Radar

Technology
Assignment 1
Submitted by:

RUCHI RATHORE (E. NO. 500011123)

Course: B. Sc. (Aviation Studies) Email- ruchi.rld@gmail.com

1. Explain the working of radar with block diagram in detail.

Distance measurement
Transit time

Pulse radar: The round-trip time for the radar pulse to get to the target and return is measured. The distance is proportional to this time.

Continuous wave (CW) radar

One way to measure the distance to an object is to transmit a short pulse of radio signal (electromagnetic radiation), and measure the time it takes for the reflection to return. The distance is one-half the product of the round trip time (because the signal has to travel to the target and then back to the receiver) and the speed of the signal. Since radio waves travel at the speed of light (186,000 miles per second or 300,000,000 meters per second), accurate distance measurement requires high-performance electronics. In most cases, the receiver does not detect the return while the signal is being transmitted. Through the use of a device called a duplexer, the radar switches between transmitting and receiving at a predetermined rate. The minimum range is calculated by measuring the length of the pulse multiplied by the speed of light, divided by two. In order to detect closer targets one must use a shorter pulse length. A similar effect imposes a maximum range as well. If the return from the target comes in when the next pulse is being sent out, once again the receiver cannot tell the difference. In order to maximize range, longer times between pulses should be used, referred to as a pulse repetition time (PRT), or its reciprocal, pulse repetition frequency (PRF). These two effects tend to be at odds with each other, and it is not easy to combine both good short range and good long range in a single radar. This is because the short pulses needed

for a good minimum range broadcast have less total energy, making the returns much smaller and the target harder to detect. This could be offset by using more pulses, but this would shorten the maximum range again. So each radar uses a particular type of signal. Long-range radars tend to use long pulses with long delays between them, and short range radars use smaller pulses with less time between them. This pattern of pulses and pauses is known as the pulse repetition frequency (or PRF), and is one of the main ways to characterize a radar. As electronics have improved many radars now can change their PRF thereby changing their range. The newest radars fire 2 pulses during one cell, one for short range 10 km / 6 miles and a separate signal for longer ranges 100 km /60 miles. The distance resolution and the characteristics of the received signal as compared to noise depends heavily on the shape of the pulse. The pulse is often modulated to achieve better performance using a technique known as pulse compression. Distance may also be measured as a function of time. The radar mile is the amount of time it takes for a radar pulse to travel one nautical mile, reflect off a target, and return to the radar antenna. Since a nautical mile is defined as exactly 1,852 meters, then dividing this distance by the speed of light (exactly 299,792,458 meters per second), and then multiplying the result by 2 (round trip = twice the distance), yields a result of approximately 12.36 microseconds in duration.

Frequency modulation
Another form of distance measuring radar is based on frequency modulation. Frequency comparison between two signals is considerably more accurate, even with older electronics, than timing the signal. By measuring the frequency of the returned signal and comparing that with the original, the difference can be easily measured. This technique can be used in continuous wave radar, and is often found in aircraft radar altimeters. In these systems a "carrier" radar signal is frequency modulated in a predictable way, typically varying up and down with a sine wave or saw-tooth pattern at audio frequencies. The signal is then sent out from one antenna and received on another, typically located on the bottom of the aircraft, and the signal can be continuously compared using a simple beat frequency modulator that produces an audio frequency tone from the returned signal and a portion of the transmitted signal. Since the signal frequency is changing, by the time the signal returns to the aircraft the broadcast has shifted to some other frequency. The amount of that shift is greater over longer times, so greater frequency differences mean a longer distance, the exact amount being the "ramp speed" selected by the electronics. The amount of shift is therefore directly related to the distance travelled, and can be displayed on an instrument. This signal processing is

similar to that used in speed detecting Doppler radar. Example systems using this approach are AZUSA, MISTRAM, and UDOP. A further advantage is that the radar can operate effectively at relatively low frequencies, comparable to that used by UHF television. This was important in the early development of this type when high frequency signal generation was difficult or expensive. A new terrestrial radar uses low-power FM signals that cover a larger frequency range. The multiple reflections are analyzed mathematically for pattern changes with multiple passes creating a computerized synthetic image. Doppler effects are not used which allows slow moving objects to be detected as well as largely eliminating "noise" from the surfaces of bodies of water. Used primarily for detection of intruders approaching in small boats or intruders crawling on the ground toward an objective.

Speed measurement
Speed is the change in distance to an object with respect to time. Thus the existing system for measuring distance, combined with a memory capacity to see where the target last was, is enough to measure speed. At one time the memory consisted of a user making greasepencil marks on the radar screen, and then calculating the speed using a slide rule. Modern radar systems perform the equivalent operation faster and more accurately using computers. However, if the transmitter's output is coherent (phase synchronized), there is another effect that can be used to make almost instant speed measurements (no memory is required), known as the Doppler effect. Most modern radar systems use this principle in the pulsedoppler radar system. Return signals from targets are shifted away from this base frequency via the Doppler effect enabling the calculation of the speed of the object relative to the radar. The Doppler effect is only able to determine the relative speed of the target along the line of sight from the radar to the target. Any component of target velocity perpendicular to the line of sight cannot be determined by using the Doppler effect alone, but it can be determined by tracking the target's azimuth over time. Additional information of the nature of the Doppler returns may be found in the radar signal characteristics article. It is also possible to make a radar without any pulsing, known as a continuous-wave radar (CW radar), by sending out a very pure signal of a known frequency. CW radar is ideal for determining the radial component of a target's velocity, but it cannot determine the target's range. CW radar is typically used by traffic enforcement to measure vehicle speed quickly and accurately where range is not important. Other mathematical developments in radar signal processing include time-frequency analysis (Weyl Heisenberg or wavelet), as well as the chirplet transform which makes use of

the fact that radar returns from moving targets typically "chirp" (change their frequency as a function of time, as does the sound of a bird or bat).

Reduction of interference effects

Signal processing is employed in radar systems to reduce the radar interference effects. Signal processing techniques include moving target indication (MTI), pulse doppler, moving target detection (MTD) processors, correlation with secondary surveillance radar (SSR) targets, space-time adaptive processing (STAP), and track-before-detect (TBD). Constant false alarm rate (CFAR) and digital terrain model (DTM) processing are also used in clutter environment.

Plot and track extraction

Radar video returns on aircraft can be subjected to a plot extraction process whereby spurious and interfering signals are discarded. A sequence of target returns can be monitored through a device known as a plot extractor. The non-relevant real time returns can be removed from the displayed information and a single plot displayed. In some radar systems, or alternatively in the command and control system to which the radar is connected, a radar tracker is used to associate the sequence of plots belonging to individual targets and estimate the targets' headings and speeds.

2. What are the different types of radar, explain in detail?

The preceding paragraphs indicate that radar systems are divided types based on the designed use. This present the general characteristics of several commonly used radar systems.

1. Search Radar:
Search radar continuously scans a volume of space and provides initial detection of all targets within that space. Search radar systems are further divided into specific types, according to the type of object they are designed to detect. For example: Surface-Search, Air-Search and Height Finding Search Radars are all types of search radar.

Surface-Search Radar:
A surface search radar system has two primary functions: 1. The detection and determination of accurate ranges and bearings of surface objects and low-flying aircrafts and 2. The maintenance of a 360 search pattern for all objects within line-of-sight distance from the radar antenna. The maximum range ability of surface search radar is primarily limited by the radar horizon; therefore, higher frequencies are used to permit maximum reflection from small, reflecting areas, such as ship masthead structures and the periscopes of submarines. Narrow pulse widths are used to permit a high degree of range resolution at short ranges and to achieve greater range accuracies. High pulse-repetition rates are used to permit a maximum definition of detected objects. Medium peak power can be used to permit the detection of small objects at line-of-sight distances. Wide vertical-beam widths permit compensation for the pitch and roll of own ship and detection of low flying aircraft. Narrow horizontalbeam widths permit accurate bearing determination and good bearing resolution. For example, common ship-board surface-search radar has the following design specifications: a. Transmitter frequency 5,450-5,825MHz b. Pulse width 0.25 or 1.3 micro seconds c. Pulse-repetition rate between 625 and 650 pulses/second d. Peak power between 190 and 285 kW e. Vertical beam width between 12 and 16 degrees f. horizontal beam width 1.5 degrees
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Surface-search radar is used to detect the presence of surface craft and low flying aircraft and to determine their presence. Ship-board surface-search radar provides this type of information as an input to the weapons system to assist in


the engagement of hostile targets by fire-control radar. It is also used extensively as a navigational aid in coastal waters and in poor weather conditions.

Air-Search Radar:
Air search radar systems initially detect and determine the position, course and speed of air targets in a relatively large area. The maximum range of air-search radar can exceed 300 miles, and the bearing coverage is a complete 360 circle. Air-search radar systems are usually divided into two categories, based on the amount of position information supplied. Radar sets that provide only range and bearing information are referred to as 2-D radars. Radar sets that supply range, bearing, and height are called 3-D, or three dimensional radars. Relatively low transmitter frequencies are used in 2-D search radars to permit long range transmissions with minimum attenuation. Wide pulse widths and high peak power are used to aid in detecting small objects at greater distances. Low pulse-repetition rates are selected to permit greater maximum range. A wide vertical-beam width is used to ensure detection of objects from the surface to relatively high altitudes and to compensate for pitch and roll of own ship. Air-search radar systems are used as early-warning devices because they can detect approaching enemy aircrafts os missiles at great distances. In hostile situations, early detection of the enemy is vital to a successful defence againse attack. Anti-aircraft defences in the form of ship-board guns, missiles, or fighter planes must be brought to a high degree of readiness in time to repel an attack. Range and bearing information, provided by air-search radars, is used to initially position fire-control tracking radar on a target. Another function of the air-search radar system is guiding combat air patrol (CAP) aircraft to opposition suitable to intercept an enemy aircraft. In the case of aircraft control, the guidance information is obtained by the radar operator and passed to the aircraft by either voice radio or to computer link to the aircraft.
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Height Finding Search Radar:

The primary function of a height-finding radar (sometimes reffered to as a threecoordinate or 3-D radar) is that of computing accurate ranges, bearings, and altitudes of aircrafts targets detected by air-search radars. Height-finding radar is also used by the ships air controllers to direct CAP aircraft during interception of air targets. Modern 3-D radar is often used as the primary air-search radar. This is because of its high accuracy and because the maximum ranges are only slightly less than those available from 2-D radar. The range capability of 3-D search radar is limited to some extent by an operating frequency that is higher than that of 2-D radar. This advantage is partially offset


by higher output power and a beam-width that is narrower in both the vertical and horizontal planes. The 3-D radar system transmits several narrow beams to obtain altitude coverage and, for this reason, compensation for roll and pitch must be provided for shipboard installations to ensure accurate height information. Applications of height- finding radars include the following: a. Obtaining range, bearing, and altitude data on enemy aircraft and missiles to assist in the control of CAP aircraft. b. Detecting low-flying aircraft c. Determining range to distant land masses d. Tracking aircraft over land e. Detecting certain weather phenomena f. Tracking weather balloons initial positioning of fire control tracking radars. g. Providing precise range, bearing and height information for fast, accurate,

2. Tracking Radar:
Radar that provides continuous positional data on a target is called tracking radar. Most tracking radar system used by the military are also fired as control radars; the two names are often used interchangeably. Fired-control tracking radar systems usually produce a very narrow, circular beam. Fired-control radar must be directed to the general location of the desired target because of the narrow-beam pattern. This is called the DESIGNATION phase of equipment operation. Once in the general vicinity of the target, the radar system switches to the ACQUISITION phase of operation. During acquisition, the radar system searches a small volume of space in a pre-arranged pattern until the target is located. When the target is located the radar system enters the TRACK phase of operation. Using one of several possible scanning techniques, the radar system automatically follows all targets motions. The radar system is said to be locked on the target during the track phase. The three sequential phases of operation are often referred to as MODES and are common to the target-processing sequence of most fire-control radars. Typical fire-control radar characteristics include a very high PRF, a very narrow pulse width, and a very narrow beam-width. There characteristics, while providing extreme accuracy, limit the range and make initial target detection difficult.

3. Missile-Guidance Radar:
A radar system that provides information used to guide a missile to a hostile target is called GUIDANCE RADAR. Missiles are radar to intercept targets in three basic ways: a. Beam-rider missiles follow a beam of radar energy that is kept continuously pointed at the desired target;


b. Homing missiles detect and home in on radar energy reflected from the target; the reflected energy is provided by a radar transmitter either in the missile or at the launch point and is detected by a receiver in a missile; c. Passive homing missiles home in on energy that is radiated by the target. Because target position must be known at all times, a guidance radar is generally part of, or associated with, a fire-control tracking radar. In some instances, three radar beams are required to provide complete guidance for a missile. The beam-riding missile, for example, must be launched into the beam and then must ride the beam to the target. Initially, a white beam is radiated by a capture radar to gain control of the missile. After the missile enters the captured beam, a narrow beam is radiated by a guidance radar to guide the missile to the target. During both capture and guidance operations, a tracking radar continues to track the target.

4. Carrier-Controller Approach(CCA) and Ground-Controlled Approach Radar:

These radar systems are essentially shipboard and land-based versions of the same type of radars. Ship-board CCA radar systems are usually much more sophisticated systems then GCA systems. This is because of the movements of the ship and the more complicated landing problems. Both systems, however, guide aircraft to safe landing under conditions approaching zero visibility. By means of radar, aircraft are detected and observed during the final approach and landing sequence. Guidance information is supplied to the pilot in the form of verbal radio instructions, or to the automatic pilot in the form of pulsed control signals.

5. Airborne Radar:
This is designed especially to meet the strict space and weight limitations that are necessary for all airborne equipment. Even so, airborne radar sets develop the same peak power as ship-board and shore-based sets. As with ship-board radar, airborne radar sets come in many models and types to serve many different purposes. Some of the sets are mounted in blisters that form part of the fuselage; others are mounted in the nose of the aircraft. In fighter aircraft, the primary mission of a radar is to aid in the search, interception and destruction of enemy aircraft. This requires that the radar system have a tracking feature. Airborne radar also has many other purposes. The following are some of the general classifications: search, intercept and missile control, bombing, navigation and airborne early warning.

3. Discuss antenna principle, function and parameters in detail.

Principle:
When transmitting, a high gain antenna allows more of the transmitted power to be sent in the direction of the receiver, increasing the received signal strength. When receiving, a high gain antenna captures more of the signal, again increasing signal strength. Due to reciprocity, these two effects are equal - an antenna that makes a transmitted signal 100 times stronger (compared to an isotropic radiator), will also capture 100 times as much energy as the isotropic antenna when used as a receiving antenna. As a consequence of their directivity, directional antennas also send less (and receive less) signal from directions other than the main beam. This property may be used to reduce interference.

Functions of an Antenna;
An antenna is a device that acts as a transformer to provide a good match between the feeding line as a local source of power and free space. If the antenna is not matched to free space, power will be reflected back toward the transmitter, resulting in a loss in radiated power. The antenna is one of the most critical parts of a radar system. It performs the following essential functions: It transfers the transmitter energy to signals in space with the required distribution and efficiency. This process is applied in an identical way on reception. It ensures that the signal has the required pattern in space. Generally this has to be sufficiently narrow in azimuth to provide the required azimuth resolution and accuracy. It has to provide the required frequency of target position updates. In the case of a mechanically scanned antenna this equates to the revolution rate. A high revolution rate can be a significant mechanical problem given that a radar antenna in certain frequency bands can have a reflector with immense dimensions and can weigh several tons. It must measure the pointing direction with a high degree of accuracy.

Parameters: a. Radiation pattern:

The radiation pattern is a graphical depiction of the relative field strength transmitted from or received by the antenna, and shows sidelobes and backlobes. As antennas radiate in space often several curves are necessary to describe the antenna. If the radiation of the antenna is symmetrical about an axis (as is the case in dipole, helical and some parabolic antennas) a unique graph is sufficient. Each antenna supplier/user has different standards as well as plotting formats. Each format has its own advantages and disadvantages. Radiation pattern of an antenna can be defined


as the locus of all points where the emitted power per unit surface is the same. The radiated power per unit surface is proportional to the squared electrical field of the electromagnetic wave. The radiation pattern is the locus of points with the same electrical field. In this representation, the reference is usually the best angle of emission. It is also possible to depict the directive gain of the antenna as a function of the direction. Often the gain is given in decibels. The graphs can be drawn using cartesian (rectangular) coordinates or a polar plot. This last one is useful to measure the beamwidth, which is, by convention, the angle at the -3dB points around the max gain. The shape of curves can be very different in cartesian or polar coordinates and with the choice of the limits of the logarithmic scale. The four drawings below are the radiation patterns of a same half-wave antenna.

b. Efficiency:
"Efficiency" is the ratio of power actually radiated by an antennna to the electrical power it receives from a transmitter. A dummy load may have an SWR of 1:1 but an efficiency of 0, as it absorbs all the incident power, producing heat but radiating no RF energy; SWR is no measure of an antenna's efficiency. Radiation in an antenna is caused by radiation resistance which cannot be directly measured but is a component of the total resistance which includes the loss resistance. Loss resistance results in heat generation rather than radiation, thus reducing efficiency. Mathematically, efficiency is equal to the radiation resistance divided by total resistance (real part) of the feedpoint impedance.

c. Bandwidth:
IEEE defines bandwidth as "The range of frequencies within which the performance of the antenna, with respect to some characteristic, conforms to a specified standard." In other words, bandwidth depends on the overall effectiveness of the antenna through a range of frequencies, so all of these parameters must be understood to fully characterize the bandwidth capabilities of an antenna. This definition may serve as a practical definition, however, in practice, bandwidth is typically determined by measuring a characteristic such as SWR or radiated power over the frequency range of interest. For example, the SWR bandwidth is typically determined by measuring the frequency range where the SWR is less than 2:1.

d. Directivity:
Antenna directivity is the ratio of maximum radiation intensity (power per unit surface) radiated by the antenna in the maximum direction divided by the intensity radiated by a


hypothetical isotropic antenna radiating the same total power as that antenna. For example, a hypothetical antenna which had a radiated pattern of a hemisphere (1/2 sphere) would have a directivity of 2. Directivity is a dimensionless ratio and may be expressed numerically or in decibels (dB). Directivity is identical to the peak value of the directive gain; these values are specified without respect to antenna efficiency thus differing from the power gain (or simply "gain") whose value is reduced by an antenna's efficiency.

4. Discuss radar equation for Search radars, Tracking radars, CW and Pulse Doppler radar.
The power Pr returning to the receiving antenna is given by the radar equation:

where Pt = transmitter power Gt = gain of the transmitting antenna Ar = effective aperture (area) of the receiving antenna = radar cross section, or scattering coefficient, of the target F = pattern propagation factor Rt = distance from the transmitter to the target Rr = distance from the target to the receiver. In the common case where the transmitter and the receiver are at the same location, Rt = Rr and the term Rt Rr can be replaced by R , where R is the range. This yields:
4

This shows that the received power declines as the fourth power of the range, which means that the reflected power from distant targets is very, very small. The equation above with F = 1 is a simplification for vacuum without interference. The propagation factor accounts for the effects of multipath and shadowing and

depends on the details of the environment. In a real-world situation, pathloss effects should also be considered.

5. Explain Radar cross-section (RCS) definition and fundamentals.

Definition
Informally, the RCS of an object is the cross-sectional area of a perfectly reflecting sphere that would produce the same strength reflection as would the object in question. (Bigger sizes of this imaginary sphere would produce stronger reflections.) Thus, RCS is an abstraction: The radar cross-sectional area of an object does not necessarily bear a direct relationship with the physical cross-sectional area of that object but depends upon other factors. Somewhat less informally, the RCS of a radar target is an effective area that intercepts the transmitted radar power and then scatters that power isotropically back to the radar receiver. More precisely, the RCS of a radar target is the hypothetical area required to intercept the transmitted power density at the target such that if the total intercepted power were reradiated isotropically, the power density actually observed at the receiver is produced.This is a complex statement that can be understood by examining the monostatic (radar transmitter and receiver co-located) radar equation one term at a time:

where

Pt = power transmitted by the radar (watts)

Gt = gain of the radar transmit antenna (dimensionless) r = distance from the radar to the target (meters) = radar cross section of the target (meters squared) Aeff = effective area of the radar receiving antenna (meters squared) Pr = power received back from the target by the radar (watts)

The

term in the radar equation represents the power density (watts per meter

squared) that the radar transmitter produces at the target. This power density is intercepted by the target with radar cross section , which has units of area (meters

squared). Thus, the product

has the dimensions of power (watts), and

represents a hypothetical total power intercepted by the radar target. The second term represents isotropic spreading of this intercepted power from the represents the

target back to the radar receiver. Thus, the product

reflected power density at the radar receiver (again watts per meter squared). The receiver antenna then collects this power density with effective area Aeff, yielding the power received by the radar (watts) as given by the radar equation above. The scattering of incident radar power by a radar target is never isotropic (even for a spherical target), and the RCS is a hypothetical area. In this light, RCS can be viewed simply as a correction factor that makes the radar equation "work out right" for the experimentally observed ratio of Pr / Pt. However, RCS is an extremely valuable concept because it is a property of the target alone and may be measured or calculated. Thus, RCS allows the performance of a radar system with a given target to be analysed independent of the radar and engagement parameters. In general, RCS is a strong function of the orientation of the radar and target, or, for the bistatic (radar transmitter and receiver not co-located), a function of the transmitter-target and receiver-target orientations. A target's RCS depends on its size, reflectivity of its surface, and the directivity of the radar reflection caused by the target's geometric shape

Fundamentals:
Radar cross section (RCS) is a measure of how detectable an object is with a radar. A larger RCS indicates that an object is more easily detected. An object reflects a limited amount of radar energy. A number of different factors determine how much electromagnetic energy returns to the source such as: material of which the target is made; absolute size of the target; relative size of the target (in relation to the wavelength of the illuminating radar); radar source); reflected angle (angle at which the reflected beam leaves the part of the target hit, it depends upon incident angle); the incident angle (angle at which the radar beam hits a particular portion of target which depends upon shape of target and its orientation to the


strength of the radar emitter; distance between emitter-target-receiver.

While important in detecting targets, strength of emitter and distance are not factors that affect the calculation of a RCS because the RCS is (approximately) only a property of the target. Radar cross section is used to detect planes in a wide variation of ranges. For example, a stealth aircraft (which is designed to have low detectability) will have design features that give it a low RCS (such as absorbent paint, smooth surfaces, surfaces specifically angled to reflect signal somewhere other than towards the source), as opposed to a passenger airliner that will have a high RCS (bare metal, rounded surfaces effectively guaranteed to reflect some signal back to the source, lots of bumps like the engines, antennae, etc.). RCS is integral to the development of radar stealth technology, particularly in applications involving aircraft and ballistic missiles. RCS data for current military aircraft is most highly classified.

6. What is ranging and condition of ranging?

Radar measurement of range, or distance, is made possible because of the properties of radiated electromagnetic energy. This energy normally travels through space in a straight line at a constant speed, and will vary only slightly because of atmospheric and weather conditions. Electromagnetic energy travels through air at approximately the speed of light, which is 186,000 statute miles per second. The navy uses nautical miles to calculate distances; 186,000 statute mile = 162,000 nautical miles. Radar timing is usually expressed in microseconds to relate radar timing to distances travelled by radar energy. You should know that radiated energy from a radar set travels at approximately 984 feet per microsecond. A pulse type radar set transmits a short burst of electromagnetic energy. Target range is determined by measuring lapsed time while the pulse travels to and returns from the target. Because to-way travel is involve, a total time of 12.36 microseconds per nautical mile will elapse between the start of the pulse from the antenna and its return to the antenna from a target. This 12.36 microsecond time interval is sometimes referred to as a RADAR MILE, RADAR NAUTICAL MILE or NAUTICAL RADAR MILE. The range in nautical mile to an object can be found by measuring the elapse time during a round trip of a radar pulse and dividing the quantity by 12.36. Equation: range = elapsed time .


12.36 microseconds/nm

Minimum range:
As the DUPLEXER alternately switches the antenna between the transmitter and receiver so that only one antenna need to be used. This switching is necessary because the high power pulses of the transmitter would destroy the receiver if energy were allowed to enter the receiver. The timing of this switching action is critical to the operation of the radar system. The minimum range ability of the radar system is also affected by this timing. The two most important times in this action are PULSE WIDTH and RECOVERY TIME. This timing action must be such that during the transmitted pulse (pulse width), only the transmitter can be connected to the antenna. Immediately after the pulse is transmitted, the antenna must be reconnected to the receiver. The leading edge of the transmitted pulse causes the duplexer to align the antenna to the transmitter. This action is essentially instantaneous. At the end of the transmitted pulse, the trailing edge of the pulse causes the duplexer to line up the antenna with the receiver; however, this action is not instantaneous. A small amount of this time elapses at this point that is referred to as recovery time. Therefore, the total time in which the receiver is unable to receive the reflected pulse = pulse width + the recovery time. Note that any reflected pulses from close targets returning before the receiver is connected to the antenna will be undetected. The minimum range in yards at which a target can be detected is determined by : Minimum range = [ pulse width (m.sec) + recovery time (m.sec) ] x 164 yards

Maximum range:
The maximum range of a pulse radar system depends upon CARRIER FREQUENCY, PEAKPOWER of the transmitted pulse, PULSE-REPETITION FREQUENCY (PRF) or PULSE-REPETITION RATE (PRR), and RECEIVER SENSITIVITY with PRF as the primary limiting factor. The peak power of the pulse determines what maximum range the pulse can travel to a target and still return a usable echo. A usable is the smallest signal detected by a receiver system that can be processed and presented in an indicator. The frequency of the RF energy in the pulse radiated by a radar is referred to as the CARRIER FREQUENCY of the radar system. The carrier frequency is often a limiting factor in the maximum range capability of a radar system because radio frequency above 3,000 MHz is rapidly attenuated by the atmosphere. This decreases the usable range of a radiofrequency energy. Therefore, as the carrier frequency is increased, the transmitted power must also be increased to cover the same range. Long-range coverage is more easily


achieved at lower frequencies because atmospheric conditions have less effect on lowfrequency energy. Radar systems radiate each pulse at the carrier frequency during transmit time, wait for returning echoes during listening or rest time, and then radiate a second pulse. The number of pulses radiated in one second is called the pulse-repetition frequency (PRF), or the pulserepetition rate (PRR). The time between the beginning of one pulse and the start of the next pulse is called PULSE-REPETITION TIME (PRT) and is equal to the reciprocal of PRF.

7. Discuss the evaluation of PRF classes in detail with their advantages and disadvantages.
Pulse repetition frequency (PRF) is the number of pulses per time unit (e.g. Seconds). It is mostly used within various technical disciplines (e.g. Radar technology) to avoid confusion with the unit of frequency hertz (Hz) mainly used for waves. Waves are thought of as more or less pure single frequency phenomena while pulses may be thought of as composed of a number of pure frequencies. The reciprocal of PRF is called the Pulse Repetition Time (PRT), Pulse Repetition Interval (PRI), or Inter-Pulse Period (IPP), which is the elapsed time from the beginning of one pulse to the beginning of the next pulse. Within radar technology PRF is important since it determines the maximum target range (Rmax) and maximum Doppler velocity (Vmax) that can be accurately determined by the radar. ADVANTAGE: The advantage of pulse frequency modulation is better immunity to noise interference than PAM. DISADVANTAGE: The disadvantage is more complex transmitter and receiver design. POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS: It has been proposed that PFM could serve as a suitable retinal prosthesis device. PFM's ability to operate independently and asynchronously promotes the flow of nutrients through the chip which is essential for living cells. Cell stimulation would be accomplished through the output of pulse streams by PFM. A large dynamic range is also practical in the replacement of photoreceptors.
[3]

PFM could be used to transmit intelligence signals, such as audio

signals, by demodulating the signal from the receiving end at the transmitting end.

RANGE AMBIGUITY: A radar system determines range through the time delay between pulse transmission and reception by the relation:

For accurate range determination a pulse must be transmitted and reflected before the next pulse is transmitted. This gives rise to the maximum range limit:

The maximum range also defines a range ambiguity for all detected targets. Because of the periodic nature of pulsed radar systems, it is impossible for a radar system to determine the difference between targets separated by integer multiples of the maximum range using a single PRF. More sophisticated radar systems avoid this problem through the use of multiple PRFs either simultaneously on different frequencies or on a single frequency with a changing PRT.

8. Discuss various techniques used for tracking.

A radar tracker is a component of a radar system, or an associated command and control (C2)system, that associates consecutive radar observations of the same target into tracks. It is particularly useful when the radar system is reporting data from several different targets or when it is necessary to combine the data from several different radars or other sensors.

a. Range Tracking
Range tracking is accomplished in a similar manner to dual-beam angle tracking. Once the range has been measured, the tracking system attempts to predict the range on the next pulse. This estimate becomes the reference to which the next measurement will be compared. The comparison is made by using two range windows called the early and late range gates.

Figure 8. Range gates. The area of the return in each gate is computed by integration. The difference between the area in the early and late gates is proportional to the error in the range estimate. If the two areas are equal, the return is centered directly on the range estimate, and there is no error. If the return has more area in the early gate, the range estimate is too great, and therefore the range error is positive. In the near vicinity of the range estimate, there will be a linear relationship between the range error and the difference in the areas.

Figure 9. Range error. As long as the range estimate is not too far off, the tracking error can be determined and the target range updated. Again, like dual-beam tracking, the range tracking system can measure the target range with greater accuracy than the range resolution of the system, Rres, which is determined by the pulse width and possibly the pulse compression ratio.

b. Track-while-scan (TWS)
In many cases, it would be undesirable to dedicate the entire radar system to tracking a single target. We have already seen that the servo tracking system maintains the antenna pointed in the vicinity of the target at all times. Unfortunately, there is no search capability when tracking using this method. The track-while-scan (TWS) system maintains the search function, while a computer performs the tracking functions. The TWS system is capable of automatically tracking many targets simultaneously. Furthermore, the TWS system can also perform a variety of other automated functions, such as collision or close CPA warnings. The TWS system manages targets using gates. We have already seen an example of gates used in the range tracking system. A TWS system may use range, angle, Doppler and elevation gates in order to sort out targets from one another. When a target is first detected, the computer will assign it an acquisition gate, which has fixed boundaries of range and bearing (angle), and possibly other parameters, depending on the system. When the radar sweeps by the target again, if the return still falls within the acquisition gate, the computer will initiate a track on the target.

figure 10. Tracking and acquisition gates.


By following the history of the target positions, the course and speed of the target can be found. The combination of range, bearing, course and speed at any one time is known as the target's solution. It is used to predict where the target will be at the next observation. Once a solution has been determined, the computer uses a tracking gate about its predicted position. If the target falls within the predicted tracking gate, the computer will refine its solution and continue tracking. If the target is not within the tracking gate at the next observation, it will check to see if the target is within a turning gate which surrounds the tracking gate.

Figure 11. Use of a turning gate to maintain track on a maneuvering target. The turning gate encompasses all the area that the target could be in since the last observation. If the target is within the turning gate, the computer starts over to obtain the new solution. If the target falls outside of the turning gate, the track will be lost. The system will continue to predict tracking gates in case the target reappears. Depending on the system, the operator may be required to drop the track.

The process of assigning observations with established tracks is known as correlation. During each sweep, the system will attempt to correlate all returns with existing tracks. If the return cannot be correlated, it is assigned an acquisition gate, and the process begins again. On some occasions, a new target may fall within an existing tracking gate. The system will attempt to determine which return is the existing target and which is the new target, but may fail to do so correctly. It is common for TWS systems to have difficulty when there are many targets, or when existing tracks cross each other. In the later case, the computer may exchange the identity of the two crossing tracks. In all these cases if mistaken identity, the operator must intervene to correct the problem.

Figure 12. Crossing tracks. The TWS system uses a track file for each established target that it tracks. The track file contains all of the observations that are correlated with that particular target. For example, the range, bearing and time of observation. The track file is given a unique name known as the track designation. This is usually either a simple number, like "track 25". Depending on the system, the track file may contain other useful information, such as the classification of the target, such as "ship" or "aircraft". This information may be used by the computer when determining the track and turning gates. Finally, the track file also contains the current solution to the tracks motion. Some systems maintain a history of solutions which can be useful in determining the pattern of a maneuvering target. For example, if a target alters course every 15 min, such as a preset "zig" pattern.

c. Phased Array Tracking

We have already seen that a phased array radar system can electronically steer the beam. But the system can also perform a track-while-scan function. Since the planar array has many independent elements, they need not all be used to form a single beam. In fact, the great advantage of the phased array system is its flexibility. The SPY-1 phased array radar has over 4,000 elements, any number of which may be combined into a single beam. Suppose for instance, that the array was split into groups of 40 elements each. That would give about 100 independent beams. Granted the beamwidth of the 40 element array would not be as small as the 4000 element beam, but at shorter range could function more than adequately.

In the phased array radar, some beams could be dedicated to search functions, while other could perform dedicated tracking functions. Therefore you have the search-while-track


features, but with the added benefit of continuous contact on the targets. Essential to the SPY-1 capability is a computing system powerful enough to perform all of the necessary functions to control more than 100 independent tracking beams.

Figure 13. Multiple beams of phased array radar.

d. Tracking Networks
It is a natural extension of the track-while-scan system to create a system which shares tracking information between users. All that is required is to transmit the contents of the track file, since it contains all of the observations and the current solution. The sharing of tracking information has been incorporated extensively into modern combat. There are now global command and control networks that share this information between users all over the world. Tracking networks have adopted a standardized set of symbols for identifying types of targets.

9. Discuss Tracking Accuracy.

The accuracy can be improved by using a dual-beam system. The two beams are offset in angle by a small amount to either side. The center between the beams is known as the boresight axis.

Figure 4. Dual beams. The two beams can be created by a dual-feed system, where the two parallel beams are fed into the reflector slightly to one side or the other. When the beam is reflected, the offset in the feed axis will cause the beam to be reflected off at an angle relative to the boresight.

Figure 5. How offset feed changes beam. Now when a dual-beam system scans across a target, the return will be the sum of the two beams. If one of the beams if inverted (or made out-of-phase), the result will have a welldefined location of the target, namely where the difference between the beams is zero.

Figure 6. Constructing the dual beam output.

Since the return strength is changing rapidly to either side, the location of the target can be determined with great accuracy. For a typical radar beam that is 3 wide, a dual-beam system could track the target with 0.1 accuracy, which is sufficient for weapons delivery. Another nice feature of the dual-beam system is that the return strength varies nearly linearly in the vicinity of the target. Therefore it is easy to measure the target location even if the boresight is not directly on the target. The difference in target location and the boresight will be linearly proportional to the return strength as long as the target is not too far off center. Using the maximum strength method, it is not even clear how to determine the correction direction to reposition the antenna, since the return strength varies equally to either side of the boresight. The dual-beam system can also be used for tracking in elevation. In fact, a monopulse system uses two dual-beam systems, one for elevation and one for azimuth. This requires four beams which are measured in pairs.
0 0

Figure 7. Monopulse radar. Dual-beam systems are generally used for fire control tracking, where high accuracy is required. A dual beam system has a limited range because the target is not in the maximum power portion of the beam. The target is off-axis for either beam. Some are shown below:

Figure 14. Some standard tracking symbols.

These symbols appear on the common operational picture displays now used for command and control functions.

10.

Discuss various Modulations.

1. Amplitude Modulation
a. Amplitude modulation (AM) is a technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for transmitting information via a radio carrier wave. AM works by varying the strength of the transmitted signal in relation to the information being sent. For example, changes in the signal strength can be used to specify the sounds to be reproduced by a loudspeaker, or the light intensity of television pixels. (Contrast this with frequency modulation, also commonly used for sound transmissions, in which the frequency is varied; and phase modulation, often used in remote controls, in which the phase is varied) b. Vary the amplitude of the carrier sine wave

2. Frequency Modulation
a. Vary the frequency of the carrier sine wave b. In telecommunications and signal processing, frequency modulation (FM) conveys information over a carrier wave by varying its instantaneous frequency. This is in contrast with amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the carrier is varied while its frequency remains constant. In analog applications, the difference between the instantaneous and the base frequency of the carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input signal amplitude. Digital data can be sent by shifting the carrier's frequency among a set of discrete values, a technique known as frequency-shift keying. Frequency modulation can be regarded as phase modulation where the carrier phase modulation is the time integral of the FM modulating signal. FM is widely used for broadcasting of music and speech, and in two-way radio systems, in magnetic tape recording systems, and certain video transmission systems. In radio systems, frequency modulation with sufficient bandwidth provides an advantage in cancelling naturally-occurring noise. Frequency-shift keying (digital FM) is widely used in data and fax modems.

3. Pulse-Amplitude Modulation


a. Vary the amplitude of the pulses b. Pulse-amplitude modulation, acronym PAM, is a form of signal modulation where the message information is encoded in the amplitude of a series of signal pulses. c. Demodulation is performed by detecting the amplitude level of the carrier at every symbol period.Pulse-amplitude modulation is widely used in baseband transmission of digital data, with non-baseband applications having been largely replaced by pulsecode modulation, and, more recently, by pulse-position modulation. In particular, all telephone modems faster than 300 bit/s use quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). (QAM uses a two-dimensional constellation).

4. Pulse-Frequency Modulation
a. Vary the Frequency at which the pulses occur b. Pulse-Frequency Modulation (PFM) is a modulation method for representing an analog signal using only two levels (1 and 0). It is analogous to pulse-width modulation (PWM), to which the reader may refer for more detailed information, as the magnitude of an analog signal is encoded in the duty cycle of a square wave. If a pulse rate is set to 8000 pulses per second at 0 signal voltage then when the signal voltage reaches maximum the pulse rate will step up to 9000 but when the negative maximum voltage is reached the pulse rate will step down to 7000. A stable oscillator that is frequency modulated is used to create the pulse rate because of this PFM is not as widely used. Unlike PWM, in which the width of square pulses is varied at constant frequency, PFM is accomplished using fixed-duration pulses and varying the repetition rate thereof. In other words, the frequency of the pulse train is varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal at sampling intervals. The amplitude and width of the pulses is kept constant. The advantage of pulse frequency modulation is better immunity to noise interference than PAM. The disadvantage is more complex transmitter and receiver design.