) = 2116.8 0.286 0.286(0.07648/2116.8 0.714)(20 000 0) = 7.0892 p = (7.0892)1 / 0.286 = 942.17 psfa = 942.17/144 psia = 6.54 psia

Sample problem 3.1. - cont. (4)

See Appendix A, Table A.3, to get: T1 = 59.0oF, p1 = 14.70 psia, 1 = 0.07648 lb/ft3, z1 = 0 ft. Also, for isentropic process use n = 1.4. And, for standard temperature decrease, a = 518.67oR, b = - 0.003560 oR/ft. The elevation of interest is z = 20 000 ft. Expressing p1 in standard BG units: p1 = 14.70144 = 2116.8 lb/ft2 (d) From page 22, for air R = 1715 ftlb/(slug oR)

32.2 g = =5.27 Rb 17150.003560

p= p 1 abz abz 1
g / Rb

=14.70

518.670.00356020000 518.670

5.27

=6.75 psia

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Sample problem 3.1. - cont. (5) - plots

Pressure variation for incompressible fluids (1)

From Sample Problem 3.1: p p1 = - (z z1)

Applies to liquids no need to consider compressibility unless dealing with large changes in z (e.g., deep in the ocean). Applies to gases for small changes in z only

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Pressure variation for incompressible fluids (2)

Pressure variation for incompressible fluids (3)

If measuring depth h = z1 - z from the free surface (z = z1), with p1 = 0 , arbitrarily set: p p1 = - (z z1) p=h p 0 = - (-h)

Pascal's law: all points in a connected body of a constant-density fluid at rest are under the same pressure if they are a the same depth below the liquid surface.
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Pressure as fluid height (1)

Pressure as fluid height (2)

For constant density fluids, and taking the freesurface pressure as zero, p = h. Thus
p h=

Equation p p1 = - (z z1) can be rearranged as:

p1 p z= z 1=constant

Pressure related to the height, h, of a fluid column. Referred to as the pressure head h(ft of H20) = 144 psi/62.4 = 2.308 psi h(m of H20) = kPa/9.81 = 0.1020 kPa

Terms: z = elevation, p/ = pressure head Thus, in a liquid at rest, an increase in the elevation (z) means a decreases in pressure head (p/), and vice versa.

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Pressure as fluid height (3)

Absolute and gage pressures (1)

Pressure measured:

Relative to absolute zero (perfect vacuum): absolute Relative to atmospheric pressure: gage

If p < patm, we call it a vacuum, its gage value = how much below atmospheric Absolute pressure values are all positive Gage pressures:

Positive: if above atmospheric Negative: if below atmospheric

pA
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z A =

pB

z B =constant
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Relationship: pabs = patm + pgage

Absolute and gage pressures (2)

Absolute and gage pressure (3)

Gage pressure Pressure Atmospheric pressure Vacuum = negative gage pressure Absolute pressure Atmospheric pressure Absolute pressure

Atmospheric pressure is also called barometric pressure Atmospheric pressures varies:

with elevation with changes in meteorological conditions

Use absolute pressure for most problems involving gases and vapor (thermodynamics) Use gage pressure for most problems related to liquids

Absolute zero

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Measurement of pressure

Barometer (1)

Barometer Bourdon gage Pressure transducer Piezometer column

Measures the absolute atmospheric pressure Tube barometer shown Tube must be long enough Vapor pressure at top of tube Liquid reached maximum height in tube

pO = y+pvapor = patm

With negligible pvapor

Simple manometer
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patm = y

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Mercury barometer diagram

Mercury barometer photograph

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Aneroid barometer photograph Barometer (2)

Aneroid barometer: uses elastic diaphragm to measure atmospheric pressure

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Barometer (2)

Bourdon gage (1)

Values of standard sea-level atmospheric pressure: 14.696 psia = 2116.2 psfa = 101.325 kPa abs = 1013.25 mb abs = 29.92 in Hg = 760 mm Hg = 33.19 ft H20 = 10.34 m H20

Curved tube of elliptical cross-section changes curvature with changes in pressure Moving end of tube rotates a hand on a dial through a linkage system

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Bourdon gage (2)

Bourdon gage (3)

Pressure indicated at center of gage If tube filled with same fluid as in A and pressure graduated in psi pA(psi)=gage reading(psi) + h/144

Vacuum gage (negative pressures) graduated in millimiters or inches of mercury

InHg vacuum at A =gage reading(inHg vacuum) h/144 (29.92/14.70)

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Bourdon gage (3)

Bourdon gage (5)

Note: h < 0 if Bourdon gage is below measuring point In pipes, pressure is typically measuredat centerline For measurements in gas pipes, elevation correction is negligible
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Pressure transducer (1) Transducer: a device that transfer energy from system to another (e.g., Bourdon gage transfers pressure to displacement) Electrical pressure transducer converts displacement of a diaphragm to an electrical signal.

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Tip of submergence pressure transducer

Piezometer column (1)

To measure moderate pressures of liquids Sufficiently long tube where fluid rises w/o overflowing Height in tube is h = p/

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Piezometer tubes in orifice meter (1)

Piezometer columns in orifice meter (2)

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Piezometer columns in Venturi meter

How to write a manometer's equation Start at point of know pressure (pgage = 0 at open end), write down that pressure. Follow the path of the manometer in a given direction, moving from one meniscus to the next in the proper order. Add h if moving downwards to next meniscus or point of interest. Use proper value of . Subtract h if moving upwards to next meniscus or point of interest. Use proper value of . Make equation equal to pressure of end point

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Simple manometer Mercury U tube shown Determine gage pressure at A Gage or manometer equation s = specific gravity sM = for manometer fluid sF = for the fluid W = specific weight of water Manometer equation: 0 + sMW Rm + sFW h = pA

Vacuum pressure (1)

Divide by = sFW, then

Manometer equation: Divide by = sFW, then:

0 - sMW Rm + sFW h = pA pA/ = h-(sM/sF)Rm

pA/ = h + (sM/sF)Rm
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Vacuum pressure (2)

Manometer equation: 0 - sM WRm - sFWh = pA pA/ = -h-(sM/sF) Rm

Differential Manometer (1): U-tube manometer for Venturi meter in pipeline

If absolute pressure is sought, replace 0 with patm in the previous equations If the fluid is a gas, sF 0, and thus, pressure contributions due to the gas are negligible.
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Differential manometer (2)

Differential manometer (3)

Manometer equation: pA sF W hA- sM W Rm + sF W hB = pB

Divide by = sF W pA / - pB / = hA-hB+(sM/sF)Rm Also, hA-hB= (zA-zB)-Rm pA / -pB / = zA-zB+(sM/sF-1)Rm (p / +z)A-B = (sM/sF-1)Rm

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Fluids in A and B are the same Common mistake: omitting the (sM/sF-1) factor in equation When the manometer fluid is mercury (sM = 13.56), the differential manometer is suitable for measuring large pressure differences For smaller pressure differences, use oil (e.g., sM = 1.6, sM = 0.8) Manometer fluid should not mix with the fluid whose pressure difference is being measured

Differential manometer (4)

Differential manometer (4)

Manometer equation:

pA sF W (zA-zB+x+Rm) - sM W Rm+ sF W x = pB Simplify and divide by = sF W pA / -pB / = zA-zB+(sM/sF-1)Rm or, (p / +z)A-B = (sM/sF-1)Rm

In this case, sM/sF < 1. As sM -> sF, (1-sM/sF) -> 0, larger values of Rm, i.e., increased sensitivity of manometer To measure (p/+z) in liquids we often use air for the manometer fluid If needed, air can be pumped through valve V until the pressure is enough to bring liquid columns to suitable levels An alternative for increasing manometer sensitivity: incline the gage tube

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Pressure transducers integrated into a digital differential manometer

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