RADAR

This long range radar antenna (approximately 40m (130ft) in diameter) rotates on a track to observe activities near the horizon. RADAR is an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging or Radio Angle Detection And Ranging. It is a system used to detect, range (determine the distance of), and map objects such as aircraft and rain. Strong radio waves are transmitted, and a receiver listens for any echoes. By analysing the reflected signal, the reflector can be located, and sometimes identified. Although the amount of signal returned is tiny, radio signals can easily be detected and amplified. Radar radio waves can be easily generated at any desired strength, detected at even tiny powers, and then amplified many times. Thus radar is suited to detecting objects at very large ranges where other reflections, like sound or visible light, would be too weak to detect.

PRINCIPLES
Reflection
Description Electromagnetic waves reflect (scatter) from any large change in the dielectric or diamagnetic constants. This means that a solid object in air or vacuum, or other significant change in atomic density between object and what's surrounding it, will usually scatter radar (radio) waves. This is particularly true of electrically conductive materials such as metal and carbon fiber, making radar particularly well suited to the detection of aircraft and ships. Radar absorbing material,

containing resistive and sometimes magnetic substances, is used on military vehicles to reduce radar reflection. This is the radio equivalent of painting something a dark color. Radar waves scatter in a variety of ways depending on the size (wavelength) of the radio wave and the shape of the target. If the wavelength is much shorter than the target's size, the wave will bounce off in a way similar to the way light bounces from a mirror. If the wavelength is much longer than the size of the target, the target is polarized, like a dipole antenna. This is described by Rayleigh Scattering (like the blue sky). When the two length scales are comparable, there may be resonances. Early radars used very long wavelengths that were larger than the targets and received a vague signal, whereas some modern systems use shorter wavelengths (a few centimeters or shorter) that can image objects as small as a loaf of bread or smaller. Radio waves always reflect from curves and corners, in a way similar to glint from a rounded piece of glass. The most reflective targets for short wavelengths have 90 angles between the reflective surfaces. A surface consisting of three flat surfaces meeting at a single corner, like the corner on a block, will always reflect directly back at the source. These so-called corner cubes are commonly used as radar reflectors to make otherwise difficult-to-detect objects easier to detect, and are often found on boats in order to improve their detection in a rescue situation and reduce collisions. For generally the same reasons objects attempting to avoid detection will angle their surfaces in a way to eliminate inside corners and avoid surfaces and edges perpendicular to likely detection directions, which leads to "odd" looking stealth aircraft. These precautions do not completely eliminate reflection because of diffraction, especially at longer wavelengths. Electromagnetic waves do not travel well underwater; thus for underwater applications, sonar, based on sound waves, has to be used instead of radar.

Polarization
Polarization is the direction that the wave vibrates. Radars use horizontal, vertical, and circular polarization to detect different types of reflections. For example, circular

polarization is used to minimize the interference caused by rain. Linear polarization returns usually indicate metal surfaces, and help a search radar ignore rain. Random polarization returns usually indicate a fractal surface like rock or dirt, and are used by navigational radars.

Brightness can indicate reflectivity as in this 1960 weather radar image. The radar's frequency, polarization, and receiver determine what it can observe.

Distance measurement
Transit time
The easiest way to measure the range of an object is to broadcast a short pulse of radio signal, and then time how long it takes for the reflection to return. The distance is onehalf the product of round trip time (because the signal has to travel to the target and then

back to the receiver) and the speed of the signal.

Where c is the speed of

light in a vacuum, and is the round trip time. For RADAR the speed of signal is the speed of light, making the round trip times very short for terrestrial ranging. For this reason accurate distance measurement was difficult until the introduction of high performance electronics, with older systems being accurate to perhaps a few percent. The receiver cannot detect the return while the signal is being sent out there is no way to tell if the signal it hears is the original or the return. This means that a radar has a distinct minimum range, which is the length of the pulse divided by the speed of light, divided by two. In order to detect closer targets you have to use a shorter pulse length.

A similar effect imposes a specific maximum range as well. If the return from the target comes in when the next pulse is being sent out, once again the receiver cannot tell the difference. In order to maximize range, one wants to use longer times between pulses, the inter-pulse time.

Frequency modulation
Another form of distance measuring radar is based on frequency modulation. Frequency comparison between two signals is considerably more accurate, even with older electronics, than timing the signal. By changing the frequency of the returned signal and comparing that with the original, the difference can be easily measured. This technique can be used in radar systems, and is often found in aircraft radar altimeters. In these systems a "carrier" radar signal is frequency modulated in a predictable way, typically varying up and down with a sine wave or sawtooth pattern at audio frequencies. The signal is then sent out from one antenna and received on another, typically located on the bottom of the aircraft, and the signal can be continuously compared. Since the signal frequency is changing, by the time the signal returns to the aircraft the broadcast has shifted to some other frequency. The amount of that shift is greater over longer times, so greater frequency differences mean a longer distance, the exact amount being the "ramp speed" selected by the electronics. The amount of shift is therefore directly related to the distance travelled, and can be displayed on an instrument. This signal processing is similar to that used in speed detecting doppler radar. See the article on continuous wave radar for more information.

Speed measurement
Speed is the change in distance to an object with respect to time. Thus the existing system for measuring distance, combined with a little memory to see where the target last was, is

enough to measure speed. At one time the memory consisted of a user making greasepencil marks on the radar screen, and then calculating the speed using a slide rule. However there is another effect that can be used to make much more accurate speed measurements, and do so almost instantly (no memory required), known as the Doppler effect. Practically every modern radar uses this principle in the pulse-doppler radar system. It is also possible to make a radar without any pulsing, known as a continuouswave radar (CW radar), by sending out a very pure signal of a known frequency. Return signals from targets are shifted away from this base frequency via the Doppler effect enabling the calculation of the speed of the object relative to the radar.

POSITION MEASUREMENT
Radio signals broadcast from a single antenna will spread out in all directions, and likewise a single antenna will receive signals equally from all directions. This leaves the radar with the problem of deciding where the target object is located.

Early systems
Early systems tended to use omni-directional broadcast antennas, with directional receiver antennas which were pointed in various directions. For instance the first system to be deployed, Chain Home, used two straight antennas at right angles for reception, each on a different display. One serious limitation with this type of solution is that the broadcast is sent out in all directions, so the amount of energy in the direction being examined is subject to the inverse-square law. To get a reasonable amount of power on the "target", the broadcast should also be steered. More modern systems used a steerable parabolic "dish" to create a tight broadcast beam, typically using the same dish as the receiver. Such systems often combined two radar frequencies in the same antenna in order to allow automatic steering, or radar lock. Not all radar antennas must rotate to scan the sky.

RADAR EQUATION
The amount of power Pr returning to the receiving antenna is given by the radar equation:

Where

Pt = transmitter power, Gt = gain of transmitting antenna, Ar = effective aperture (area) of receiving antenna, = Radar Cross Section, or scattering coefficient of target, Rt = distance from transmitter to target, Rr = distance from target to receiver.

In the common case where the transmitter and receiver are at the same location, R t = Rr and the term Rt Rr can be replaced by R4, where R is the range. This yields:

This shows that the received power declines as the fourth power of the range, which means that the reflected power from distant targets is very, very small. Other mathematical developments in radar signal processing include time-frequency analysis (Weyl Heisenberg or wavelet), as well as the chirplet transform which makes use of the fact that radar returns from moving targets typically "chirp" (change their frequency as a function of time, as does the sound of a bird or bat).

FREQUENCY BANDS
The traditional band names originated as code-names during World War II and are still in military and aviation use throughout the world in the 21st century. They have been

adopted in the United States by the IEEE, and internationally by the ITU. Most countries have additional regulations to control which parts of each band are available for civilian or military use. Other users of the radio spectrum, such as the broadcasting and electronic countermeasures (ECM) industries, have replaced the traditional military designations with their own systems. Radar Frequency Bands Band Frequency Wavelength Name Range HF 3-30 MHz P VHF UHF L S C Range 10-100 m

Notes coastal radar systems;'high frequency' 'P' for 'previous', applied retrospectively to early radar systems very long range, ground penetrating; 'very high frequency' very long range (e.g. ballistic early warning), ground penetrating; 'ultra high frequency' long range air traffic control and surveillance; 'L' for 'long' terminal air traffic control, long range weather, marine radar; 'S' for 'short' a compromise (hence 'C') between X and S bands; weather missile guidance, marine radar, weather; in the USA the narrow range 10.525GHz 25MHz is used for airport radar. high-resolution mapping, satellite altimetry; frequency

< 300 MHz 1 m+ 50-330 MHz 0.9-6 m 300-1000 MHz 1-2 GHz 2-4 GHz 4-8 GHz 0.3-1 m 15-30 cm 7.5-15 cm 3.75-7.5 cm

8-12 GHz

2.5-3.75 cm

Ku K

12-18 GHz 1.67-2.5 cm

just under K band (hence 'u') 18-27 GHz 1.11-1.67 cm from German kurz, meaning 'short'; limited use due to absorption by water vapour, so Ku and Ka were used instead for surveillance. K-band is used for detecting clouds by meteorologists, and by police for detecting

speeding motorists. K-band radar guns operate at 24.150 0.100 GHz. mapping, short range, airport surveillance; frequency just above K band (hence 'a') Photo radar, used to Ka 27-40 GHz 0.75-1.11 cm trigger cameras which take pictures of license plates of cars running red lights, operates at 34.300 0.100 mm V W 40-300 GHz 1 - 7.5mm 40-75 GHz 4.0 - 7.5 mm 75-110 GHz 2.7 - 4.0 mm GHz. 'millimetre' band, subdivided as below used as a visual sensor for experimental autonomous vehicles, high-resolution meterological observation

SPECIFIC RADAR SYSTEMS

Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA)

An Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) is a revolutionary type of radar whose transmitter and receiver functions are composed of numerous small transmit/receive (T/R) modules that each scan a small fixed area, negating the need for a moving antenna. AESA radars feature short to instantaneous (millisecond) scanning rates and have desirable lowprobability of intercept characteristics

Continuous-wave radar

Continuous-wave radar system is a radar system where a continuous wave is transmitted by one antenna and a second receives the radio energy reflected from an object.

Doppler radar as weather radar

Doppler radar uses the Doppler Effect to return additional information from a radar system. The Doppler Effect shifts the frequency of the radar beam due to movement of the "target", allowing for the direct and highly accurate measurement of speeds. Doppler radars were

originally developed for military radar systems, but have since become a part of almost all radar systems, including weather radar and radar guns for traffic police and sports

Millimeter cloud radar

The millimeter wave cloud radar (MMCR) is a remote sensing instrument that transmits a radar pulse directly overhead to determine the tops and bottoms of clouds. It can also serve as a type of Doppler radar in measuring up and down particle movements within a cloud. Values that the radar measures are Doppler velocity, radar reflectivity, and spectral width. NEXRAD

NEXRAD Radar at NSSL NEXRAD or Nexrad (the next-generation radar) is a network of Doppler radars operated by the National Weather Service, an agency of NOAA, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, in the United States. NEXRAD detects precipitation and atmospheric movement or wind. It returns data which when processed can be displayed in a mosaic map which shows patterns of precipitation and its movement. The radar system operates in two basic modes, selectable by the operator: a slow-scanning "clear-air mode" for analyzing air movements when there is little or no activity in the area, and a "precipitation mode" with a faster scan time to do traditional storm tracking. Passive radar

Passive Radar is type of radar system which uses one or more receivers, but lacks an active transmitter. The system detects ambient radio signals emanating from nearby radio transmitters. The receiver is either bistatic or multistatic, since it is positioned elsewhere. The system is not restricted to one receiverseveral receiver systems may be operated in conjunction with one or many transmitters.

Pulse-Doppler radar

Radar gun traffic and sports radars

U.S. Army soldier uses a radar gun to catch speeding violators at Tallil Air Base, Iraq. A radar gun is a small Doppler radar used to detect the speed of objects. A radar gun does not return position or power information. It relies on the Doppler Effect applied to a radar beam to measure the speed of objects it is pointed at. Radar guns may be hand-held or vehicle-mounted. Common uses include traffic speed law enforcement, and measuring the speed of balls in sports.

Secondary surveillance radar (SSR). Synthetic aperture radar The surface of Venus, as imaged by the Magellan probe using

SAR, Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) is a form of radar in which sophisticated post-processing of radar data is used to produce a very narrow effective beam. It can only be used by moving instruments over relatively immobile targets, but it has seen wide applications in remote sensing and mapping.

X-band radar