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What is viscous Flow? A flow where the effects of the viscosity, thermal conduction, and mass diffusion are very important. Influence of Viscosity Consider two solid surface slipping over each other (Ex. Your book being pushed a cross a table) There will be a FRICTIONAL FORCE between these objects, which will retard their relative motion.
Viscosity
The quantity is a property of the fluid and depends to a great extent on its temperature. It is a measure of the viscosity of the fluid. The law of friction given by
du = dy
This law is known as Newtons law of friction; this law can be regarded as the definition of viscosity.
Cont.
N kg 2= Pa 2 m m.s
du
dy
Sec
kg = Pa.sec m.sec
Kinematics viscosity (
In all fluid motions in which frictional and inertia force interact It is important to consider the ratio of the viscosity, , to the density, , known as the kinematics viscosity, and denote by
v=
The influence of friction between the surface and the fluid adjacent to the surface acts to create a frictional force, which retards the relative motion
Cont.
The influence of friction is to create V=0, at the body surface, this is called the NO-SLIP condition which dominant viscous flow. In any real continuum fluid over a solid surface, the flow velocity is ZERO at the surface. Just above the surface, the Velocity is FINITE.
Inner Region
The inner region is called BOUNDARY LAYER In this thin boundary layer the velocity of the fluid increases from zero at wall (NO SLIP) to its full value, which corresponds to external frictionless flow. This B-L will grows from zero thickness at the upstream edge of the body. Evidently the thickness of the B-L decreases with decreasing Viscosity
= ( u y )
Outer Region
Outer Region: A region, where friction effects may be neglected
Velocity Profile
Lets consider a small element of fluid of unit depth normal to the flow plane, having a unit length in the direction of motion and a thickness y normal to the flow direction. Where u Shear acting on AB: =
+ y y Shear stress acting on CD: Streamwise pressure acting on AC: P p Streamwise pressure acting on BD: p + x x
Cont.
Resulting Force
Assuming u increasing with y, the resulting force can be calculate as Shear force acting on fluid element: The resulting shearing force in the x-direction:
+ y = y y y
shear force can be defined as
u = y
2u 2 y y
Cont.
Pressure force acting on fluid element
p p p p + x = x x x
Note: The total thickness of the B-L is very small; the pressure hardly varies at all normal to the surface. Consequently the net transverse pressure force is zero to be good approximation
p =0 x
Velocity Profile (u vs y)
Fact
When becomes very small, the shear stress becomes negligible, the small gradient exist out to y=. Large u will result a large shearing stress.
y
u y
u = y
u u= U1
and
y=
over
= f (y)
Types of B-L
There two types of boundary layer: Laminar and turbulent B-L. Laminar B-L : In laminar flow the layers of the fluid slide smoothly over one another and there is little interchange of fluid mass between adjacent layer. The shearing tractions which develop due the velocity gradients are thus due entirely to the viscosity of the fluid.
w = u y
= u y w y=0
Laminar B-L
u w = y w
Turbulent B-L
Turbulent flow considerable seemingly random motion exists, in the form of velocity fluctuations both along the mean direction of flow and perpendicular to it. As a result a of the later there are appreciable transports of mass between adjacent layers. If there is a mean velocity gradient in the flow, then there will be corresponding interchanges of streamwise momentum between the adjacent layers which will result in shearing stresses between them.
Turbulent B-L
This results in these layers having a velocity, which is not much less than that of the mainstream. However, in layers which are very closed to the surface it is obviously impossible for velocities to exist perpendicular to the surface, so that in a very limited region immediately adjacent to surface, the flow approximates to laminar flow.
Important Notes
It should be noted, however, that the viscous shear stress relation is only employed in the laminar sub-layer very close to the surface and not throughout the turbulent B-L The viscous shearing stress at the surface, and thus the surface friction stress, depends only on the slope of the velocity at the surface, whatever the B-L type.
Cont.
Transition is accompanied by a corresponding rapid thickening of the layer, beyond this transition region, the turbulent layer is exist. (Transition occurs because of the growth of small disturbance in the B-L) Turbulent layer continues to thicken steadily as it proceeds towards the trailing edge. Because of the greater shear stresses within the turbulent layer its thickness much more rapidly than that of the laminar layer, because the momentum defect near the surface is more readily able to influence the mainstream flow at the outer edge of the B-L.
Cont.
At trailing edge, the B-L joins with that from the other surface (lower surface of the flat plat) to form a WAKE of retarded velocity also tends to thicken slowly as it flows away downstream. Surface of Wings or Fuselages In most aerodynamic problems, the surface is usually that of a streamline from such as a wing or fuselage. The major difference, affecting the B-L flow in these cases, is that the mainstream velocity and hence the static pressure in a streamwise direction is no longer constant.
p y x y x
Cont.
Flow reversal indicates that the B-L has been separated from the surface
Stall
For airfoil at large angle of attack, the separation may take place not far downstream of the maximum suction point, and a very large wake will develop. This will cause such a redistribution of the flow over the aerofoil that the large area of low pressure near the upper surface leading edge is seriously reduced, with the result that the lift force is also greatly reduced. This condition is referred to as the stall
Laminar-Turbulent Transition
The effects of Reynolds number on the transition distance is depends on many parameter such as the following Pressure gradient Surface roughness Compressibility effects (related to Mach number) Surface Temperature. Suction or blowing at surface Free stream turbulence.
Re x ,tr = 500,000
The location for the onset of B-L transition would occur at
x tr =
Re x ,tr
u e
If for an airfoil Re L is kept constant, increasing the angle of attack advances the point of minimum pressure to move towards the leading edge on the upper surface, causing transition to move forward The opposite occurs on the lower surface At constant angle of attack an increase in transition
Re L tends to advance
Cont.
For
Re L > 10
The transition point may slightly precede the point of minimum pressure The effect of external pressure gradient on transition also explains how it may be postponed by designing aerofoil with points of minimum pressure further aft.
Transition
Once the critical Re is exceeds, The B-L would contains regions with the following characteristics as it transitioned from the laminar state to a fully turbulent flow: Stable, laminar flow near leading edge. Unstable flow containing 2-D Tollmien Schlichting (T-S) waves. A region where 3-D unstable waves and hairpin eddies develop. A region where vortex breakdown produces locally high shear. Fluctuating, 3-D flow due to cascading vortex breakdown. A region where turbulent spots form. Fully turbulent flow.
Cont.
Cont.
Cont.
In frictionless flow
The fluid particles are accelerated on the up stream half from D to E, and decelerated on the downstream half from E to F. When the flow is started up the motion in the first instant is very nearly frictionless, and remains so as long as the B-L remains thin.
There is a transformation of pressure into kinetic energy along DE, the reverse taking place along EF, so that a particle arrives at F with the same velocity as it had at D.
Cont.
A fluid particle, which moves in the immediate vicinity of the wall in the B-L, remains under the influence of the same pressure field as that that existing outside, because the external pressure is impressed on the B-L. From E to F, a particle cannot move far into the region of increasing pressure cases them to move in the opposite direction.
Cont.
At a point S on the surface, the profile slope (u ) w becomes zero y Downstream of point S, the flow adjacent to the surface may well be in an upstream direction, so that a circulatory movement, in a plane normal to the surface, may take place near the surface.
Cont.
Cont.
Cont.
Vortex Shedding
With the development of vortex, this force will change sign, giving rise to an alternating lift force on the cylinder at the same frequency as the vortex shedding oscillation of the cylinder.
S = nD
At this Re the vortex street also becomes unstable to 3-D disturbance leading to greater irregularity.
The laminar B-L undergoes transition to turbulence almost immediately after separation. The increased mixing re-energize the separated flow casing it to reattach as a turbulent B-L, thereby forming a separation bubble
Cont.
At this critical stage, the second and final point of separation, which now takes place in a turbulent layer, moves suddenly downstream, because of the better sticking property of the turbulent layer, and the wake width is very appreciably decreased. This stage is therefore accompanied by a sudden decrease in the total drag of the cylinder. For this reason , the value of Re at which this transition in flow occurs is called the CRITICAL REYNOLDS NUMBER. The wake vorticity remains random with no calculable frequency
The total drag continues to increase steadily in this stage due to both pressure and surface friction. drag span CD = 1 U 2D 2
The separation bubble disappears, (Fig f). This transition has a stabilizing effect on the shedding frequency, which becomes discernable again.
Cont.
On this side, the B-L sticks to a greater angle from stagnation than dose that on the other side where no seam is present to trip the B-L. The flow past the ball thus becomes asymmetric with larger area of low pressure on the turbulent side, producing a lateral force tending to move the ball in a direction normal to its flight path. The rang of flight speeds through which phenomenon can be utilized corresponds to those of the medium to medium fast pace bowler.
Cont.
The diameter of cricket ball is about 71 to 72.5 mm , If the ball is smooth, the critical speed would be about 75 m/s. The transition to turbulence for the seam-free side occurs at speed in the region of 30 to 35 m/s.
The critical speed for a rough ball with early transition (Re105) is about 20 m/s and below this speed the flow asymmetry tends to disappear because laminar separation occurs before the transition, even on the seam side.
Cont.
The speed rang from 20 to 30 m/s, very approximately, the ball may be made to swing by the skilful bowler. The very fast bowler will produce a flight speed in excess of the upper critical and no swing will be possible. It is obvious that considerable skill and experience is required to know at just what speed the delivery must be made to do this.
Cont.
u = f ( y)
must be
m = 1U1
a.3 - Mass flow rate in mainstream (mass flux) through the thickness *
m = u
m m = (1U 1 u )dy
0
a.5 From the figure: With the B-L, OABR area is equivalent to area OPQR , equation a.4 can written as
( U
0 1
u )dy = 1U 1
u 1 dy U 1 1
OR
1 u dy = 1 0 1U 1
Momentum thickness ()
b.2 - The rate of momentum defect relative to mainstream is
u (U 1 u )y
1U
2 1
b.4 - By using Equivalent area, we can obtain from b.2 and b.3
u (U 1 u )dy = 1U
2 1
Momentum thickness ()
b.5 - From b.4,
Or
u 1 dy = U 0 1 1 u u 1 dy = 0 1U1 U1
u 1U 1
For incompressible case, where the density is constant,. Eq. b.5 can be rewritten as
1 u 1 u 1 dy = u (1 u )dy = 0U 0 U1 1
Momentum thickness ()
b.6 The momentum thickness concept is conveniently used in transition problem and calculation of skin friction losses.
1 2 2 u U 1 u dy 2
c.3 - By using equivalent area, Eq. c.1 and Eq. c.2 Can give the following relation
1 3 1U 1 2
u (U u )dy =
2 1 2
1U
3 1
or
u 2 u 1 U dy 1U 1 1
u 2 1 u 1 = U dy 0 U 1 1 1
1 2 dy = u 1 u dy 0
Note: The integrals on the RHS in Eqs. A.6, b.5 and c. 5 are simply numbers which may be evaluated if the velocity profile is known.
Properties of B-L
u = y
u w = w y w
1 2 w = C f 1U 1 2
F = w x
Total skin friction force per unit width on length is
F = w dx
0
F = CF
U S W
2
Where, SW is the wetted area of the surface. Total skin frication drag coefficient (CDF) is defined by
Where, DF is total skin friction force on both surfaces and S is plan area of plate or airfoil. For a flat plate or symmetrical aerofoil, at zero incidence (top and bottom surfaces behaves identically), DF=2F and S=SW
x CF = C f d 0 L
1
This equation is applicable to a flat plate only, but on slim aerofoil, for which U1 dose not vary greatly from U over most of the surface, the expression will give a good approximation.
Slice of BL
Cont.
The quantities vary with x, let take f as quantity acts normal to AB along CD, the resulting force acts on DC can be written as
df f ( x + x ) = f ( x ) + x dx
(1)
Similar By using the same manner, mass and momentum balances on a thin slice of B-L can be obtained
Mass Balance
(2)
Cont.
Where Qi is defined as (3) 0 Rearrange Eq. 2 leads to an expression for the as follow
Qi = udy
d d VS V e = udy + U 1 dx dx 0 u
= 1
dy U1 )
d U 1 Vs Ve = dx
Y- Momentum Balance
V x = pw x p1 x V = pw p1
2 e 2 e
(5)
Cont.
The net pressure difference across the BL is negligible (i.e.pwp1 ). For simplicity, The B-L along a flat plate when U1=U=Constant and Vs is not considered. Eq. 4 can be rewritten as
d Ve = U dx
d p w p1 = U dx
2
(6)
Cont.
B-L is very thin compared to the length of the plate thus d*/dx<<1, so that its square is negligibly small. Thus it can be demonstrated that the assumption of a thin B-L implies that the pressure dose not vary appreciably across the B-L. This is one of the major features of B-L Theory. Within the B-L, the pressure is a function of x only. appreciably across the B-L.
X-Momentum Balance
Cont.
dM in 2 d x + VeU1 x U1 x M in = M in + dx dx d d x W X p p + ( p ) x + p dx dx
Where Lets write above Eq. Again
M in = u 2 dy
0
x dx
Cont.
Above equation can be simplified as
dp d 2 2 d 0 u dy U 1 dx + U 1Ve = dx w dx
(7)
dU 1 dp p + U = Const . = U 1 dx dx
2 1
By using the definition of Ve, * and along with Bernoulli Eq.. Equation 7 can be rewritten a
w dU 1 d 2 U1 + U1 + U 1V s = dx dx
(8)
Cont.
Eq. 8 is called Von Karman momentum integral equation. When suitable forms are chosen for the velocity profile the momentum integral equation (Eq. 8) can be solved to provide the variations of , *, and Cf along the surface.
u(
U1
y
) = a + by + cy + dy
2
Where y = . In order to evaluate the coefficient a, b, c and d, four conditions are required (boundary condition), two at y = 0 and two at y = 1
Cont.
At At At
y =0u =0
y =1 u =1
u y =1 =0 y
To obtain last condition, we need to see Fig. 2 (S15), in that figure the net force acting on ABCD must be zero at y=0, so that
Cont.
At y=0 dp dp y x x y = 0 = y dx y dx , and from Bernoulli equation , above Eq. Can be rearranged 2 p + as 1 = const. U
y=
Since
At
y=0
2u 2 dU 1 = 2 dx y
(10.d)
Cont.
Appling those B.C (Eq. 10), the coefficients become
a=0 b + c + d =1 b + 2c + 3d = 0
(11)
dU 1 2c = = dx
2
Cont.
Above equations can be solved for b, c and d to give the following approximate velocity profile:
3 1 3 2 3 u = y y + y 2y + y 2 2 4
(12)
The parameter is called the Pohlhausen parameter. It is determines the effect of an external pressure gradient on the shape of the velocity profile. If >0 is correspond to favourable pressure gradient and <0 is correspond to unfavourable pressure gradient.
Now, velocity profile in Eq. 12 will be used to obtain (*/), (/) and Cf (13)
Cf =
w
1 U 2 1 2
2 = U 12
u 2 = y w U 1
du = 3 + dy 2 y = 0 U 1
(15)
Cont.
The quantities I and I1 depend only on the shape of the velocity profile, and for this reason they are usually known as shape parameters.
Approximate methods for a B-L on a flat plate with zero pressure gradient
The Momentum Integral Equation (Eq. 8) will be solved to give approximate expressions for the skin friction drag and for the variation of , *, and Cf along a flat plate with laminar, turbulent and mixed laminar/turbulent B-L. Simplified from the momentum integral equation:
d = U dx
C f = 2I
dx
Cont.
b- Rate of growth of a laminar B-L on a flat plate: The rate of increase of the B-L thickness may be found by integrating Eq. 17, after setting =0 in Eqs. 14 & 15 and substituting for I and Cf, Eq. 17 becomes
d C f 140 = = dx 2 I 13 U
Cont.
Therefore
2 140 140 d = = 13 U 2 13 U
(R )
ex
4.64 x
1/ 2
(18)
The other thickness quantities * and are also evaluated using Eqs 13 and 14 with =0.
Cont.
Thus
= 0.375 =
(R )
ex
1.74 x
1/ 2
(19)
= 0.139 =
(R )
ex
0.646 x
1/ 2
(20)
Drag coefficient
Drag coefficient for a flat plate of streamwise length L with wholly laminar BL 1 L 2 L d 2 (L ) (21)
CF =
Where is the value of the momentum thickness at x=L. Thus using Eq. 20 and 21 gives
C f dx =
dx
CF =
(R )
ex
1.293
1/ 2
C D = 2C F =
(R )
ex
2.586
1/ 2
(22)
w C f = 2 1 2 U
Reynolds number, R e of the flow (based on the average flow velocity U in the pipe and the diameter D). Blasius proposed the relationship 0.0791 C f = 1/ 4 (23)
Re
U 1 = CU
that where C is a constant to be determined from Eq. 24 as:
u a y u = CU U = (25) C y a
1 0.0791 1 2 2 w = C f U = 1/ 4 U = 2 2 Re
1/ 4
1/ 4
(26)
7n / 4
7/4
u = 7/4 C
7/4
a y
0.03955 7 / 4 a w = u 7/4 y 7n / 4 C
1/ 4
[(7 n / 4 ) (1 / 4 )]
1/ 4
1 2
1/ 4
0.0333 7 / 4 [(7 n / 4 ) (1 / 4 )] = 7 / 4 u a 7n / 4 C y
(27)
It is found that by taking n=1/7, equation (27) expresses the variation of frication coefficient in pipes for 3000 < R < 70,000 .
e
u y = U1 a
1/ 7
This expression thus relates the velocity u at distance y from the surface to the velocity at distance a from the surface. Assuming that this will hold for very large pipes, it can be assumed that the flow at a section along a flat is similar to the flow over flat plate, so that replacing a by will gives the profile for the free B-L on the flat plate as
u y = U1
1/ 7
u = y
1/ 7
(28)
Eq. 28 is Prandtl s seventh root law. In order to find the wall shear stress, Eq. 27 must be used. The constant C may be evaluated by equating expressions for the total volume flow through the pipe along with Eqs. 25 and 28
( a y ) dy =
49 60 = 1.224 UCa 2 C = 60 49
1/ 4
w = 0.0234 u
7/4
w = 0.0234 U
7/4 1
1/ 4
(29)
0.0468 R e
1/ 4
(30)
0.0468 Cf U1 d = = 2I dx 2 I
1/ 4
d = 0.241 U1
1/ 4
4 4/5 dx = 0.241 5 U1
4/5
1/ 4
5 0.241 = 4
U 1
1/ 5
x4/5
= 0.383
(R )
ex
1/ 5
(31)
In order to estimate the other thickness quantities for the turbulent layer, the following integral must be evaluated
= (1 u )dy = (1 y
1 1
1/ 7
7 8/7 7 dy = y y = 1 = 0.125 8 8 0
7 8
7 10/ 7 7 7 y = = 0.175 10 0 8 10
( )
= 0.0973 =
= 0.175 =
0.0372 x
(R )
ex
ex
1/ 5
(33) (34)
0.0761x
(R )
1/ 5
= 0.0468 U 1
1/ 4
(R )
ex
1 / 20
(0.383x )1 / 4
(R )
ex
0.0595
1/ 5
(35)
1 U 12 C f = 0.0595 1 / 5 U 12 = 0.02975 1 / 5U 19 / 5 x 1 / 5 w = 2 1/ 5 2(U 1 x )
(36)
5 x 0.0595 4 L
4/5
1 / 5 = 0.0744 R e 0
(37)
C DF = 2C F = 0.1488Re
1 / 5
(38)
The transition from laminar to turbulent is depending on free stream and surface conditions. For large range of Re the B-L will be partly laminar and partly turbulent.
Conditions at transition
There are one condition must be satisfied at transition region. Which is the momentum thickness will remain constant at the transition position, thus
l =T t
T
(39)
1
Eq. 39 lead to
u (1 u )dy = u (1 u )dy
1
L0
Tt
Conditions at transition
The ratio of the turbulent to the laminar BL is then given by
L0
T0
IL = u (1 u )dy I T
u (1 u )dy
(40)
T L
(41)
Conditions at transition
Eq. 41 indicates that on a flat plate the B-L increases in thickness by about 43% at transition. It is then assumed that the turbulent layer downstream of transition, will grows as if it had started from zero thickness at same point ahead of transition and developed along the surface so that its thickness reached the value of T at the length L from the leading edge of the plate.
Ret =
U 1 xt
T =
t
0.383xTt
(R )
1/ 5
ex T t
xt =
U1
Ret
Cont.
The laminar layer Lt at transition is (from Eq. 20 ) 1/ 2
L =
t
0.646 xt
(R )
et
1/ 2
= 0.646 U 1
xt1 / 2
L = 0.646
t
U1
(R )
et
1/ 2
(43)
Cont
Now for turbulent layer Tt at transition is ( from Eq. 33)
T =
t
0.0372 xTt
(R )
1/ 5
ex T T
the equivalent length of Where, xTt is turbulent layer to give this thickness in the transition regime that, Lt=Tt , using Eq. 43 & 44 will give
Cont.
Gives
0.646 xt U x 1 t
1/ 2
= 0.037 xTt U x 1 Tt
1/ 5
xTt
5/8
4/5
0.464 = 0.0372 U1
4/5
Ret
1/ 2
xTt = 35.5
U1
Ret
(43)
The momentum thickness through transition is assumed to be constant, it is clear that the actual surface frication force under the laminar layer of length must be the same as the force which would exist under a turbulent layer of length XTt
C F = f ( )
Cont.
The Total skin frication force for the whole plate may be found simply by calculating the skin frication force under turbulent layer acting over a length from the point at a distance XTt ahead of transition, to the trailing edge.Total effective length of turbulent layer is L-Xt+XTt From the definition of friction force,
F=
L xt + xTt
L xt + xTt 1 2 w dx = U 1 C f dx 0 2
Cont.
CF is given in Eq. 35 as
Cf =
Thus
CF =
(R )
ex
1/ 5
0.0595
1/ 5
= 0.0595 U 1
L xt + xTt
1/ 5
1 / 5
F = 0.0595 U 1 / 2 U 12 L 1
5 4/5 x 4
[ ]
= 0.0744 U 1
1/ 5
(L x
+ xTt L
4/5
U 1 L U 1 xt U 1 xTt = 0.0744 U L + 1
4/5
(46)
4/5
Cont.
where, L is the total chordwise length of the plate, Eq. 46 is not applicable for values of Re less than Ret. Eq. 21 and 22 should be used. For large values of Re, greater than about 108, the appropriate all turbulent expression should be used. Eq. 35 & 38 become inaccurate for Re>107 . At higher , semi-empirical expressions due to Prandtl and Schlichting should be used.
Cont.
Semi-empirical expressions for higher Re (Re>107)
( )
2.3
(47)
CF =
(log10 Re )
0.455
(48)
2.58
Cont.
For the lower transition of Re of 3x105 , the corresponding value of Re , above which the all turbulent expressions are reasonably accurate, is 107.
Cont.
The pressure rise induced by shock wave is propagated upstream through the subsonic portion of the B-L. Recall that pressure disturbances can affect the upstream flow only if the flow is subsonic. As a result, the B-L thickness increases and the momentum decreased. The thickening B-L deflects the external stream and creates a series of compression waves to form a like shock structure.
Cont.
If the shock induced adverse pressure gradient is great enough, the skin frication will be reduced to zero and the BL will separate. The subsequent behavior of the flow is a strong function of the geometry. For a flat plate, the flow reattaches at some distance down stream. In the case of a convex body, such as an airfoil, the flow may or may not reattach, depending upon the body geometry, the characteristics of the B-L and the strength of the shock wave.
Cont.
If the flow reattaches, a Prandtl-Mayer expansion fan results as the flow turns back toward the surface. As the flow reattaches and turns parallel to the plate, a second shock wave is formed. Immediately downstream of reattachment, BL thickness reaches a minimum. It is in this region that the maximum heating occur.
Cont.
The length of the interaction is considerably shorter that the interaction length for a laminar B-L. This results because a turbulent B-L has a great momentum than dose a laminar B-L and can therefore overcome a greater adverse pressure gradient. Furthermore, since the subsonic portion of a turbulent B-L is relatively thin, the region through which the shock induced pressure rise can propagate upstream is limited. As a result, a much greater pressure rise is required to cause a turbulent B-L to separate.
Note
The pressure rise is spread over a much longer distance when B-L is laminar
Cont.
The air near the surface at the point of separation is removed through a suction slot. This result in a thinner, more vigorous B-L, which able to progress further along the surface in the adverse pressure gradient without separating. Repeated suction is necessary if the B-L is to progress far in an adverse pressure gradient. The great disadvantage of this type is that it relies entirely on the necessary engine power being available for suction; an engine failure might well prove catastrophic, since this type of suction will develop little or no lift without suction .
Cont.
In this method of preventing separation, which is due to the complete loss of energy of the air flowing immediately adjacent to the surface, is to energize this tired air by means of blowing a thin, high speed jet into it. Care be taken with the design of blowing duct exit. This blowing technique can only applied to the prevention of separation, unlike sucking which may be employed for this purpose as well to delay or avoid transition.