1

Mechanics for systems of particles and extended bodies

PHYS1121-1131 UNSW. Session 1 2010

Left: trajectory of end of rod.

Right: parabola is the trajectory followed by the

Centre of mass
In a finite body, not all parts have the same acceleration. Not even if it is rigid. How to apply F = m a ? _ _

Total mass M = mi
mi mj r cm ri r j origin

Define the centre of mass as the point with displacement _ cm = r

mi _i r
M

Why this definition? Consider n particles, mi at positions _ i, F i acts on each. For each r _ particle, N2 gives F i = mi a i Add these to get total force acting on all particles: _ _
Fj mj r j origin

Fi _

mi a i _

definition of acceleration

mi

Fi ri

d2 = mi dt2 _ i r if masses constant, can change order of d/dt and multiply: = d2 r dt2 mi _ i

d2 = dt2

mi _ i r

multiply top and bottom by M

r d2 mi _i = Mdt2 M

But we defined

_ cm = r

mi _i r
M

Then

d2 F i = Mdt2 _ cm = M a cm _ r _

(total force) = (total mass)*(acceleration of centre of mass)

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Look at forces in detail:
F j F j,ext Fi F i,ext m i F i,int F j,int mj

Each F i is the sum of internal forces (from other _ particles in the body/ system) and external forces (from outside the system)

Fi _

F i,internal+ F _ _

i, external

Newton 3: All internal forces F ij between ith and jth particles are Newton pairs: _ F ji = F ij _ _

internal forces = 0 F i = F i, external = _ _

F external = M a cm _ _

F external _

total external force

total acceleration of = mass * centre of mass

3 For n discrete particles, centre of mass at _ cm = r

mi _i r mi
_ dm r

mi _i r
M

(i)

For a continuous body, elements of mass dm at _ r

_ dm r
body body

_ cm = r

dm
body

(ii)

This is the same equation. Really.

Can rearrange (i): 0=

mi _i mi _cm r r > M _ cm) = 0 r

law of the see-saw

mi (r i _
(ii) >

(r i _ cm)dm = 0 r _
body

N
cm

Later, when doing rotation, we'll consider which is a useful way to find c.m. experimentally. Three boys with equal mass m:

4 Example. Where is the c.m. of the earth moon system?

_ cm r

mi _i r mi
mexe + mmxm me + mm

Take origin at centre of earth. x cm =

mmd = me + mm = 4,600 km i.e. inside the earth.

recall: when doing Newton's 3rd, we derived the centre of rotation of the system

Example
m1 m2 r plate
O

On a square plate (mass mp), we place m1 and m2 as indicated. mp = 135 g, m1 = 100 g and m2 = 50 g Where is the cm of the system?

_ cm = r = =

mi _i r mi

mp(1.5i + 1.5j) + m1(2.0j) + m2(2.0i + 2.0j) mp + m1 + m2 (303g)i + (503g)j = 1.1 i + 1.8j 285g
Check? check that mi (r i _ cm) = 0 _ r

5 Example. Rod, cross-section A, made of length a of material with density 2 and length b of material with density 1. Where is c.m.? If 1/ = 22, and a = 2b, where is cm?

_ cm r dm x cm !

" "

r i dm dm
How am I going to integrate dm? and over the whole body?

= dV = Adx =
" xdm " dm

Put origin at join and is constant for the integrations

0 a 1Ax dx + 2Ax dx -b 0 = 0 a 1A dx + 2A dx -b 0

messy? But it's only four easy integrations

2 1b2 + 2 2a2 = 1b + 2a a2 rb2 = 2(a + rb) Internal vs external work. Problem. Skateboarder pushes away from a wall
F F v

1 where we define r = 2

Point of application of F does not move, normal force does no work, but K changes. _ Where does energy come from? Obvious: arms!
Fext = Macm dvcm dxcm Fext dx = Macm dxcm = M = Mvcmdvcm dt "Centre of mass work" Wcm = Fext dx =
i f

(2 Mvcm2) f (2 Mvcm2) i

Work done = that which would have been done if Fext had acted on cm.

Momentum
Definition: p mv _ _ In relativity, well find that this is a low v approximation to mv _ p = _ 1 - v2/c2 and also that Generalised form of Newton 2: d F = dt p _ _ K = ( 1)mc2

d d F = m dt v + v dt m _ _ _ If m constant, F = ma _ _ but for the general case, use the general expression What is system? - you choose: draw a boundary around it.

System of particles: P _ P _ = p i _

and

M = mi

d = mi v i = mi dt _ i _ r r d d mi _ i = dt mi _ i = M dt M r

P _

= Mv cm _ d _ _ dt P = Ma cm

If M constant:

d d F i = dt p i = dt P _ _ _ All internal forces are in pairs F ji = F ij _ _

d F ext = dt P _ _

two very important conclusions:

i) ii)

Motion of cm is like that of particle mass M at _ cm subjected to F ext. r _

If F ext = 0, momentum of whole system is conserved _

Note that momentum is a vector, so we have a conservation law that can apply in one or more directions.

7 Example 90 kg man jumps (vj = 5 ms-1) into a (stationary) 30 kg dinghy. What is their final speed? (Neglect friction.)
vi mm vf md

No external forces act in horizontal direction so Px is conserved. Pi = Pf

man dinghy man dinghy

mmvj + 0

= (mm + md)vf

mm vf = mm + md vj

Example Rain falls into an open trailer (area 10 m2) at 10 litres.min-1.m-2. Neglecting friction, what F required to maintain constant speed of 10 ms-1?
10 litres has mass 10 kg

d d d Fx = dt (mvx) = m dt vx + vx dt m
10 kg.m-2 = 10 ms-1 x 60 s 10 m2

= 17 N.

8 dm Example. Rocket has mass m = m(t), which decreases as it ejects exhaust at rate r = dt and at relative velocity u. What is the acceleration of the rocket?
dm rate of increase of dt = mass of rocket < 0

No external forces act so momentum conserved. In the frame of the rocket, forwards direction: dprocket + dpexhaust = 0 m.dv + (dm).(u) = 0 dm dv = u m a a dv u dm = dt = m . dt ur = m
1st rocket equation

dm dv = u m =

dv = u d(ln m)
2nd rocket equation

f mi dv = vf - vi = u ln mf i

need high exhaust velocity u (c?), else require mi >> mf

Collisions
time. Example 1:

Definition: in a collision, "large" forces act between bodies over a "short"

In comparison, we shall often neglect the momentum change due to external forces.

va
Fab = Fba = 0

vb

F ab
Fab = Fba = large! Fab = Fba = 0

F ba

forces that crumple cars during (brief) collision are much larger than friction force (tires - road), neglect Fext. In previous example: car decelerates from 30 kph to rest in a 60 cm 'crumple zone'. Average a = 58 ms-2, so force on car during collision ~ ma ~ 58 kN, compared with friction at ~ 10 kN.
In practice, normal cars would crumple much less so forces would be much greater

10 Example 2
Jupiter
doesn't "hit" Examples: deep space probes

spacecraft

Here, start and finish of collision not well defined At large separation before and after, Fab = Fba 0 During collision (fly-by), forces are considerable. However, Fgrav 1/r2, so much smaller at large distances. Impulse (J ) and momentum _ Newton 2 Definition: I dp = F dt _ _
f f F dt _ dp = _ i i f F dt pfpi = _ _ _ i

so

Camera flashes at equal times

When is head of club travelling fastest? Speed of ball compared to speed of club?

Ball is inflated to normal pressure. Can get an underestimate of force:

pressure F > in ball * deformed area

~ 70 kPa* 0.02 m2 ~ 1 kN

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_ Usual case: external forces small, act for small time, therefore Fext dt is small. i
F1 m1 m2 F
2

_ p 1 = F1 dt F 1 t _ _ i f f F2 dt = F1 dt _ _ i i

p2 = _

p1 = p2 _ _ P = p1 p2=0 _ _ _

If external forces are negligible (in any direction), then the momentum of the system is conserved (in that direction). Example. Cricket ball, m = 156 g, travels at 45 ms-1. What impulse is required to catch it? If the force applied were constant, what average force would be required to stop it in 1 ms? in 10 ms? What stopping distances in these cases?
vi vf= 0

m = 0.156 kg, vi = 45 m.s-1 I pfpi _ _ = m(vf - vi) to right

vf = 0.

= .... = 7.0 kgms-1 to left. I

_ = F dt i f

if F constant, _

I = Ft.

Fav = I/t. If const F const a. t F s 1.0 ms 7 kN 2 cm s = vavt. 10 ms 0.7 kN 20 cm

ouch!

vav = 23 m.s-1

12 Example. (A common method to measure speed of bullet.) Bullet (m) with vb fired into stationary block (M) on string. (i) What is their (combined) velocity after the collision? (ii) What is the kinetic energy of the bullet? (iii) of the combination? (iv) How high does the block then swing?
a) b) c)

vb m M

M+m vt

v=0 h

Note the different stages and three diagrams: a-b):collision, no horizontal external forces momentum conserved. Friction does work, so mechanical energy is lost, not conserved b-c): during this phase, external forces do act, so momentum is lost, not conserved. However, there are no non-conservative forces, so mechanical energy conserved.
a) b)

vb m M

M+m vt

Analyse a) to b) No horizontal ext forces during collision momentum conserved i) Pxi = Pxf mvb = (m + M)vt m vt = m + M vb ii) Kb = 2 mvb2
1

m 2 1 1 iii) Kt = 2 (m + M) vt2 = 2 (m + M)m + M vb 1 m2 = 2 m + M vb2 < Kb.

Conclusion:

Ui = Uf , Ki = Kf . / Mechanical energy is not conserved - deformation of block is not elastic; heat is produced. Lets look in more detail:
little digression about elastic and inelastic collisions

13 During a collision with negligible external forces, P = Mv cm is conserved _ _ M constant v cm is constant 2 Mvcm constant _ _2 K of c.m. is not lost. But the K of components with respect to c.m. can be lost. Greatest possible loss of K: if all final velocities = v cm, i.e. if all objects stick together _ after collision. Called completely inelastic collision. Completely inelastic collision.
v 1i v 2i
1

m1

m2

m1 + m 2

Completely elastic collision is one in which no non-conservative forces do work, so mechanical energy is conserved.

Part (iv) of previous example (b-c):

b) c)

M+m vt

v=0 h

here the external forces (gravity and tension) do do work and change momentum. But there is no non-conservative force and so in this part of the process conservation of mechanical energy applies: U + K = 0 (M + m)g (h 0) + (0 Kt) = 0 m2 1 h = ... = 2 g(m + M)2 vb2 so we can rearrange and get vb from h

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Elastic collision in one dimension

v 1i v 2i
(bang)

v 1f

v 2f

m1

m2

m1

m2

note the before and after diagrams again

Collision: neglect external forces pi = pf m1v1i + m2v2i = m1v1f + m2v2f elastic Ki = Kf (ii)
1 1 1 1 2 m1v1i2 + 2 m2v2i2 = 2 m1v1f2 + 2 m2v2f2

(i)

usually know m1, m2, v1i, v2i. Two unknowns (v1f, v2f), we can always solve. Or: Or: transform to frame where (e.g.) v1 = 0 transform to centre of mass frame.
can simplify the algebra

Example. Take m1 = m2, v2i = 0, v1i = v.

v v 2i= 0

v 1f

v 2f

m
pi = pf (i) (ii)

neglect external forces mv + 0 = mv1f + mv2f

1 1 1 2 mv2 + 0 = 2 mv1f2 + 2 mv2f2

(i) >

v2f = v v1f

(iii)

substitute in (ii) > 1 1 1 2 mv2 + 0 = 2 mv1f2 + 2 m(v2 + v1f2 - 2vv1f)

Either: or:

0 = v1f 2 vv1f 0 = v1f (v1f v) v1 f = 0 and (iii)> v2f = v

i.e. missed it. 2 solutions

i.e. 1st stops dead, all p and K transferred to m2

v1f = v and (iii)> v2f = 0

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Example Show that, for an elastic collision in one dimension, the relative velocity is unchanged.
i.e. show v1i - v2i = v2f - v1f

p and K conservation gave: (i) m1(v1f v1i) = m2(v2f v2i)

1 1

(ii) 2 m1(v1f2 v1i2) = 2 m2(v2f2 v2i2) If they hit, (v1f v1i) = 0, (v2f v2i) = 0 / / (ii)/(i) v1i + v1f = v2i + v2f v1i v2i = v2f v1f use a2 b2 = (a b)(a + b)

i.e. relative velocity the same before and after

2m1 m2 - m1 v2f = m1 + m2 v1i + m2 + m1 v2i

Solve >

Example Two similar objects, mass m, collide completely inelastically. case 1: case 2: v1i = v, v2i = 0. v1i = v, v2i = v. mv1i + mv2i = 2mvf

What energy is lost in each case? p conserved > vf = v1i + v2i 2

1 1 1

= Kf Ki = 2 (2m) vf2 - 2 mv1i2 - 2 mv2i2 case 1:

v + 0 2 1 1 K = 2 (2m) 2 - 2 mv2 1

= 4 mv2 case 2:
0 + 0 2 1 1 1 K = 2 (2m) 2 - 2 mv2 - 2 mv2

= mv2

4 times as much energy lost

Remember this if you have the choice in traffic, rugby etc

16 Elastic collisions in 2 (& 3) dimensions

y b v 2f !2 !1 v 1i v 1f x

Choose frame in which m2 stationary, v1i in x dirn b is called impact parameter (distance "off centre") px conserved m1v1i = mv1f cos 1 + mv2f cos 2 py conserved K conserved
1 1 1 2 m1v1i2 = 2 mv1f2 + 2 mv2f2 + K

0 = mv2f sin 2 mv1f sin 1

(iii)

where K = 0 for elastic case 3 equations in v1f, v2f, 1 and 2: need more info (often given 1 or 2) Incidentally: for hard spheres, neglecting rotation and friction (reasonable during collision, but not after)

!2
b 2 = sin-1 2R

(R + R) sin 2 = b

i) ii)

Note that as > 90, small error in b gives large error in 2. Experiment on billiard table: Does b = R give 2 = 30? friction, rotation ignored

17

v m1 C

v1 !

s1 "

m1

v2

s2

m2

Example. Police report of road accident. Car 1, mass m1 strikes stationary car m2 at point C. They then slide to rest in positions shown. Given k = (assumed same for both) find the initial speed v of m1. Can you check assumption? (real example) Ff W After collision, a for both = m = m = g vf2 vi2 = 2as = 2gs 0 v12 = 2gs1 v1 = 2gs1 v2 = 2gs2 (i) Neglect external forces during collision: P = 0 Px: m1v = m1v1 cos + m2v2 cos Py: 0 = m1v1 sin m2v2 sin (ii) 2gs1 cos +(m2/m1) 22gs2 cos (i) v =

Note the "spare" equationwe can use it to check the model or assumptions: (ii) m1 21gs1 sin = m2 22gs2 sin s1m12 sin2 2 1 = s2m22 sin2 (The may not be the same for the two: surfaces different, orientation of wheels etc)

18
y x

vb vz

! vf

Balloonist Albert writes message on a bottle (1 kg) and drops it over the side. It is falling vertically at 40 m.s-1 when caught by parachutist Zelda (m = 50 kg), travelling at 1 ms-1 at 45 to vertical. Collision (bottleZelda's hand) lasts 10 ms. i) ii) If only gravity acted, what is p for Zelda over 10 ms ? Neglecting ext forces during collision, what is the velocity of (Zelda+bottle) after collision? iii) What impulse is applied to bottle during collision? iv) What is the impulse applied to Zelda? v) What is the average force during collision? vi) Will Albert and Zelda live happily ever after? i) ii) due to W , p = W t = .. = 5 kgm.s-1 down _ _ _ Neglect ext forces momentum conserved. mb v bi + mZ v Zi = m(Z+b) v(Z+b) f _ _ _
1(-40 _ ) + 50(1 cos 45 _ 1 cos 45 _ ) = 51(vx _ + vy _ ) j i j i j

50 i dirn: vx = cos 45 .51 x1 = 0.7 ms-1 _

n j _ dir : vy =

1x40 50 cos 45 = 1.5 ms-1 51 = vx2 + vy2 = 1.6 ms-1

|vf|

vy f = tan-1 vx 67 to horizontal iii) Ib p bf p bi = 1x(vx _ + vy _ ) - 1(-40 _ ) i j j _ _ = (1.6 _ + 38 _ ) kgm.s-1 i j

iv)

IZ= Ib = (1.6 _ + 38 _ ) kgm.s-1 i j

|I Z | =
v)

1.62 + 382 = 38 kgm.s-1 pZ |IZ| _ = t = .. = 380 N t

F Z= _

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Example Controlled demolition. A building has S stories, each of height h. Explosions destroy the strength of the nth floor. How long before (n+1)th floor hits ground, falling vertically? Assume that the building remains intact above the explosion and inelastic collisions with the lower floors. To obtain a lower bound, assume negligible strength between lower floors.

2 1 G

(Sn) floors have mass (Sn)m. To get the lower estimate on falling time, assume no strength in the demolished floor, s the upper floors are in free fall (as a rigid body) for a distance h with acceleration g. So they strike the next floor with speed vn = 2gh . Inelastic collision with next floor gives speed v where: (Sn)mvn = (Sn+1)mv Let the falling mass after any collision have initial speed v0 and speed before the next collision be vc. vc2 v02 = 2gh vc =
2gh 1/2 2gh + v02 = v01 + v 2 0

For ith collision (Sn+i1)mvc(i) = (Sn+i)mv0(i+1) vc(i) = 2gh + (v0(i))2

Sn+i1 2gh + (v0(i))2 = v0(i+1) Sn+i

1 v0(i+1) = 1 Sn+i 2gh + (v0(i))2

1 h = v0t + 2 gt2 1 0 = 2 gt2 + v0t h v0 v02 + 2gh t= g