PCOG Plant Constituents Plant constituents, as the word implies are the individual chemicals from which plants

are made. These constituents are organic in nature and synthesized in plants by the activity of individual cells. The process by which these complex organic chemical constituents are formed, utilizing simple substances and enzymes are known as biosynthesis. As historically, plants and their products form the basis of medicines and also in present days. Several compounds, which are pharmaceutically and medicinally important, derived from plant sources. However, the medicinal value of plant depends on the nature of plant constituents present in it, which is known as active principal or active constituent. Active constituents are those chemical substances, which are solely responsible for therapeutic activity of plant. A large number of theories have been proposed as to why these compounds are formed in plants, it is likely that many of them are produced as part of chemical defense system to protect the producing organism. The chemical constituents present in plants that do not possess any definite therapeutic value are known as inactive constituents. As the formation of different active and inactive constituents of plants involves various metabolic pathways, hence in general the inactive plant constituents are termed as primary plant metabolites whereas active plant constituents are termed as secondary plant metabolites. Primary plant metabolites are simple molecules or polymers of simple molecules synthesized by plants, generally do not possess therapeutic as such but essential for the life of plants and contains high-energy bonds. These are usedup for the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. e.g. Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. Secondary metabolites are complex organic molecules biosynthesized from primary plant metabolites in plant cells (Fig.1). Unique to plants or group of plants, generally possess therapeutic activity, neither essential for plants life nor contains high energy bonds. These are usually stored in vacules. Secondary metabolites are classified as: alkaloids, glycosides, tannins, phenolic compounds, volatile oils, terpenoids, saponins, steroids, resins and bitter principles. These are used as medicine, food, flavors, colours, dyes, poisons and perfumes etc. It is estimated that 1/4th of prescription drugs contains at least one chemical originally identified from plants. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are organic polyhydroxy carbonyl compounds with universal occurrence in living organisms. These are made up of C, H and O and are the first complex organic compounds formed in the plants as a result of photosynthesis. These provide means of storage and transport of energy and also building blocks of cell wall. These are the constituents of various metabolites as glycosides and required precursor for biosynthesis of all other metabolites as well as basis of all organic compounds of living world. These are classified in three main categories on the basis of their molecular size: 1. Monosacchrides (True sugars) 2. Oligosacchrides (True sugars) 3. Polysacchrides (Non sugars) 1. Monosacchrides: Monosacchrides are characterized by general formula Cn(H2O)n, presence of carbonyl group and (n-1) hydroxyl group. The number of carbon atoms most often five or six. These are simplest sugar molecules and hence cannot be hydrolyzed into simpler form. These are crystalline substances, soluble in water, practically insoluble in organic solvents like ether, chloroform and absolute alcohols. These are optically active and exist in more than one isomeric form. Further, these are sub-classified on the basis of no. of carbon atoms present. a. Trioses 3 carbon atom e.g. glyceraldehydes b. Tetroses 4 carbon atom e.g. threose, erythrose c. Pentoses 5 carbon atom e.g. xylose, arabinose, rhamnose, ribose and ribulose. d. Hexoses 6 carbon atom e.g. glucose, fructose, mannoseand galactose. e. Heptoses 7 carbon atom e.g. cymarose These are also classified on the basis of presence of carbonyl group: 1. Aldoses- (containing aldehydic group) e.g. glucose, arabinose and galactose

2. Ketoses- (containing ketone group) e.g. fructose. Carbohydrates are found in plants in more than one isomeric form i.e. D or L, but most of the natural monosachharides belongs to D series (except L-rhamnose, L-arabinose and L-fucose). Monosachharides can exist in both cyclic structures i.e. either pyrano (six membered ring) or furano (five membered ring) depending on nature of bridge (1-4 or1-5). Although, aldohexoses generally forms pyranose whereas ketohexoses forms furanose ring, e.g. glucose occurs in pyranose configuration (Fig.2a) while fructose occurs in furanose configuration (Fig.2b). The carbon atoms in ring are of sp3 hybridization and may not be in the planner form; hence it adopts various conformations like chair, boat, half chair etc. Preffered conformation for aldohexopyranose is always chair conformation (most stable) (Fig.3), which has minimal interaction and lowest energy. 2. Oligosaccharides: These are formed by condensation of 2-10 monosacchride molecules, which involves in vivo formation of glycosidic linkage. The glycosidic linkage can easily be cleaved by chemical hydrolysis and specifically by enzymatic hydrolysis. On the basis of type of glycosidic linkage present the disaccharides are of two types: 1. Non reducing disaccharides (linkage involving reducing function of both sugar) e.g. sucrose 2. Reducing disaccharides (linkage involving reducing function of only one sugar) e.g. Lactose, maltose, cellobiose etc. Sucrose is commonly obtained from sugar cane and hence known as cane sugar. It yields glucose and fructose on hydrolysis. Lactose is obtained from milk and known as milk sugar, it yields glucose and galactose on hydrolysis. Maltose is obtained by hydrolysis of starch during germination of grains, it yields two molecules of glucose on hydrolysis. Lactulose is a synthetic disaccharide, acts as osmotic laxative, yields galactose and fructose on hydrolysis. Cyclodextrins are cyclic oligosaccharides produced by enzymatic degradation of starch using different Bacillus species. The , and cyclodextrins are made-up of 6, 7 and 8 glucose units, respectively. These have ability to form non-covalent inclusion compounds which permits molecular encapsulation to increase: stability and solubility to improve bioavailability of drug molecules. 3. Polysacchrides (Glycans): These are high molecular weight polymers of larger number of monosaccharide molecules. The sugar molecules are attached to each other by glycosidic linkage between the hemi-acetal hydroxyl group on C-1 of one sugar and any of the hydroxyl group on other sugar molecules. These serve as skeletal material (cellulose) or reserve food material (starch, glycogen and inulin). These are non-sugar carbohydrates; do not have sweet taste, either insoluble in water (cellulose) or forms colloidal solution (starch). Glycans are further sub-divided in two categories: i. Homoglycans (homogenous polysaccharides): formed by the condensation of larger number of same sugar molecules, e.g. starch, cellulose, glycogen etc. ii. Heteroglycans (heterogeneous polysaccharides) e.g. gums, mucilages and pectins. Starch is main reserve energy source, universal constituent of plant and derived from glucose. It composed of two components: a. Amylose (20-30%) is a water soluble, linear chain molecule, composed of 250- 300 -D glucose having 1-4 linkage. It forms blue color with iodine. b. Amylopectin (70-90%), it is insoluble in cold-water, branched chain molecule, composed of about 1000 -D glucose with 1-4 and 1-6 linkage. It forms red to violet colour with iodine. Pharmaceutical products like dextrins and cyclo-dextrins are derivatives of starch. Cellulose is the most universal biological polymer. It is fibrous substance of cell wall and responsible for structural rigidity of plants in combination with lignin. Cellulose is a linear polymer made up of (1-4) linked D-glucose units, its molecular weight ranges from 50,000 25,00,000. Cotton fibers are the purest form of cellulose (98%), whereas oxidized cellulose and methylcellulose are cellulose derivatives used in pharmacy. Gums are complex heterogeneous, branched and uronic acid containing polysaccharide macromolecules. These are translucent, amorphous substances, exudates of plants and produced as the result of trauma. Gums are insoluble in organic solvents but most of them are soluble in water and forms colloidal viscous solutions. These are optically active and dilute

solutions (<1%) precipitates upon addition of ethanol or lead sub acetate. Gums on hydrolysis yields sugars (arabinose, galactose, glucose, mannose and xylose) with sugar acids (glucoronic acid and galacto-uronic acid). Mucilages are normal cell constituents of high molecular weight compounds, composed mainly of sulphuric acid esters of sugar. These neither dissolves in water to form clear colloidal solutions but swells nor precipitates by addition of alcohol. Mucilages on hydrolysis yields sugar (galactose and arabinose) and sugar acids (uronic acids). Seaweed agar and carrageenan contains mucilage composed of salts of sulphate esters of polysaccharides. Pectins are defined as the group of polymers made-up of partially methylated 1-4 linked galacturonic acid residues associated with arabinan and galactan units. These are localized in middle lamella of vegetable cell wall but for industrial purpose it is obtained from inner portion of rind of citrus fruit or from apple. It absorbs water and swells up because of its hydrophilic property forming stiff jelly. Hence, it is used in pharmaceutical and food technology. CARBOHYDRATES AND RELATED COMPOUNDS Plant energy storage components are referred to as carbohydrates. The group which the term carbohydrates represents includes mono- (sucrose, lactose, etc.), and poly- (starch, inulin) saccharides, some acids which are produced after cellular carbohydrate respiration, alcohols such as sorbitol and cellulose; and gums and mucilages. For the purposes of therapeutics, usually the polysaccharide and gum/mucilage subgroups are most important. Polysaccharides are known to exert a beneficial action on the body's immune system, increasing its strength. They are produced through the linkage of simple or single sugars linked by ethers in various and complex ways, and are divided into two categories, water soluble or water nonsoluble. Plant starch, gums, mucilage, cellulose (and sub-group hemicellulose) are all polysaccharides. Cellulose, i.e., cotton, powdered cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, and purified rayon, is another polysaccharide, whose derivatives, have been developed as bulking agents for the alleviation of constipation, as opthalmic solutions, topical emollients and protectants, and as agents meant to reduce the appetite (Tyler et al., 44-45). It has been difficult for phytochemists to distinguish between gums and mucilage categorically. Presently, it is generally agreed that while gums are water solvent, mucilage will become a slimy mass; and, that gums are pathologically formed while mucilages are physiological in origin (Tyler et al., 46). Mucilage, therapeutically, can reduce bowel irritation, gut irritation, peristalsis, toxin absorption, cough, bronchial and urinary spasm. Mucilage can also increase expectoration (Cabrera, 35). As a gelating agent, the polysaccharide hydrocolloidal carrageenan often finds its way in ice cream; it is also used as a laxative ingredient. Perhaps the most common bulking agent derived from a polysaccharide comes from Plantago major, whose seed, the psyllium, can bulk itself up with the addition of water sufficiently to initiate peristalsis and evacuate the bowels (Tyler, 45-56). Chemical Test for Carbohydrates: Mono-saccharides are the building blocks of carbohydrates. Di, oligo and polysaccharides on hydrolysis in presence of mineral acid yield monosaccharide units. Monosaccharides are soluble in water and practically insoluble in organic solvents like chloroform, ether and in absolute alcohols. These are optically active compounds and respond to various color reactions and identification tests. i. Charring test ii. Molish test iii. Iodine test iv. Barford test v. Seliwanoffs test vi. Fehling solution test vii. Benedict test viii. Tollens test ix. Bials test x. Osazone test

1. Charring test: Carbohydrates on heating in testube or in presence of Conc. H2SO4, produces charring with smell like burning sugar. 2. Molish test: Aqueous solution of drug/carbohydrate mixed with few drops of Molish reagent (alpha naphthol) and Conc. H2SO4 was added from sidewall of testube. Formation of purple coloured ring at junction indicates presence of carbohydrates. 3. Iodine test: It is specific for polysacchrides. Few drops of Iodine solution was added to aqueous solution of drug/polysaccharide. Formation of blue colour, which disappears on heating and reappears on cooling, indicates the presence of starch. 4. Barford test: This test is used to distinguish between monosacchride and disacchrides. Two ml of Barford reagent (Cupric acetate, acetic acid and water) was added to 1 ml aqueous solution of drug and boil. Formation of brick red precipitate in 5 minutes indicates presence of monosacchride while in 7 minutes indicates disaccharide. 5. Seliwanoffs test: This test is used for identification of keto-hexoses or to distinguish between ketoses and aldoses. To 1 ml aqueous solution of drug, 5 ml of Seliwanoffs reagent (resorcinol in 6M HCl) was added and boiled. Formation of cherry red colour in presence of ketose (Fructose) due to formation of hydroxyl methyl furfural, which condensed with resorcinol to produce cherry red colour. 6. Fehling solution test: It is generally used for reducing sugars and composed of two solutions, which are mixed in situ. Fehling solution A composed of 0.5% of copper sulphate whereas Fehling solution B composed of Sodium Potassium Tartarate. Equal volumes of Fehling A and Fehling B solutions were mixed (1 ml each) and 2 ml of aqueous solution of drug was added followed by boiling for 5-10 minutes on water bath. Formation of reddish brown coloured precipitate due to formation of Cuprous oxide indicates presence of reducing sugar. Di-, oligo and poly-sacchrides having reducing sugars can be tested by first boiling in dilute acid solution followed by neutralization with ammonia. This neutralized aqueous is used for testing. 7. Benedicts test: It is used for reducing sugars and composed of mainly Copper sulphate and sodium hydroxide. To the 4 ml of aqueous solution of drug, 1 ml of Benedicts solution was added and heated almost to boiling. Formation of green, yellow, orange, red or brown colour in order of increasing concentration of simple sugar in the test solution, due to formation of cuprous oxide. 8. Tollens test: Tollens reagent (Silver Nitrate, NaOH and Ammonia) is Ammonical Silver Nitrate (diaminesilver (I) complex), an oxidizing agent, which is itself reduced to silver metal in a clean glass reaction vessel and forms a "silver mirror", when raects with aldehydes to form carboxylic acids. Add few drops of freshly prepared Tollens reagent to 2 ml of aqueous solution of drug in clean testube and heat gently. Formation of black mirror on the sidewall of testube indicates the presence of aldehydic group. 9. Bials test: It is used to distinguish between pentoses and hexoses. Pentoses reacts with Bials reagent (Orcinol in Conc. HCl and traces of FeCl3 as catalyst) to form furfural, which condenses with orcinol to produce blue-green product. Aqueous solution of drug (2 ml) was mixed with 4 ml of Bials reagent and heat to boiling, it produces blue-green colour in presence of pentose sugar. 10. Osazone test: The osazone test was developed by Emil Fischer to identify aldose sugars differing in configuration only at the alpha-carbon. These sugars react with 2, 4-dinitro-phenyl hydrazine effecting only alpha-carbon with formation of pink-red coloured bis-phenylhydrazone, known as an osazone. Application of the osazone reaction to D-glucose and D-mannose demonstrates that these compounds differ in configuration only at C-2. Chemical test for Starch: It is soluble in hot water, gives positive test for Molish reagent and some specific tests like Jelly test and Lugols iodine test. Jelly test: To 0.5 gm of starch in a testube add 5 ml of distilled water and boil on water bath. Formation of translucent jelly indicates presence of starch. Lugol's iodine test: It is also known as iodine KI reagent and composed of aqueous Iodine solution in presence of KI. Few drops of iodine KI reagent was added to the aqueous solution of starch, which produces deep blue to bluish black colour due to presence of amylase. The colour developed disappears on warming and reappears on cooling. Starch amylopectin, disacchrides and cellulose do not produce any colour.

MICRO Different Kinds of Microscopes & Their Uses The microscope is an instrument used to magnify small objects. It has led to important biological discoveries and has undergone many innovations and improvements. There are a variety of microscopes including the compound microscope, dissecting microscope, Scanning Election Microscope and Transmission Electron Microscope 1. Compound Microscope Compound microscopes can be found in most biology and science classrooms. They are electrically operated and use light to enhance the image of a cell. They will have multiple lenses for viewing. Dissecting microscopes are also known as stereo microscopes. They have low magnification and are also light powered. These microscopes can view objects larger than what a compound microscope is able to handle, in three dimensions. A Scanning Electron Microscope uses electrons instead of light to create an image. These microscopes produce three-dimensional images with high resolution and magnification. They also have a larger depth of focus. Transmission Electron Microscopes use electrons instead of light to create an image. The material prepared must be very thin. The beams of electrons that pass through it give the viewer high magnification and resolution. These give twodimensional images.

Dissecting Microscope

SEM

TEM

Parfocal microscope a parfocal lens microscope stays approximately in focus when the magnification is changed . for example if the focal point of a microscope is changed from a lower power objective to a higher power the object stays in focus. You use the lower power objective lens first to get your sample centered in the field of view. YOU CAN ENHANCE RESOLVING POWER BY: CHANGE THE WAVELENGTH CHANGE APERTURE VALUE OIL IMMERSION: OIL IMMERSION IS A TECHNIQUE USED TO INCREASE THE RESOLUTION OF A MICROSCOPE . IT IS ACHIEVED BY IMMERSING BOTH THE OBJECTIVE LENS AND THE SPECIMEN IN A TRANSPARENT OIL OF HIGH REFRACTIVE INDEX, THEREBY INCERASING THE NUMERICAL APERTURE OF THE OBJECTIVE LENS. EYEPIECE- The lens at the viewing end of a telescope. The eyepiece is responsible for enlarging the image captured by the instrument. Body tube- The cylindrical tube that joins the objective lenses to the eyepiece. Revolving nosepiece-Piece on the microscope that revolves which holds the objective lenses. Also call the turret. Objective- the lens or system of lenses in a telescope or microscope that is nearest the object being viewed Stage-A raised and usually movable plate on which a slide or object is placed for examination

 Condenser-A condenser is a lens that serves to concentrate light from the illumination source that is in turn focused through the object and magnified by the objective lens. Substage-An apparatus fixed beneath the ordinary stage of a compound microscope to support mirrors and other accessories Inclination joint- Where the arm connects to the base, there may be a pin. If so, you can place one hand on the base and with the other grab the arm and rotate it back. It will tilt your microscope back for more comfortable viewing. Base: The bottom support of the microscope Diaphragm: Generally a five hole disc placed under the stage on a high power microscope. Each hole is of a different diameter. By turning it, you can vary the amount of light passing through the stage opening. This will help to properly illuminate the specimen and increase contrast and resolution. The diaphragm is most useful at the higher powers. Fine Focus: This is the knob used to fine tune the focus on the specimen. It is also used to focus on various parts of the specimen. Generally one uses the coarse focus first to get close then moves to the fine focus knob for fine tuning. Mirror: Allows you to direct ambient light up through the hole in the stage and illuminate the specimen.

Nosepiece: The part of the microscope that holds the objective lenses also called
a revolving nosepiece or turret.

Numerical Aperture (N.A.): This is a number that expresses the ability of a lens
to resolve fine detail in an object being observed. It is derived by a complex mathematical formula and is related to the angular aperture of the lens and the index of refraction of the medium found between the lens and the specimen. To get the best possible image, you should have a condenser system that matches or exceeds the N.A. of the highest power objective lens on your microscope. (note, N.A. is only important with high power microscopes).

Objective Lens: The lens closest to the object. In a stereo (low power)
microscope there are objective pairs, one lens for each eyepiece lens. This gives the 3-D effect. On a high power binocular model there is still only one objective lens so no stereo vision. Stage: The flat plate where the slides are placed for observation. Coarse Focus: This is the rough focus knob on the microscope. You use it to move the objective lenses toward or away from the specimen (see fine focus). Condenser Lens: A lens mounted in or below the stage whose purpose is to focus or condense the light onto the specimen. The higher power objective lenses have very tiny diameters and require concentrated light to work properly. By using a condenser lens you will increase the Illumination and resolution. Condenser lenses are not required on low power microscopes. INFO SEARCH ENGINES- A search engine is a website or type of software that searches files across the internet for specific keywords or phrases defined by the user. Home > search engine search engine

A program that searches documents for specified keywords and returns a list of the documents where the keywords were found. Although search engine is really a general class of programs, the term is often used to specifically describe systems like Google, Alta Vista and Excite that enable users to search for documents on the World Wide Web and USENET newsgroups. Typically, a search engine works by sending out a spider to fetch as many documents as possible. Another program, called an indexer, then reads these documents and creates an index based on the words contained in each document. Each search engine uses a proprietary algorithm to create its indices such that, ideally, only meaningful results are returned for each query . Search Engines General Search Engines Alexa Web Search - analyzes site traffic including ranking, global users, pages linking to the site, and links to related pages of interest Ask.com - general search engine enhanced by a number of specialty searches including a dictionary, thesaurus, currency converter, encyclopedia, maps, news and more Bing - Microsoft engine that displays excerpts from sites retrieved by your search and offers related search suggestions; multimedia and other deep Web results are also displayed. Also check out Bing Maps. Blekko - retrieves results from trustworthy sites and offers filtered searching with the use of slash tags, e.g., global warming /climate; can sort results by relevance or date; allows searchers to integrate their Facebook newsfeed into search results ChaCha - offers live human guides to help answer queries; focuses on questions from mobile devices Exalead - offers concept clustering of results, thumbnail images of retrieved sites, and customization options such as organization of results by file type, geography or modification date Factbites - searches for full topic matches and returns meaningful, full sentence excerpts of sites in its results list FindFiles.net - searches for all MIME types found on the Web, for example audio, video, images, software, PDF files, text documents, cascading style sheets, xml documents and zip archives Google - Web's most popular search engine that retrieves results in real time as you type your search. Also check out EcoSmartSearch.com, a Google-powered search engine with a black background display that saves energy. Google offers a number of Services that are worth exploring, including: Google Blog Search, for searching blog entries Google Book Search, for searching the full text of books from most publishers in the U.S. Google Directory, for searching the Google version of the Open Directory Google Scholar, offers the full text, abstracts, and/or citations to scholarly materials including books, journal articles, documents in academic repositories and the free Web. This link will allow you to access the full text of articles in journals to which the Libraries subscribe when you are off campus. Google U.S. Government Search, a searchable database of U.S. government Web sites (.gov and .mil) ranked by link popularity Hakia - organizes results into types of information sources, including "credible " sites recommended by librarians

iSEEK Education - offers authoritative resources from university, government, and established noncommercial providers; organizes results into concept clusters, and also allows users to recommend and rate sites Lycos - general search engine that also offers searches of a few deep Web content sources including people look-up, yellow pages, and multimedia Quintura - displays a type of tag cloud with keywords related to your search that can be selected to generate new results SearchEdu.com - service that limits results to the .edu, domain; also offers to search wellknown dictionaries, encyclopedias, almanacs, etc. See also: SearchGov.com - .gov domain SearchMil.com - .mil domain SnappyFingers - searches millions of Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) for answers to user queries Wolfram|Alpha - enter a question or calculation, and Wolfram|Alpha uses its built-in algorithms and own collection of data to compute the answer Yahoo! - portal with a general Web search and many other content services Zanran - searches for data and statistics found in graphs, tables and charts; hover your mouse over the item icon for a preview

Meta Search Engines 43 Marks - offers separate searches of Google, Yahoo!, Bing and Wikipedia with a one-click toggle between search results; also serves as a personal home page for collecting bookmarks Browsys - offers Search Assistant for searching numerous sources including the social and the deep Web; Virtual Folders allow users to create, save and bookmark custom folders containing up to 12 favorite sites Cacti Search - search Google, Yahoo, MSN and Ask, and retrive a collated results list with an option to view results from each engine separately Dogpile - search numerous search engines and presented collated results; also presents concept clusters for viewing results organized by keywords or topics Favitt - search Google, YouTube, Bing, Ebay, LastFM, Hulu and more; customize your Favitt page and add any search engine to your collection of searchable sites; results are viewed separately iBoogie - offers searches of the Web and multimedia, and supplies real-time concept clustering of results Ixquick - ranks results based on top ten rankings from the source sites; allows any type of search syntax and will translate and direct your search accordingly Mamma - retrieve results from numerous sources; also offers search suggestions related to your search MetaCrawler - retrieve results from Google, Yahoo!, Bing and Ask; also offers search suggestions related to your search Searchzooka - offers advanced search options on Google, Yahoo!, Bing, Ask, Digg and Technorati with a single mouse click; users can save searches for future use, organize the searches into folders, and clone new searches from existing ones

SortFix - conduct a search, then drag suggested search terms into a box to add to your search; also drag terms to remove them from your search or do a dictionary definition lookup; searches Google, Bing and Bing Images, Twitter and YouTube URL.com - returns the top ten results from Google, Yahoo! and MSN, and allows users to comment on and vote on the results Virtual Learning Resources Center - searches several high quality directories; also offers its own directory ZapMeta - searches a handful of sources, and offers concept clusters for organizing search results Zuula - searches the Web, images, news, blogs and jobs postings, and returns results from multiple search tools in configurable separate tabs PHARMACY Pharmacy (from the Greek 'pharmakon' = drug) is the health profession that links the health sciences with the chemical sciences, and it is charged with ensuring the safe and effective use of pharmaceutical drugs. INFORMATICS- The practical study of the structure, creation, management, storage, retrieval, dissemination and transfer of information in natural and engineered computational environments. A field of study that focuses on the use of technology for improving access to and utilization of information. ... MEDICAL INFORMATICS is a discipline at the intersection of information science, computer science, and health care. It deals with the resources, devices, and methods required to optimize the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and use of information in health and biomedicine. Health informatics tools include not only computers but also clinical guidelines, formal medical terminologies, and information and communication systems. It is applied to the areas of nursing, clinical care, dentistry, pharmacy, public health, occupational therapy, and (bio)medical research. PHARMACY INFORMATICS Pharmacy informatics is a sub-discipline of health informatics that deals with the integration of information technology and its applications into the pharmaceutical practice. It focuses on leveraging technology systems in medication selection, use, and administration to ensure optimal patient safety, compliance, and health outcomes. It has become commonplace for hospital, long-term care, and retail pharmacies to use technology for prescription management and billing, while also providing computer based education to patients and tracking medical compliance. Through the electronic communication of medication data, clinicians send prescription orders to pharmacies through secure channels. Medication orders are verified with other patient records, prepared, and dispensed with higher quality, thus avoiding undue risks and negative interactions. With datbase interconnectivity to insurance companies, medication orders are validated against formulary data and contracts to assure proper usage and payment. Pharmacy informatics is playing a vital role in the decision support systems needed to reduce errors and increase medication treatment outcomes. Pharmacy informatics is the scientific field that focuses on medication-related data and knowledge within the continuum of healthcare systems - including its acquisition, storage, analysis, use and dissemination - in the delivery of optimal medication-related patient care and health outcomes. PHARMACIST - Pharmacists distribute prescription drugs to individuals. They also advise their patients, physicians, and other health practitioners on the selection, dosages, interactions, and side effects of medications, as well as monitor the health and progress of those patients to ensure that they are using their medications safely and effectively. Compoundingthe actual mixing of ingredients to form medicationsis a small part of a

pharmacist's practice, because most medicines are produced by pharmaceutical companies in standard dosages and drug delivery forms. Most pharmacists work in a community setting, such as a retail drugstore, or in a healthcare facility, such as a hospital. Pharmacists in community pharmacies dispense medications, counsel patients on the use of prescription and over-the-counter medications, and advise physicians about medication therapy. They also advise patients about general health topics, such as diet, exercise, and stress management, and provide information on products, such as durable medical equipment or home healthcare supplies. In addition, they often complete third-party insurance forms and other paperwork. Those who own or manage community pharmacies may sell non-health-related merchandise, hire and supervise personnel, and oversee the general operation of the pharmacy. Some community pharmacists provide specialized services to help patients with conditions such as diabetes, asthma, smoking cessation, or high blood pressure. DRUG INFORMATION Information on thousands of prescription and over-the-counter medications, including potential side effects and interactions with food and/or other drugs. A service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine and the National Institutes of Health.

HOSPI HOSPITAL PHARMACY- Hospital pharmacy is the health care service, which comprises the art, practice, and profession of choosing, preparing, storing, compounding, and dispensing medicines and medical devices, advising healthcare professionals and patients on their safe, effective and efficient use. Hospital pharmacy is a specialised field of pharmacy which forms an integrated part of patient health care in a health facility. Hospital pharmacy is the profession that strives to continuously maintain and improve the medication management and pharmaceutical care of patients to the highest standards in a hospital setting. Hospital pharmacists provide services to patients and health care professionals in hospitals. HOSPITAL- This is a place that offers medical care. Patients can stay overnight for care. Or they can be treated and leave the same day. All hospitals must meet set standards of care. They can offer general or acute care. They can also offer service in one area, like rehabilitation. CLINIC medical establishment run by a group of medical specialists meeting for diagnosis of problems and instruction or remedial work in a particular activity a healthcare facility for outpatient care Tertiary -major hospital that usually has a full complement of services including pediatrics, general medicine, various branches of surgery and psychiatry